0 — FcMlbu»ty Study On In^Mo, A.ronnmy EVALUATION of water ^SOURCES OF THE ADA’A and becho GROUND WATER BASIN FOR IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT PROJECT VOLUME I cr O- Main Report & Groundwater Resource Potential of Prioritized Sites in Ada’a-Becho Plains ANNEX I: Main Report ANNEX II: Groundwater Resources Potential of Prioritized Sites in Ada’a-Becho Plains [VOLUME II Soil, Land Evaluation and Agronomy of Prioritized| Area in Ada’a & Becho PlainB.. • :'*: ANNEX IB: Soil, Land Evaluation Ada’a ANNEX IV: Soil, Land Evaluation Becho VOLUME III CS= car VOLUME IV o- G~ ANNEX V: Agronomy Ada’a & Bechi Socio-economy & Environment of Prioritized Ada’a & Becho Plains ANNEX VI: Sodo-economy ANNEX VII: Environment Irrigation and Drainage and Financial Economic Analysis of Prioritized Areas in Ada’a & Becho Plains ANNEX VTH: Irrigation and Drainage ANNEX IX: Financial Economic Analysis. /4' W«ter Work* Dwlgn •n<1 Supervtolon Entcrpr1»e1 [Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise ! ADA’A AGRONOMY FEASIBILITY STUDY[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise! TABLE OF CONTENTS 1 INTRODUCTION •••••••••••••••••••••• 1.1 General Back Ground 1.2 National and regional Agricultural Policies 1.2.1 National Agricultural Policies 1.3 Regional Agricultural Programs 1.3.1 Adaa Ground Water Irrigation Project 1.4 Scope of Study 1.5 Approaches and methodology 2. LAND, SOIL AND CLIMATE 2.1 Land and Existing Land Use and Soil 2.2 Climate 2.2.1 Agro- Climatic Zone 3. PRODUCTION PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS 1 4 3.1 National status 3.2 Oromiya Regional Status 3.3 Land and Existing Land use 3.4 Soils 3.5 Size of holdings 3.6 Cultural Practices 3.6.1 Land preparation 3.6.2 Planting 3.6.3 Seed Rate 3.6.4 Crop protection 3.6.5 Fertilizer application 3.6.6 Storage of grains ,„6 ...6 .13 .15 .15 .15 15 15 16 18 19 19 5. AGRICULTURAL SUPPORT SERVICES....19 5.1 Agricultural Extension 5.2 Credits 5.3 agricultural research centers. 19 20 20 6. DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS AND POTENTIALS-21 6.1 Major production and Development Constraints 6.1.1 Inadequate input supply............................................................... 6.1.2 Improved Varieties 6.1.3 Fertilizers 6.1. 4 Agro- Chemicals.............................................................................. 6.1.5 Farm Implements.......................................................................... . 6.1.6 Shortage of Draft Power................................................................ 6.1.7 Problem of Drainage. 6.1.8 Natural Hazards.............................................................................. 6.1.9 Poorly Developed Research-Extension linkage...... 6.1.10 Inadequate Extension Service.................................................... 6.1.11 Poor or Inadequate Rural Credit.......................... 21 ..............2/ ............... 21 ...............21 22 22 22 ......... ....22 .............. 23 ............23 23 23 6.2 Productions potentials................................................ 23 6.2.1 Cropping systems.......................................................................... ............. 24 6.2.2 Response of Crops to Irrigation................................................... 25 6.2.3 Existing Crops and their Croups.................................................. 26 [Volume II: Ada*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] i i » I > ■1 PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN AND CROP CALENDAR t I i*M*t«a»tNwa.»Ana>A<atKi«twai ^ihxktkw 28 fB •O • E COST OF CULTIVATION OF SELECTED CROPSwMWM«mmHWMwm»Hw»miHmM42 • i iNTMMxenm 6, POST41ARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND STORAGE....... 42 ♦ I *KTltMXJCT1ON iWII • 1 K»t HMtvm u&ax............ » J IA«1 rtAKVIM Ot RATION ANO VAI UC ADDITION .. «»*•*«• »-»»• "HIM »}»•»■»••»«»»»*-•*•• I ♦ 4 KMT HAJVttl TtftWAMOGY •-• i SpHttg tf f5*Uy »ief •47 Nlwr ... i • ••V I >V»| • • 11 t< ST ST n* 58 S8 Uf(MS*6 ’>>•............ ♦ SSKMAUt S9 59 f 6 Conclusion . .......... •*•*»•*< It AGRICVLTVRAL RESEARCH 10 I INTRODUCTION...... .. 61 I .*r» •*•»*•<*«»«• ...» »•» »M»O •>»»»»..»•» M4< 61 W 2 Si ATUS O> OfcUMb A NATIOiAi IUUIONAL Si All RhSLAfcCH MX/ MtatMtawroA Gm/rr. MXJ AmotcW 4tWvMe«. ...» 11.C0NCLI MONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I ...FA. 1 MB 1 ....rxo•h>u|i*h>- ■■■i«.<t.«■/■. ■>»• > • ».*»». 12. REFERENCES *<•*♦•> HIM ■ t.i 61 62 62 66 68 71 Iri lie ptnr»nt Pre>i rs 'll iiWater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise List of Tables Table 1. The agro- climatic zones of the command area and proportions in the two woredas are tabulated as follows:•••••••••—; Table 2 Monthly and Daily Rainfall (mm) Adaa Irrigation Project DZ-Met. Station5 Table 3 Debrezit Station Climatic Data Summary6 Table 4 Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of Major Crops for Peasant Holdings in Ethiopia (2003 - 04).................................... ......................................................... ? Table 5 Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of8 Table 6 Existing Area of land and Production in the Adaa Project Command area Woredas........................................................................................ ;............ ;..... ................. Table 7 Proposed Cropping Pattern and Calendar for Adaa Irrigation Project Command Area Table 8 Improved Varieties Recommended for the two Woredas 12 13 Table 9 Land use at Adaa and Lomie in 1998 E.C 14 Table 10 Land use at Denkaka and Odea Kebeles of the Command area in 1998 E.C Table 11 Adaa Project Command Area Cultural Practice Table 12 Adaa woreda weeds and controlling situation for different crops Table 13 Mean monthly and daily Rainfall, mm (Adaa Irrigation Project), DZ met. 14 17 18 Station.......................................................................................................................... .........30 Table 14 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command35 Table 15 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command ..35 w Table 16 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command........................................................ 36 Table 17 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha.'Command........................................................ 36 Table 18 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command37 Table 19 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command37 Table 20 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command38 Table 21 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command38 Table 22 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command39 Table 23 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command39 Table 24 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command40 Table 25 Water Application Efficiencies41 Table 26 Cost of cultivation of wheat under existing rain fed condition42 Table 27 Cost of cultivation of Tef under existing rain fed condition43 Table 28 Cost of cultivation of maize under existing rain fed condition44 Table 29 Cost of cultivation of chickpea under existing rain fed condition45 Table 30 Cost of cultivation of lentil under existing rain fed condition46 Table 31 Cost of cultivation of potato under existing rain fed condition47 Table 32 Cost of cultivation of onion under existing rain fed condition48 Table 33 Cost of Cultivation of Rice under Irrigation Condition 49 Table 34 Cost of Cultivation of Wheat under Irrigation Condition50 I ?, a Jost of Cultivation of Maize under irrigation ConditionZZZZ""51 e Cost of Cultivation of Vegetable under irrigation Condition.............................. .... 52 6 « ?St Cultivation of Perennal under irrigation Condition’’’’’Z’53 a e Cost of Cu tivation of Soybean under irrigation Condition.............................................54 Table 39 Cost of Cultivation of Chickpea under irrigation Condition.............................................. 55 iiiWater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise! ACRONYMS ADLI Agricultural Development Led Industrialization AIDB Agriculture and Industrial Development Bank DZARC Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center BC ratio Benefit Cost ratio BOA Bureau of Agriculture BOFED Bureau of Finance and Economic Development Cm Centimeter CBE Central Bank of Ethiopia DA Development Agent DAP Di-ammonium Phosphate EC Ethiopian Calendar Eve Electrical Conductivity ETo ETB Reference Evapo transpiration Ethiopia Birr ETFRUIT FAO Ethiopian Fruit Food and Agriculture Organization g GDP gram Gross Domestic Products GOE Government of Ethiopia ha Hectare HYV High Yielding Variety I&D Irrigation and Drainage IAR Institute of Agricultural Research IPR Intellectual Property Right Kc Kg Crop Coefficient Kilogram K2O Potassium Oxide It m Liter Meter M M.D Million Man day mm millimeter MoA&RD MPTs NCR Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Multipurpose Trees National Commodity Research center N Nitrogen NGO Non Government Organization OD Oxen-day ONRS Oromiya National Regional State P2O5 Phosphorus Pent Oxide q Quintal RH Relative Humidity RARCU Regional Agricultural Coordination Unit SAERAR Sustainable Agriculture and Environment Rehabilitation Program Sec STC Second Science and Technology Commission WTO World Trade Organization [Volume II: /\da*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project|Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise Executive Summary. Adaa plain Ground Water Irrigation Project is one of the very two projects, proposed to be considered under the two woredas of the Oromiya National Regional State. Based on the ground water potential of the Adaa plain this project has been confirmed earlier by the different agencies. This became important to carry out for the development of irrigation project for the purpose of food security. The actual gross study area of’the project is over 20,000 of land the net assumed irrigable area will be around 10,000 ha land. And still upon further study the net area could be extended. This phase study of the project command involves the overall crop production especially irrigation agronomy to integrate the irrigated crop production system with various types of field and horticultural crops, all the post harvest management of the products for the best benefit of the producer with out any harm to the environment. The very scope, approach and methodology of the study include various broad aspect view of the existing farming system of the area, crops and production practices etc.in the light of the prevailing soils and climatic conditions and the feasibility and prospects of enhancement of productivity and production by introducing irrigated production system. The soil and climatic situation have already been identified that the area is suitable for the cultivation of cereals, pulses oil seeds and horticultural crops under rain fed condition. The meteorology characters tics are favorable for the growth and productivity of many crops. The command area and the surrounding population current problem is the food in security due to low farm productivity. The highest coverage in the command area is tef among cereals chickpea among pulses. The others crops coverage is presented in figures and cultural practices are also tabulated in the report. The farming is subsistence level and traditional. The improved technologies have not reached to the farmers due to poor extension service. The farmers are rarely using improved varieties, quality seeds, fertilizers, agro-chemicals, farm implements and improved farm tools. The credit facilities are poor and farmers with low resources have no access to obtain what he wanted. As a result, the farm productivity is always low. The actual environmental condition has indicated the potential of the command area. Keeping in view the production potential of the command area, soils, climate and government policy towards agriculture to attain food self sufficiency, production ofcash and industrial crops for export and import substitute by full and efficient utilization of land and water resources while maintaining the environmental balance properly. Suitable cro PP’"g y s stems hav« been selected with inclusion of most E PfT- culation of their actual crop water requirement under hlgh quality- The crop calendar has been prepared for irrigation production condition the requ.'rement of each croP included has been calculated following the procedure recommended m FAO publication for calculation of reference fEToVbv using Petmman Montith Approach (FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No 46) sSaHe Ziremem‘b"v pattern c onninr r.J a"8 aen“ltural Practices, climatic parameters, crapping P em , cropping calendar , cropping intensity etc.The crop production packages of V °fVater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise important field and horticultural crops have been given considering the irrigated production system with optimum inputs and production practices to achieve reasonable yield per unit of land. The major crops included are: Cereals: Wheat, Tef, Barley, Maize and Sorghum. Pulses: Haricot bean, Chickpea, Lentil, Faba bean, Field pea, Grass pea. Vegetable : Potato, Tomato , Onion , Cabbage , Swiss chard , Garlic , Carrot, Beet root. Fruit: Papaya, Avocado, Mango, Coffee, Guava. To some extent the possibility of rural based agro - industry and post harvest loss has been indicated. In the process of crop budgeting the cost of cultivation of important crops under irrigated production system involving improved production technology have been worked out to project the expected income. Similarly, the cost of cultivation of crops under rain fed / existing production condition have been calculated to compare the benefit. Among the crops rice become the most beneficiary crop identified. The status of irrigation agronomy research has been discussed briefly. Debre Zeit Research Center has been identified as the most appropriate center to carry out research for the command area. vi| Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Back Ground. Food, Nutrition and Environmental security are of paramount importance globally, especially so in developing countries. About 800 million people in the developing world do not have enough to eat; another 34 million people in industrialized nation also suffer from chronic food insecurity. The world food grain production was 1881 million tones in 1997, which was above the previous record of 1869 million tones in 1996. However, the availability per person dropped from 324kg in 1996 to 322 kg subsequently. More than this, the availabilityof the food to the poorest section of people globally, is an issue of greater concerns. The problem of food and nutritional security is more critical among the African countries due to various reasons. The world population is expected to grow from 6.0 billion to a minimum saturation level of 8.5 billions by 2020. More than 95 percent of this additional population will be residing in the developing countries. The prospects of food security for them therefore remain bleak. The population of Ethiopia itself has reached from 50.3 million in 1990 to about 68 million and likely to increase even more with rapid rate in spite of measures taken by Ethiopian Federal Government. In South Asia and Africa, two out of five children remain malnourished, despite distinct improvement in per capital food availability. Attaining food security does not mean only producing sufficient food. It is directly, related to hunger, which in turn is very closely related to poverty. Hunger and malnutrition do not exist in isolation. They are intrinsically linked with other issues such as environmental factors, social and cultural factors and other related factors such as health, education etc. Food security is not an issue of aggregate food production but household income and poverty. This issue calls for an enhanced production and productivity at the holdings of individual farmers, by making arrangements for the timely availability of desired inputs which may include capacity building, new technologies and irrigation water and other production inputs. In this process, adequate precaution is to be taken to conserve the natural resources by making their judicious use. In Ethiopia, agriculture and allied activities have been described as the main sources of many of the raw materials, investment capital, and foreign exchange and labor needed for economic growth. Improving the performance of agriculture sector is, therefore, of critical importance for fast development of countries economy. In spite of its importance the agriculture in this countty is characterized by its low productivity mainly due to’ limited use of improved agro-techmques, production inputs and continuous degradation of natural resources like soil. This has affected the food security and environmental stability of the country adversely at the face of prevailing rapid and uncontrolled growth of population. Due to increase in population, most of lands available for crop production ed ; vTheref°re’ the °"ly °ptiOn ,eft With *e government is to enhance the renortPCCSA ’Srono/11 TT t0 feed the growing Population. According to the census report (CSA 2003), 90/o of the total cropped area is occupied by grain crops. The other 1Vater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise crops like vegetables, root crops and perennial or permanent crops are occupying only limited hectarage. 1.2 National and Regional Agricultural Policies 1.2.1 National Agricultural Policies The Federal government of Ethiopia have initiated and introduced a number of reforms aimed at transforming the previously centralized economic policy to new and free marketing economy. The agricultural strategy currently in use was formulated based on characterizing of agricultural sectors and outlining the major issues and constraints hindering production and productivity of the sector in the country. The strategy formulated is called ’’Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI).” The main objectives of the strategy are: • Improving quality of life of rural people, • Increasing production of food supply in order to feed not only the population of the sector but also the population of other sectors, • Increase and diversify the production of raw materials for industry, • Increase and diversify the production of export and • To make agriculture the driving force for economic development. The objectives have been aimed to be met through improvement of productivity of small holders farming and commercial extensive and intensive agricultural development. 1.3 Regional Agricultural Programs Oromiya National Regional State (ONRS) has also adopted the federal agricultural development strategy and formulated the same depending on the resource, social and political condition of the region for a period of five years. 1.3.1 Adaa Ground Water Irrigation Project Adaa Ground Water irrigation project is one of the projects, proposed to be considered in the Adaa plain area of Oromya National Region State covering a part of 1 zone namely South East Shoa. Because of ground water irrigation potential indicated by various internal and external agencies and policy of Ethiopian Federal government on food security. It has been planned to develop irrigated agriculture in the Adaa command area using Ground Water as source of water to increase the yields of field and horticultural crops and other related enterprises in the Adaa plain. The gross command area is estimated to be about 10000 hectares. That is the net command area situated in the plain. It is located in about mid-way between the towns of Debrezeit and Mojo. The command falls in East Shoa. The lower reach of potential irrigable area is situated along the Debrezeit to Nazreth road.|Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise^ 1.4 Scope of Study The overall program of the Project in the Project command area is to develop the agricultural production namely field crops and horticulture. Keeping in view the climatic and soil parameters in the existing socioeconomic conditions both under rain fed and irrigated agro-ecosystem. While making the appropriate agricultural plan for project command, the overarching concerns would be of nutritional and livelihood security, Poverty alleviation, profitability, gender equity, ecology and environment, and competitiveness in terms of cost and quality. This will include the following broad aspects: • Study of existing farming systems and agricultural development pattern of project command area in association with socio-economic situations. • Selection of most suitable crops, fruits, vegetables and their most appropriate development with suitable economic return for different size of irrigated farm holdings. • System approach having economically dynamic and efficient cropping patterns involving selected food and cash crops and other enterprises suitable under the prevailing climate, soils and added irrigation conditions. • Identification of most appropriate agro-techniques and input support services for the farmers for increased farm productivity. • Need assessment and introduction of improved post harvest technologies and value addition. 1.5 Approaches and Methodology Comprehensive questionnaires including all required parameters of faming and house holds were developed and administered to the farmers of randomly selected kebeles of command area. After the collection of this information for the command area, the same have been analyzed and critically evaluated for the development of agricultural plans as per the objectives listed above. The secondary data have already been collected from several government offices responsible for the development of area and used in preparation of the plan. The details of existing status of fanning have been given in subsequent chapter of the report. This has helped in obtaining the information on crops, varieties being grown, the existing potential under both rain fed and available irrigated production system. This will further include the study of current farming system, crop rotation and cropping intensity, the status of agricultural support services, strength and weaknesses of present research - extension- farmers linkages including its impact on technology generation, assessment, refinement, dissemination and adoption. The study also included the type and number of crops being grown, their socio-economic importance and marketability to decide on the future crops to be included in the selected cropping plans in the light of the country's need. Efforts have been made to select the crops, cropping pattern with appropriate varieties that may be adaptable to the present soil, climatic, socio-economic situations of the project command and are responsive to irrigation water, and other production inputs [Volume]k_Ada^^ Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projcct| 3Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise giving high and sustainable yield. The crop budget and yield projection of the system has been worked out taking important crops. The water requirement of duly selected crops and cropping pattern has also been worked out following standard scientific procedures suggested by FAO, I & D Paper No. 56. The important agricultural constraints have been studied and analyzed to formulate suitable development strategies including rural based agro-industries. Based on the above the suitable integrated and sustainable system for production has been suggested. 2. LAND, SOIL AND CLIMATE 2.1 Land and Existing Land Use and Soil Land is one of the most essential natural resources, which is non-renewable. It supports life in all forms through various production systems and provides a social environment in terms of shelter, roads and other facilities. The land has several constraints like those that it cannot be enlarged to meet growing needs. It is subject to various types of degradation like erosion, Salinization, water logging, creation of ravines etc. Therefore, utmost efforts should be made to manage the existing land resource as efficiently as possible. In Adaa Project Command area, the major part of the area is dominantly cultivated. The lower lands are moderately cultivated. The cropping intensity, within the cultivated existing farmland varies from high 90% to low 10 -20%. On an average, the estimated present cropping intensity is less than 75%. Since the farmland is part of land cover, the overall land use intensity is less than 30 %, though large area of land has a good potential for cultivation. The low cropping intensity reflects the role of biomass energy in farming system and the associated requirement to assign land to these uses. After farmland, the grassland or grazing land is estimated as the second most important land cover of economic use. Soil types and their physical, chemical and biological properties greatly influence the crops and their performance. Some of the physical properties, which affect the crop growth, are soil depth, organic matter content, texture, structure, infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity and available soil moisture and soil strength. The chemical and biological properties are equally or sometimes more important to determine the quaiity and sources of nutrients to be used for high yields. The bulk of the project command soil is dark fine textured heavy clay. 2? vertlk X hlCkr bUt hard When dry- Most part of COI™d area has alluvial land k 200 50cTcm and°ade h ‘gh clay content is marginally suitable for irrigation but part of the 2 00-50° cm and appropriate for crop production. The soil fertility is moderate to hi eh ® f°r lrrigation' Mostl soil y depth is high ranging from mb\oilO r Water?° ?mg Capa city u and pH sub soil. Currently the crops being grown as rain fed in project command land are Teff ran E g in from 5.2-6.5 on top and up to 8 5 In wheat, maize, chickpea, lentil and beans (pulses), potato and onion as main vegetables ’(Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise The details of physical and chemical properties and suitability of land for crop production are given in soils and land capability classification report of the project command. 2.2 Climate Distribution of crops, their production and seasons of cropping are influenced by climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall To a much greater degree than other environmental factors. The crops differ in their response to day and night temperatures and Humidity etc. and reacts differently to the change of level of these factors. Soil factors such as texture, structure, depth and Topography affects the moisture storage capacity of soil influencing the crop growth and crop productivity. Thus, the crop production in command will be largely controlled by climate and soil interactions. 2.2.1 Agro- Climatic Zone Table 1. The agro- climatic zones of the command area and proportions in the two woredas are tabulated as follows: Agro- Climatic Zone Adaa Lomie Area, ha Percent Area, ha Percent Dega 28820.0 23.2 22566.2 30 Woine Dega 54033.8 60.3 33849.2 45 Kola 6690.0 7.5 18805.1 25 Source: Adaa and Lomie Woredas Agri, and rural development Offices, 2005. Table 2 Monthly and Daily Rainfall (mm) Adaa Irrigation Project DZ-Met Station Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Monthly 12.4 21.4 53.5 54.7 59.5 102.3 213.4 211.2 95.8 26.1 4.1 3.1 857.5 Effective 12.2 20.7 48.9 49.9 53.8 85.6 140.5 139.8 81.1 25.0 4.1 3.1 664.7 Max 77.7 123.3 166.4 106.0 209.5 261.5 382.1 344.8 162.8 112.7 352 35.4 Min 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.4 35.8 81.8 116.9 42.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 STDEV 19.4 33.1 46.2 31.7 51.2 45.8 71.7 54.8 33.7 34.4 8.5 8.1 75% 0.0 0.0 223 33.3 24.9 71.4 165.1 174.3 73.0 2.8 0.0 0.0 567.1 85% 0.0 0.0 5.6 21.8 6.4 54.8 139.1 154.5 60.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 443.0 5|Watci Works Design and Supervision Enterprise^ Table 3 Debrezit Station Climatic Data Summary. Month Max. Temp. °C Mini. Temp. °C Humidity % Wind Speed, km/d Sunshine ETo, mm/d January 26.1 8.6 37 172.8 8.7 4.7 February 27.3 10.1 35 198.7 8.4 5.3 March 28.3 11.5 39 207.4 8.1 5.7 April 28.1 12.1 43 207.4 7.5 5.5 May 28.9 11.2 4 198.7 8.3 5.6 June 27.5 11.4 52 103.1 6.7 4.1 July 23.8 12.3 66 129.6 5.3 3.6 August 24 12.2 70 103.7 5.7 3.6 September 25 11.4 67 95 6.1 3.7 October 24.9 9 47 164.2 8.9 4.7 November 24.5 7.9 37 2 9.2 2.9 December 24.4 7.4 36 164.2 9.5 4.4 Annual 26.1 10.4 47.4 145.6 7.7 4.5 3. PRODUCTION PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS 3.1 National status The national status of crop productivity has been studied for the year 2003-04 and given at Table 4. During this period, the total production of cereal was estimated as 92645,43 thousand quintals with average yield of 11.91q/ha and oilseeds 3128.62 thousand quintals with mean yields of 5.40 q/ha. The total yield of the above three groups of crops was estimated to 10.60 million tons. 3.2 Oromiya Regional Status According to the Ethiopian agricultural sample enumeration result for Oromiya (CSA 2003) the total area under various cereals, pulses and oil seed crops in Oromiya region is 3880.33 thousand hectares producing 50,092.03 thousand quintal with average productivity of 12.91 q/ha. The area under cereals is estimated to be 3267170 hectares producing 45245700 quintal with average yield of 13.85 q/ha. The production under oi seeds and pulses is estimated to be 351610 and 3894730 quintals respectively with q/ha °f 20 820 411340ha- The productivity of oilseeds is 4.72 and pulses 9.47 Development Pro|cct 6Table 4 Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of Major Crops for Peasant Holdings in Ethiopia (2003 - 04) VIeher [Main Season) Belg (Dry Season) otal Crops Area (000,ha.) Production (000, q.) Area (000, ha.) Production (000, q.) Area (000,ha.) ’reduction [000, q-) 1Productivity 3/ha. Cereals 6,993.69 90,007.29 784.25 2,638.14 7,777.94 92,645.43 11.91 Barley Maize Sorghum Millet Teff Wheat Oats 920.13 1,367.12 1,283.65 304.76 1,989.07 1,098.91 30.05 10,796.89 25,429.65 17,424.54 3,051.01 16,773.48 16,144.41 387.34 155.31 424.00 52.18 73.54 67.42 11.80 76.87 2,009.15 418.29 97.31 36.52 1,075.44 10,873.76 10.11 1,791.12 27,438.80 15.32 1,335.83 17,842.83 13.36 304.76 3,051.01 10.01 2,062.61 16,870.79 8.18 1,166.33 16,180.93 13.87 41.85 387.34 9.26 Pulses 1,066.36 10,195.70 95.42 33.04 1,161.78 10,228.74 8.80 Chickpeas Field Peas Haricot Beans Horse-beans Lentil Vetch 154.28 211.56 183.75 382.00 52.06 82.71 1,359.30 1,703.65 1,721.53 4,268.92 352.75 789.55 - 13.81 17.20 57.21 5.74 1.46 168.09 1,359.30 8.09 228.76 1,703.65 7.45 33.04 - - 240.96 1,754.57 7.28 382.00 4,268.92 11.18 57.80 352.75 6.10 84.17 789.55 9.38 Oil seeds 570.79 3,128.62 8.39 579.18 3,128.62 5.40 Lin seed Noug Sesame Ground nut Sunflower Rape seed 142.90 281.72 91.53 20.22 8.40 26.02 773.63 1,189.95 614.62 207.15 50.43 292.84 7.62 150.52 773.63 5.14 - - r - 281.72 1,189.95 4.22 91.53 614.62 6.71 20.22 207.15 10.24 8.40 50.43 6.00 0.77 - - T - - 26.79 Others 292.84 40.27 10.93 24,667.30 1.59 - Fenugreek sugarcane 17.13 OO 1 A 23.14 41.80 24 667.31 124.54 24,542.7€ 1589.28 1.59 • 18.72 , 124.54 6.65 - Total Source I 8,671.11 Bureau c 23.14 24.542.7( 127,998.91 )f Finance an 889.65 2,671.18 9,560.71 » 130,670.01 . .. .u 51060 62 . 113.67 (2005)IWatcr Works Design and Supervision Enterpris Table 5 Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of Major Crops for Peasant Holdings in Oromiya Region (2001 - 02) ft leher I lelg 1 L Main Season) ( Dry Season) 'otal P roductivity| Crops Area Production Area 1 Production / irea P roduction C J/ha. 000,ha.) [000, q.) (000, ha.) H[000, q.) ( 00,ha.) (( >00, q.) Cereals 2,911.03 44,250.94 356.14 994.76 3,267.17 45,245.70 1 3.85 Teff 762.12 7,132.52 22.11 32.24 784.23 7,164.76 9 .14 Barley 367.43 4,773.40 100.34 i 185.90 467.77 4,959.30 1 0.60 Wheat 545.92 8,595.22 45.84 62.44 591.76 8,657.66 1 4.63 Maize 729.46 16,603.87 159.59 602.66 889.05 17,206.53 [9.35 Sorghum 437.40 6,355.85 18.87 101.39 456.27 6,457.24 14.15 Millet 49.34 546.50 0.16 0.05 49.50 546.55 11.04 Oats 19.37 243.59 9.24 10.09 28.61 253.68 8.87 Pulses 357.15 3,739.07 54.19 155.66 411.34 3,894.73 9.47 Horse beans 137.38 1,674.20 1.20 : 4.36 138.58 1,678.56 12.11 Field Peas 64.71 567.64 18.27 18.28 82.98 585.92 7.06 Haricot beans 63.45 558.90 32.40 130.78 95.85 689.68 7.20 Chick Peas 55.64 587.09 0.63 1.21 56.27 588.30 10.45 Lentil 14.00 87.53 1.55 0.91 15.55 88.44 5.69 Vetch 21.97 263.71 0.13 0.13 22.10 263.84 11.94 Oilseeds 194.94 948.57 6.88 i 3.04 201.82 951.61 4.72 Niger seed 93.15 324.26 0.05 1 w 93.20 324 26 3 48 Linseed 68.82 391.21 3.14 ! 1.23 71.96 . 392 44 . 5 45 Rapeseed 5.50 44.25 ** 5.50 . 44 25 . 8 05 Ground nut 10.10 77.56 0.03 * 10 13 . 77 56 . 7 66 1 Sunflower 0.92 6.14 ♦ I * . 0.92 . 6 14 6 67 ; Sesame 9.91 ♦ 64.97 * 9 91 . 64 97 . 6 56 Fenugreek 6.55 Total 40.18 3.66 1.80 3,463.12 . 10 21 1 41 98 48,938.58 417.21 1,153.45 . 3,880.33 50,092.0: -----Lt™9Pian Agri. Sample Enumeration Result for Oromiy a (CSA 2002 1)* Data vic 8 4 11 | J 12 91 . .iated[Water Works Design and Supervision EnteiHS Table 6 Existing Area of land and Production in the Adaa Project Command area Woredas. Lomie Rain fed Crop Type Area , ha Yeild,qt/ha Prod, qt A) Cereals Wheat 19171 48 920208 Barley 850 33 28050 Tef 17131 18 308356 Maize 873 44 38912 Sorghum 54 36 1944 B) Pulses Haricot beans 1225 20 24500 Chick pea 2392 36 86112 Lentil 356 16 5696 Faba bean 910 28 25480 Field pea 1953 21 41013 Fenugreek ** ** Grass pea 843 28 23604 C) Oilseed Ground nut ** Linseed *♦ Noug *♦ Mk Rapeseed ** ♦* ** Sesame *★ ** ♦♦ Sunflower *♦ *« ** D) Vegetables Potato 24 150 3600 Tomato 141.5 200 28300 Onion 126 130 16380 Sweet potato ** Cabbage 70 ~80 900 Pepper 119.5 30 3585 Sewiss chard 8.5 130 Garlic 1062.5 37 130 Carrot 4810 10.25 200 Beetroot 2050 12.75 210 2677.5 Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development p7^| 9Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise E) Fruit / Perennial Papaya 4.97 ** Orange ** ** Avocado 35.67 ** Mango 2.13 *♦ Coffee 2.3 ** Guava 50 ** Adaa Rain fed Crop Type Area, ha Yeild,kg/ha Quintals A) Cereals Wheat 34013 40 1360520 Barley 613 33 20229 Tef 36141 20 722820 Maize ♦* ** «r* Sorghum *♦ ** ** B) Pulses Haricot beans ** Chick pea 4346 28 121688 Lentil 1585 25 39625 Faba bean 720 29 20880 Field pea 1217 31 37727 Fenugreek ** *• Grass pea ** ** ** C) Oilseed Ground nut ** ♦* Linseed *■* Noug •• Rapeseed **■ *♦ Sesame *♦ Sunflower ** W Study For kr.Ration Development Projcc.l 10[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise! D) Vegetables Potato £ 18C 1620 Tomato 76 26C 19760 Onion 17 18C 3060 Sweet potato 0.25 100 25 Cabbage 6 120 720 Pepper 14 160 2240 Sewiss chard ** ** ** Garlic ** **■ ** Caroot ** ** ** Beetroot ** Shallot ** •* ** E) Fruit/Perennial Papaya ** *« *♦ Orange ** ** ** Avocado ** ** ★* Mango ** *• ** Coffee *★ ♦* *★ Guava ** ** ** ■ ■ M M ion Development Project! 11|Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise Table 7 Proposed Cropping Pattern and Calendar for Adaa Irrigation Project Command Area Season One: June to November S.No. Crop % Coverag e Field Occupancy period Crop duratio n (days) Tillage Period. Pre sowing Irrigatio n (mm) Planting period Harvesti ng period 1 Rice 20 15/6 - 10/10 116 Jun 100 15-Jun 11-Oct 2 Wheat 30 25/6 - 15/10 116 Jun 100 25-Jun 31-Oct 3 Tef 25 10/7 - 20/11 122 Jun-Jul 100 10-Jul 30-Nov 4 Maize 15 15/5- 20/9 117 Apr - May 100 15-May 21-Sep 5 Potato 10 1/8 - 25/11 96 Jun - Jul 100 31-Jul 26-Nov Total 100 Season Two: January to March. 1 Maize 30 5/1 - 20/3 105 Oct - Jan 100 5-Jan 20-Mar 2 Wheat 25 6/1 - 10/4 95 Oct - Jan 100 6-Jan 10-Apr 3 Tef 15 1/1 - 30/3 89 Oct - Jan 100 1-Jan 30-Mar 4 Chickpea 15 12/1-5/4 80 Oct - Jan 100 12-Jan 5-Mar 5 Onion 10 8/1 - 10/4 80 Oct - Jan 100 8 -Jan 10-Mar Total 95 Season Three: A pril to June 1 Wheat 25 5/4 - 20/6 Apri. 100 5 - Apr 20-Jun 2 Maize 10 16/4 - 21/6 Apri. 100 16 - Apr 21-Jun 3 Tef 20 1/4- 10/6 Apri. 100 1 - Apr 10-Jun 4 Chickpea 20 12/4-15/6 Apri. 100 12 - Apr 15-Jun 5 Potato 10 18/4-10/6 Apri. 100 18 - Apr 10- Jun Total 75 Alli he year Round Crop. 1 Perennials 5 20 June -- 365 Apr - Jun 100 20-Jun Grand Total 275 Cut off date for last irrigation: About 20 - 21 days before harvest. Pre-sowing irrigation 100mm and at transplanting seedlings 100mm. |Volumc 11: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For I; OSS 12|Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Table 8 Improved Varieties Recommended for the two Woredas Names of the Varieties Crop type Adaa Woreda Lomie Woreda Pavon - 76 Pavon - 76 Wheat HAR - 604 HAR - 1688 Cross - 37 Tef DZ - 196 ♦ ♦ Worku Philip Ararti Ararti Chickpea Shasho Shasho Lentil Alemaya Alemaya Awash Melka Haricot bean ♦♦ Mexican Rome VF Rome VFN Tomato ♦♦ Marglob Adama Red Bombey Red Onion ♦♦ Red Creole Cabbage ♦♦ Copenhagen 3.3 Land and Existing Land use The total land area of Adaa and Lomie are 89543.8 ha and 75220.5 ha respectively. The cropped land of Adaa 69397 ha which is 77.5 %, and Lomie is 53254.7 ha (70.8 %). In both cases, more than 70% are covered by cereals. The grazing land occupies 3.7% and 0.5 % in Adaa and Lomie respectively. The perennial crop area is only 1.01 % in Adaa; nothing has been recorded from Lomie woreda. There is certain amount of waterlogged land and water bodies but no measurement was taken so far. [yolunie2k2\daa-_ARronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project) 13Table 9 Land use at Adaa and Lomie in 1998 E.C. Adaa Woreda Lomie Wor eda Land Covered Area, ha Percent Area, ha Percent Total area 89543.8 100 75220.5 100 1 Cultivable Land 69397 ♦♦ 802.4 1.1 2 Cultivated Land 69397 77.5 53254.7 70.8 2.1 Annual Crop 68695.5 98.99 53254.7 100 2.2 Perennial Crop 701.5 1.01 0 0 3 Uncultivated Land ♦♦ 0 11599.8 15.4 4 Natural Pasture 3270.3 3.7 361.1 0.5 5 Forest Land 5168.5 5.8 2462.4 3.3 6 Others 11708 13.1 6740.2 9 Table 10 Land use at Denkaka and Odea Kebeles of the Command area in 1998 E.C. Denkaka Kebele Odea Kebele Land Covered Area, ha Percent Area, ba Percent Total area 3750 100 2660 100 1 Cultivable Land 3481.5 92.8 2337 87.9 2 Cultivated Land 3481.5 92.8 2337 87.9 2.1 Annual Crop 3481.5 100 2317 99.1 2.2 Perennial Crop 0 0 20 0 3 Uncultivated Land 52 1.4 42 1.6 4 Natural Pasture 65 1.7 60 2.3 5 Forest Land 29 0.8 81 3.1 6 Others 133 3.5 138.3 5.2 Land is one of the most essential natural resources, which is non-renewable. It supports in all forms through various production systems and provides a social environment in terms of shelter, roads and other facilities. The land has several constraints like those that it cannot be enlarged to meet growing needs. It is subjected to various types of SrSk\er°M° J Sahn ,zatl0n in . ’ water *°gg g> creation of ravines etc. Therefore, pZe Sh°UmadS t0 managC thC CXiSting land resource 35 efficiently as In Adaa Project command, the major part of the area is dominantly cultivated The C W "'I?./‘ h2’ "T "'tiVa,e'1 “iSli"B L . T. ™ °f tod has a SO"4 hig 90% 'to tow for cultivation. Ata cover of economic use. ” 8rK'"8 la”d “ estlm,led “ ,he 5eC0I'd mosl important landWater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 3.4 Soils Soil types and their physical, chemical and biological properties greatly influence the crops and their performance. Some of the physical properties that affect the crop growth are soil depth organic matter content, texture, structure, infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, and available soil moisture and soil strength. The chemical and biological properties are equally or sometimes more important to determine the quality and sources of nutrients to be used for high yields. The bulk of project command and soil is Vertisol. These are Dark Reddish Brown in color. The upper layer with medium to hard course to very coarse sub angular and angular blocky and prismatic structure in Sub-soil. The soils are poorly drained to moderately drained except the soils of the valley of the gentle slopes, which are imperfectly drained. The details of soil physical and chemical properties are given. The major textures of the project command soils vary from sandy loam to clay for reddish brown soils and clay to heavy clay for Vertiosols. The soil depth varies from 50 cm to 500 cm indicating moderately deep-to-deep soils. The mean value of soil PH is 7.13 with average electrical conductivity of 0.11 ds/m indicating that the soils are free from salinity. The soil organic content of project area ranges from 0.4 to 1.33 %. The other details are given in the above annexure and sectoral report of soils and land capability classification. At present the crops being grown in the project command and catchments are maize, sorghum, teff, barley, wheat, horse beans, field peas, noug, sesame, linseed, rapeseed, potato, onion, cabbage, pepper etc. The crop suitability in project command area is given by the other sector. 3.5 Size of Holdings Based on data collected from the fanners, the farmers having holding up to 0.25 ha were the lowest. More than 50% farmers owned 2.4 ha very few farmers are holding above 4 ha of land per household. 3.6 Cultural Practices 3.6.1 Land preparation Land preparation is accomplished by using local plough drawn by a pair of bullocks or oxen. The plough is made of wood and is fitted with a pointed iron bar. It is locally called “Maresha”. The number of plowing depends on the intensity of weed infestation, crops and its seed size. The time of land preparation extends from April to June for cereals up to August for chickpeas. 3.6.2 Planting The planting involves the time, date and methods. In general, most of existing crops except chickpea others are planted from May to August in command woredas, mainly due to moisture availability through rain as rain fed crop. Chickpea required less water hence sown in September. The general method of planting being followed is broadcasting of seed followed by light mixing. [VolurneJh-AdjVa- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project) ISWater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 3.6.3 Seed Rate The farmers are generally using the seed from their own previous year crop produce; hence, the germination remains a problem. In general, they use high seed rate to get near optimum plant population. In Adaa Project area, the improved varieties used from year to year are tef (Cross - 71 and DZ - 196), wheat (Pavon - 76 and HAR - 604), chickpea (Worku, Arerti and Shasho) and lentil (Alemaya).^ate^Enterprise! Table 11 Adaa Project Command Area Cultural Practice. Time of operations Crop Type Land Preparation Planting Harvesting A) Cereals Wheat April - June End of June - July Nov - Dec Barley April - June End of June - July Nov - Dec Tef Mar - June Mid July - Mid Aug Nov - Dec Maize End of Feb - End of Apr Mid May - Mid June Nov - Dec Sorghum Mar - May May. December B) Pulses Haricot beans May - June End of June - Early July October Chick pea April - June End of Aug - Early Sept. Dec - Jan. Lentil April - June End of July - Early Aug. Oct. - Nov. Faba bean May - June End of June - Early July. Nov - Dec. Field pea May - June End of June - Early July. Nov - Dec. Fenugreek ♦♦ Grass pea Apr - May August November C) Oilseed Ground nut ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ Linseed ♦♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ Noug ♦ ♦ *♦ ♦♦ Rapeseed *♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ Sesame ** ♦♦ ♦♦ Sunflower *♦ ♦♦ ♦♦ D) Vegetables Potato Mar, - May Mid May - Mid June Sep - Oct. Tomato Apr- May 2nd of July - Early Aug. Oct. - Nov. Onion Apr - May July - Aug. Mid Oct - Mid Nov. Sweet potato ♦♦ ♦♦ *♦ Cabbage Apr - May 2nd of July - Early Aug. Pepper Mid Oct - Mid Nov. Apr- May End of June - Early July Swiss chard November Apr- May July Garlic Aug - Sep. Apr- May Carrot End of June - Mid July Apr- May Nov - Dec. Beetroot End of June - Mid July Apr- May Mid Sep - Early Oct July E) Fruit / Perennial Sep - Oct. Papaya May - June Orange End of June - July ♦♦ May - June End of June - July ♦♦ Avocado May - June End of June - July ♦♦ Mango May - June End of June - July ♦♦ Coffee May - June ♦ ♦ uuava May - June End of June - July End of June - July ♦♦ V±^lAd3^Rronojny_Fe3 ibility Study For lrrigauon Development Proj^ 5 17|\Vater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise Source: Adaa and Lomie Woredas Agri, and Rural Development Office, 1999 EC. A non - governmental organization has been visited at Debre Zeit. Genesis Farms in Debre Zeit is a part a project designed to pass skills and knowledge about agriculture and farming. Genesis farms have greatly improved quality and production by using Modem production methods and the latest technology on their sites. This organization has an important impact for the Adaa Project as far as vegetable crops production is concerned. The types of vegetables considered in their farms are as follows. > Beans. > Beets. > Broccoli > Green and Red cabbages. > Carrots. > Chinese cabbage. > Cucumber > Eggplant > Lettuce > Red and White Onion > Hot and Sweet Pepper > Sweet Com > Squash > Salad and Roman type Tomato. 3.6.4 Crop protection General information on the incidence of insect-pests and diseases for Woredas is available for different crops along with plant protection measures. The extent of losses crop-wise and their thresh hold values are important for planning the control measures at economic level. Similar is the status of weed infestation in both rain fed and irrigated crops and grazing land. The present status of common insect-pests and diseases are given in Table 11. The farmers do not take any control measures. Table 12 Adaa woreda weeds and controlling situation for different crops. Crop Weed species Control measure Wheat, tef and barley Plantago spp., Mexican Poppy, Parthinum spp. And Binding weed Hand weeding and 2, 4- D amine lit/ha Chickpea andVegetables Broom rape Hand weeding and Round up 3.51t/ha Source: Adaa Woreda Agr. and Rural Dev. Office, 1999 EC. [VolumeJl^Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 18Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise) 3.6.5 Fertilizer application The farmers are using only nitrogenous and phosphoric fertilizers namely urea and di - ammonium phosphate (DAP), Though Adaa Woreda was supplied with, 39274-quintal DAP and 22587-quintal urea (1998EC) for the farmers but only limited number of farmers used the fertilizers. The maximum quantity was used for vegetable crops under irrigated production system. The quantity of fertilizers used varied from 50 kg to 200 kg/ha applied at planting time. Based on observations collected through questionnaires nearly all the farmers are using certain quantity of fertilizers. No fertilizer is being used for pulses. 3.6.6 Storage of grains The details provided by the respondents on storage indicated that 50% of households store their produce in their living room in gunny bags (sacks). About 30% are having separate warehouse facility for storage and remaining use local structure made of grass and mud called Gotera. The ‘Gotera’ is constructed outside the house or at the farm as open structure. This attracts the losses due to moisture and stored grain pests. 5. AGRICULTURAL SUPPORT SERVICES Agricultural sector of the country in general and Adaa Irrigation Project Command in particular is almost entirely dominated by resource - poor small holders who produce more than 95% of the total output. The sector is vital for achieving food security, combating poverty and promoting general economic development. However, the country is facing with chronic problem of shortage of food and cash crops and has not been able to achieve self - sufficiency to feed the ever-increasing population and to obtain sufficient foreign exchange to purchase agricultural and industrial inputs to enhance production. The crop yields have remained low due to several problems, among which the low level of technologies utilized by the fanners because of poor agricultural support services is the major. Currently existing various support services are inadequate to alleviate the problem of small holders. These services are: • Extension Services • Input supply • Agricultural Credit • Marketing • Infrastructure development • Agro-processing • Agricultural Research. 5.1 Agricultural Extension The crop yields have remained low due to several problems, among which the low level to technologies utilized by the farmers because of poor agriculture support services is the major. Currently existing support services are inadequate to alleviate the problem of small holders. The agricultural extension services are one of them. The number of ^luntHHAda'a-Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 19Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise Development Centers, Development Agents and the centers having no Development Agents are of greater importance. The status of development centers having development agents are given in Adaa and Lomie woreda command area. DAs are the main extension workers to carry the technological messages to the farmers if regular programs of capacity building at zonal and woreda levels adequately equip them. 5.2 Credits On the basis of house hold survey data, it has been observed that only 55.6 percent of farmers availed the credit facilities, the remaining 44.4 percent did not get the benefit of credit facilities due to various reasons beyond their control. The fanners, who availed the credit, used the same for purchase of fertilizers and other important inputs. The sources of the credit are union, cooperative and NGOs. The rate of interest for the credit is between 3 and 12 percent. 5.3 Agricultural research centers There is research center near project command area. The center is functioning under the direction of National Research Program. This is mandated for research on several crops improvement. Debre Zeit research center is the only nearest agricultural research center to cater the technological requirements of the project command. This has been mainly established for different crops improvement at the altitude of between 1500 - 2000 m above sea level with sub-humid, mid-latitude sub-tropical climate. The scientific staff strength of the center is very high. The Adaa irrigation project command is moderately populated with about 60 to 70% cropping intensity. The main cereal crops are teff, wheat and barley. The agriculture is at subsistence level of production. The yields are low due to dearth of improved technologies and other production inputs like seed, fertilizers, agro-chemicals, credits etc. but there is tremendous scope for agricultural improvement with proper diversification and selection of crops and their appropriate varieties for irrigated production system. Since there is no of agricultural center in the vicinity to generate appropriate technologies for this area there is an urgent need to establish a composite research cum demonstration center within the project command to support entire agricultural activities and the fanners of the area. |Volumc II: Ada*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 20[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] 6. DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS AND POTENTIALS 6.1 Major Production and Development Constraints Adaa irrigation command is moderately populated with a low cropping intensity. Almost all of the potential land has been already cultivated. The crop production technology is still very traditional though this farming system is common in the area. In crop production, there is very limited introduction of modem inputs like fertilizer, improved crop varieties, quality seed and agro-chemicals. Moreover, different natural hazards such as recurrent drought caution, land degradation due to erosion and rapid deforestation, hail and frost damage, flood and drainage problem etc. have resulted in poor yield in project command. During agricultural household survey, a number of production constraints have been identified. Out of these, the important ones are being presented below: 6.1.1 Inadequate input supply This includes the introduction of improved varieties, supply of quality seed of the varieties, fertilizers, agro-chemicals and improved tools and farm implements. 6.1.2 Improved Varieties The crop varieties being used by the farmers of the project command are mostly local varieties, also described as “land races” which have gone through a natural mutation process over time. They have now very low genetic potential to give good yield as compared to newly developed high yielding varieties from agricultural research stations. Today, more than 98 percent farmers within project command grow the local varieties, due to their very poor access to the seed of genetically superior varieties released for cultivation and have resistance to many biotic and a biotic factors. 6.1.2.1 Quality Seed Seed is a basic input for crop production. The quality of seed has the most profound influence on crop yields. The farmers of project command have been using their own seed saved from the previous crops without having any idea of the viability and germ inability of such seeds. Thus, the field germination, seedling vigor and plant population are effected adversely resulting in poor productivity. They have no access to certified seed of genetically superior cultivars mainly due to limited seed multiplication programs, poor extension activities and high cost of such seeds. 6.1.3 Fertilizers Fertility of soil in project command area is good but being reduced slowly due to poor method of cultivation and continuous soil erosion. Hence, the soil fertility depletion in small holders’ farms is the fundamental biophysical limiting factor responsible for declining of food crop production. The only solution to alleviate this problem is the use of inorganic fertilizers but the farmers of the project command area use only less than desired quantity. The reasons for the low use of fertilizers are [Volume 11: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projea| 21Water Works Design and Supervision Entcrprisq • Lack of knowledge of the benefit of fertilizer use; • Inadequate distribution system including untimely and in sufficient supply. • Unfavorable relation between the prices of crop produce and fertilizer cost etc; • Acute shortage of agricultural credit and • Poor research, extension and training support to the fanners These have resulted to vary low level of fertilizer use by the farmers of the command area affecting the production capacity. 6.1.4 Agro- Chemicals During Agronomy survey, the farmers indicated the high incidence of insect-pests and diseases as one of the production constraints. This is due to inability of the farmers to recognize the pests and disease of crop and lack of knowledge regarding the Control measures in addition to high cost and non-availability of insecticides at the closest reach of the farmers. The estimated crop loss due to insect-pests; diseases; rodents etc. is up to 40 percent. 6.1.5 Farm Implements Lack of use of farm implements and improved tools by the farmers have contributed to the low level of productivity. The farmers of the project command area using a few machine and oxen-drawn wooden plough having very low capacity to plough the land properly. There are no improved farm implements so for distributed to farmers to improve the fanning practices and minimize the high incidence of pre and post harvest crop losses. However, a few farm implements have been developed and recommended but they have not been adapted by the farmers due to higher traction power requirements than are generally available with the farmers, high cost and lack of awareness. Non- use of improved farm implements and tools has reduced the productivity due to improper field preparation, delay in farm operations and high infestation of weeds. 6.1.6 Shortage of Draft Power The farmers are required to have a pair of oxen for plowing their fields in the project command area but according to the household survey results, at least one third of them do not have ox and another one fourth have only one ox. Most of the fanners are using hired oxen and prepare their land. This delays the planting and other farm operations resulting in poor yields. 6.1.7 Problem of Drainage Drainage problem is very common in many areas of project command having Vertisols. The major characteristics of such soil are rock hard when dry affecting the roots of the crops and very sticky when wet and have high water holding capacity. The productivity of such soils is low. Lands are very poor due to drainage problem. [Volume II: Ada*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project) 22[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise) 6.1.8 Natural Hazards Major natural hazards are erratic behavior of rainfall; hail storm, frost, drought and flood. In the project command, itself there is variation in rainfall pattern from year to year and some part get flooded and some remains dry affecting the crop productivity adversely. Under such situations there is need to have drought tolerant and flood resistant crops and their appropriate varieties to get high production and productivity. 6.1.9 Poorly Developed Research-Extension linkage The constraints and problems of fanners need to be alleviated by dissemination of the latest production technologies developed by the research centers through a strong and well-coordinated system. Since, the research-extension linkages are still weak and disorganized, the farmers are not able to avail the out come of the researches from the research centers pertaining to their various Enterprises. Though there has been some improvement in this linkage due to new extension approach like Sasakawa Global (SG- 2000) project and ILRI but it still require further strengthening to reach the technologies at the farmers doorstep. 6.1.10 Inadequate Extension Service In order to enhance productivity, a proven extension system needs to be developed for proper dissemination of these needs based input supported technologies. This requires more number of well-trained and fully equipped Development Agents, which is still inadequate. In general, the existing agricultural extension service in its expertise does not meet the present requirements for dissemination of proven technologies developed by the research system and requires intensive aim-directed special training. 6.1.11 Poor or Inadequate Rural Credit , The participation of commercial bank of Ethiopia (CBE) in giving credit to peasant sector for purchase of fertilizers, seeds, agro-chemicals etc. where agricultural and Industrial Development Bank’s (AIDB) services were inadequate, was introduced in 1986 Credit Policy. These two credit institutions are not able to serve the majority of small fanners adequately due to many reasons like limited number of branches of these credit institutions within the reach of the farmers of project command, exclusion of peasant association and service cooperatives from credit eligibility except for fertilizer credit. Thus, the absence of rural development bank or rural credit service at the reach of the farmers has hindered the farming community to utilize improved agricultural technologies and increase their farm production. 6.2 Productions potentials Adaa project command, despite the number of agricultural production constraints, has high potential that can be exploited through comprehensive integrated agricultural development program, sound and applicable rural credit system, well-developed infrastructure etc. The existing fanning systems being practiced in the project command is very traditional and lead to low level of out put. Through proper utilization of resources, particularly the water resources and by solving, the other major agricultural [Volume II: Ada'a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project} 23constraints mentioned above, the current low level of production could be enhanced. The major potential areas requiring intervention are as mentioned below: • There is a good scope of development of agriculture under irrigated production system by exploiting the existing irrigation potential and utilizing the water available in the ground. There is already indication of enhanced productivity per unit area by using the small-scale irrigation. However, the yields of crops are not as high as expected with irrigated fanning at present. The reason for this is lack of known-how among the farmers, lack of staff of relevant supporting institutions, inadequate extension agent coverage and lack of institutional support, absence of proper agricultural inputs (seeds, varieties, fertilizers, improved farm implements etc), lack of credit facilities, under developed rural infrastructures etc. Thus to achieve good results and Utilize the potential of the sector the irrigated agriculture is to be fully supported and the respective and relevant back up services must be strengthened specially related to extension and credit. • The Rain fed Agriculture in the project command can also produce more than one good crop in a year if proper soil and water conservation measures and early maturing genetically potential crop varieties are introduced. These may be supported with quality seed and need based fertilizer application. Supply constraints and financial limitations at farm level pose a considerable hindrance to the simultaneous adoption of a comprehensive input package of fertilizers, improved varieties, quality seed and agro chemicals along with the adoption of improved package of production practices and soil moisture conservation. The increase in yield will solve the financial limitations and other constraints of small holders. To improve the productivity of small holdings, and to exploit the potential of the latest technologies and other inputs, the research extension linkage has to be made very strong, and the need based capacity building at all stages including the farmers is essential. Diversification of cropping pattern is important in the project command both under irrigated and rain fed production system. There is good potential in the area to include cash and commercial crops along with the high value cereals, pulses and oil seeds. This may include coffee, fruits and vegetable crops, important cereals like rice and wheat, oilseeds like groundnut etc. The enhanced production of these may encourage the establishment of agro- industries in the area to benefit the people. 6.2.1 Cropping systems In bioenergetics terms, crop production may be viewed as conversion of visible spectrum of total electro-magnetic radiation into chemical energy (Protein, fat and carbohydrate) through the photosynthetic apparatus of crop plants, liie object of any crop production system is to optimize inputs of human skill, men and animal work, a biotic material mainly of Industrial origin (fertilizers, machines, pesticides, petroleum etc.) suitable genotype of plants and animals. Inter farm inputs with a view, in a given ecological [Volume 11: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Pro)eci| 24Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise situation, to maximizing crop plant growth and minimizing plant wastage so that an adequate economic return (or food out put on subsistence farms) is obtained and that too in such a way that economic return on crop out put is realizable from year to year and persistent over decades or even longer. The vegetable growing fanners are generally trying to adopt a multiple cropping system where the "photosynthetic factory" operates throughout the year because they have skill and knowledge along with adequate water at their disposal. Moreover, they apply heavy doses of manure and other essential inputs. Tremendous potentialities for increased agricultural crop production and high productivity exist in the country through the wider use of multiple cropping systems in cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds and fiber crops. In long duration crops (Perennial), like banana, shrub crops like coffee and tea, tree crops fruit trees, coconut palm, inter cropping holds great promise. Encouraging progress has been achieved in the bioengineering of crop varieties to meet the specific climatic requirements of the duration. This progress suggests that it is feasible to develop set of crop varieties, which can be grown either singly or in sequential combinations through out the year. The recent technologies developed on soil management like frequency and method of tillage, residue management and use of fertilizers and other agro-chemicals have enabled the multi cropping system to be feasible, desirable and even commendable under favorable sunshine and temperature. Under such agro-eco regions one or the other crops could be grown throughout the year provided water is not a limiting factor in any month of the calendar year. In cropping system, multiple cropping in essence represents a philosophy of maximum crop production per unit area of land per unit time with minimum of soil deterioration. In its simplest form, multiple cropping is a one-year cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in succession within that year. In practical terms, multiple cropping systems may involve the following categories: • Short duration crops; - relay planting or sequential planting of three or more short duration cereals, legumes, vegetables, fiber or oil seeds crops. • Intercropping of quick growing short duration crops in widely spaced slow growing long duration crops like sugarcane, banana etc. with zero competition between the crops ensuring better utilization of the ecological factors in time and space. • Multiple cropping system with perennial crops 6.2.2 Response of Crops to Irrigation Based on the investigations conducted by the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) at its research centers, it has been established that various crops respond differently to irrigation in their performance and productivity. The crops as teff (Erogrostis teff) has ability to tolerate both water logging as well as drought to certain extent but its response to irrigation are marginal. However, crops like vegetables, fruitsr-rieermaize, and wheat are highly responsive to irrigation.Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 6.2.3 Existing Crops and their Groups Cereal Maize, Tef, Sorghum, Rice, Barley, Wheat, Finger millet. Pulses Haricot Beans, Soybean, Field pea, Faba bean, Chickpea. Oilseeds Linseed, Noug, Rapeseed, Groundnut, Sesame, Soybean. Vegetables Potato, Tomato, Cabbage, Pepper, Onion, Carrot, Sweet potato. Fruit & Stimulant Papaya, Coffee, Mango, Banana. Forage Sesbania spp., Luciana spp, Napier grass, other grasses and Legumes. 6.2.3.1 Cereals The cereals and pulses production in Ethiopia has remained almost static with a little fluctuation due to droughts or erratic behavior of rains. The annual production during 2001-2002 was about 11.21 million tons but due to increasing trend in population, the per capita food availability is declining. Hence, with the increasing demand of food, there has been significant increase in the import of food grains. Therefore, top priorities have to be given to food production. Hence, the selection of crops and cropping pattern purely based on economic consideration will neither be realistic nor in the national interest. Keeping this in view, the priority has been given to select most productive cereals like rice; wheat and maize due to their high yield potential and good response to irrigation. These crops, accordingly, have been given due importance in proposed cropping patterns. 6.2.3.2 Pulses The pulses play an important role in nutritional security providing adequate proteins in the human diet and improve the soil fertility, by rhizobial nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere. However, national consumption of pulses is low but there is considerable export market. Therefore, the pulse crops have been included as a component of the cropping pattern to sustain the crop productivity and part of nutritional security. Volume 11: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project 26[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise) 6.233 Oilseeds Although per capita edible oil consumption is low in the country, the present level of production is unable to meet the domestic needs. Therefore, the oilseeds have been added as one of the components of the cropping pattern to meet the domestic requirements and existing quantity of exports to earn foreign exchange. This will also help in appropriate use of natural resources and maintain the eco-friendly production system. This will also promote the agro-industries at local level. 6.23.4 Fruits and Vegetables About 95% of the total quantity of vegetables marketed in the country comes from peasant sector where as 75% fruits from the state sector. The local consumption of fruits and vegetables are very limited. Only a small proportion of population with high income appears to consume fruits. There also seems to be the deficiency and inadequacy of quality control, grading, packaging, storage, marketing infrastructures, transport etc. adding to the unit cost of the produce. Though ETFRLHT is engaged in export of high value fruits, vegetables and cut flowers to Europe and Middle East by air, difficulties are being faced to have adequate facilities of cool chambers, cold storages and appropriate transportation systems from different parts of the country with minimum spoilage. There is, however considerable scope to increase the export particularly to Middle East and other African countries. Therefore, based on the suitability, reasonable percentage of fruits and vegetables has been included in the cropping pattern. The production of vegetables like tomato and potato will help in the promotion of agro-industries for production of tomato and potato products for their exports to neighboring countries. Therefore, it has been proposed to grow vegetables through out the year as a part of the cropping pattern for maintaining the continuous supply of materials for processing. The crops/varieties will be selected as per the climatic suitability and requirements. 6.23.5 Coffee Among the stimulant crops, coffee is one of the important cash crops of the country. Currently, even a single farmer in project command woredas is growing Coffea arabica, which is most important as export commodity. This needs to be encouraged by introducing new high yielding varieties and improved processing technology to enhance the productivity per unit area and to generate more employment. 6.23.6 Fodder Crops and Cultivated Grasses The livestock are one of the important components of Ethiopian agriculture to provide major part of energy for farm operations besides milk, meat, hides and manures. The importance of livestock is to continue even in irrigated farming system to sustain the productivity. To enhance the productivity of livestock, it is necessary to provide them adequate and nutritive feed and forages in addition to crop residues and other farm by products. Hence, adequate provision has been made in cropping pattern to grow annual and perennial forage crops and cultivated grasses to provide year round fodder to cattle. [Volume II: Ada'a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project) 27Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 7. PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN AND CROP CALENDAR Assuming the crop rotation will be established as the farm has completed .The cropping Pattern proposed for the Adaa project is given in Table 12 for the main season for rain fed production system after the establishment of irrigation system, based on altitude, agro-climatic parameters and land suitability. In general, a soil depth of more than 100 cm is suitable for all the crops recommended for cultivation in the project area. The introduction of high yielding photo-insensitive dwarf varieties of rice and wheat and high yielding medium duration hybrids and composites of maize have been proposed to be grown in rotation of maize-wheat, rice-wheat, rice- rice or sugarcane-wheat. The project command is also suitable for sugarcane but there is no provision of processing at this stage. The rotations should have proper intermix of legumes and pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, forage crops of short duration etc. instead of long duration low yielding traditional varieties which are being grown in the existing fanning system. The above cereal-based rotations in the cropping system will be able to provide adequate food grains due to their 4 to 5 times high yield potential with optimum production inputs. The proposed crops like maize, wheat, rice etc. are to be grown by a few fanners in the command area, which indicates the suitability of climate and soil for these crops. Since, these crops suffer due to moisture stress in dry season, the irrigation would help to provide need-based moisture and encourage the use of other inputs for their high productivity. The land suitability report indicates large part of Vertisols with water logging problems with the wet season. Such area are proposed to be cultivated with high yielding varieties of rice having fine long grains for increasing the food grain production and to contain the rice import to the country. Wheat is another important cereal crop already being grown wherever moisture is available. Since, the soil and climate are favorable for its growth, the intensification of crop in larger hectarage by introducing new varieties of bread and durum wheat responsive to nutrients and water would enhance the productivity at least 4-5 folds as compared to sorghum and teff. Since maize is already an important and productive crop of the project command, the replacement of local variety with full season (90-110 days duration) hybrids and composites with high yield potential and better nutritional value will fit very well in the proposed cropping pattern. To maintain the sustainable agricultural production, it has been proposed to grow pulse crops, oil seeds and vegetables as a part of the cropping pattern. In the existing fanning system of command, mixed farming is a common feature. Some sort of mixed farming system need to continue, hence the cropping system includes the perennial legumes and grasses to support the livestock with nutritive feed along with other feed resources to enhance the production of milk and meat and also to provide encouragement for product preparation and agro-industries. The above proposed patterns are in line with the current policy of Federal Government of Ethiopia on agriculture as given in the policy section of this report to attain the self-sufficiency in food production, full and efficient utilization of land and water resources and maintain environmental and ecological balance while <j attaining maximum agricultural production potential. Volume 11: Ada'a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project 28Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise The yield is likely to be improved further by introduction of improved tools and bullock drawn implements for timely field operation. This type of partial mechanization would improve the efficiency of labor force, reduce their drudgery and boost the rural based agro industries generating more employment opportunities. This will help in improving the economic situation of the people by providing better nutrition and marketable surpluses, at the same time provide healthy environment.Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Table 13 Mean monthly and daily Rainfall, mm (Adaa Irrigation Project), DZ met Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Monthly (mm) 12.4 21.4 53.5 54.7 59.5 102.3 213.4 211.2 Daily (mm) 0.40 0.76 1.73 1.82 1.92 3.41 6.89 6.81 Monthly 80% Daily 80% •• Volume II: Ada'a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development ProjectWater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 7.1 Proposed Integrated Agricultural Production In view of intensification of irrigated agriculture, the development of dynamic cropping plans involving various factors of production systems are of great importance for the project command area. The above system would help maintaining the sustainable production with proper utilization of natural resources under eco-friendly environments. A broad based diversification of agriculture involving field crops, horticultural crops, and agro-forestry with suitable mix of other related areas , need based mechanization under the prevailing farm situations would be able to improve productivity, efficiency, hence, the increase in agricultural production. In this endeavor, increased application of cutting- edge technologies along with improved and economically viable agro-techniques would play a very vital role. The integrated agricultural production planning would be able to address the major issues of resource management interacting with other production systems and system related technologies. The system will help in appreciation of value of commerce in agriculture and the decisions of the farmers on land use would be mostly based on comparative advantages rather than on subsistence needs of the farm households. Therefore, one may expect a major shift in agricultural production from food grains to vegetables, fruits, flowers, fuel wood, fodder etc. The shift in production system is likely to benefit and boost the process of integration with world market, urbanization and personal income (farmer) besides sustainable food production, and gainful employment 7.1.1 Crop Water Requirement 7.1.1.1 Introduction Crop Water Requirement (CWR) is defined as the water needed for evapotranspiration from planting to harvesting for a given crop in a specific climate. The calculation of crop water requirement is a very important aspect for planning of any irrigation project. Several methods and procedures are available for this. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has also made available several publications on this subject and other issues related with this. 7.1.1.2 Procedure for Calculation As recommended in FAO Publications three steps are involved in the calculation of the crop water requirement. Seventy five percent dependable monthly values of Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) based on non - exceedance probability has been selected for calculation of crop water requirement. Appropriate values for crop coefficient have been used. Accordingly, calculation for crop water requirement has been made for all types of crops. These calculations are available in the tables appeared in this report. IVolu me JI: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project| 31Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprist 7.1.1.3 Calculation of Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) The crop water requirement is dependent on the meteorological factors, and Reference Evapotranspiration (ET ) 0 presents the effect of meteorological factors. The following Meteorological factors are taken into consideration for calculation of Reference Evapotranspiration by Modified.Penman Method (FAO I & D paper No. 24) & Penman Montieth Approach (FAO I & D paper No. 46): - Temperature - Relative Humidity - Wind velocity - Sunshine hours 7.1.1.4 Selection of values for crop coefficient: The effect of crop on its water requirement is represented by crop co-efficient (Kc). This is presented by the relationship between reference Evapotranspiration (ET0) and crop evapotranspiration EscrOw or ETC as ETcrop = K<ETo. The values for crop coefficient vary with the crop, its stage of growth, growing season and prevailing water condition. The second step is required to select suitable values for crop coefficient. 7.1.1.5 Effect of agricultural practice and local conditions: This requires evaluating the effect of climate and its variability over time & space. This also requires to evaluate the effect of soil water availability and agricultural & irrigation practices. The three steps as enumerated above will be able to give the crop water requirement during its crop period at monthly interval. This requirement will be in the field. Therefore, the losses in the irrigation system have to be incorporated to arrive at the water requirement at the head of the irrigation system. 7.1.1.6 Sources of Climatic Data There is only one observation station for recording climatic data near the command area. This meteorological station is located at Debre Zeit. The climatic data measured at this station are rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, sunshine hours and wind speed at 2m heights. The length of recorded period looks sufficient for computing crop water requirement. 7.1.1.7 Rainfall The average annual rainfall recorded at Debrezeit Station was 857.5 mm with minimum of 116.9mm and maximum of 382.1 mm. The average monthly rainfall varied from 3.1mm in December to 213.4mm in July. The minimum monthly rainfall ranged from 0.0 mm (October to February) to 116.9 mm in August, while the maximum rainfall varied from 35.2 mm in November to 382.1 mm in July. This pattern of rainfall indicates the possibilities of rain fed crop production from May to October/ November supported with need-based irrigation for intensive cropping. The details of rainfall for 24 years are given [Volume II: Ada*a-Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projcct| 32|\Vater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise in Annexure II. The Effective Rainfall average annual rainfall in the command is around 71.5mm. The monthly rainfall data at the project area is available in Annexure II. 7.1.1.8 Temperature The mean monthly temperature at Debre Zeit is in the range 28.9 to 7.4°C. The monthly mean maximum temperature varied from 24.0 °C in August to more than 28.9 °C in May, the monthly mean minimum temperature varied from 7.4 °C in December and 12.3 °C in July. The highest mean temperatures were always in April or May. The monthly mean maximum and minimum temperatures of Debre Zeit are given in Annexure II. Air temperature regulates the rate of most biochemical processes in the plant and plays an important role in crop development and production. In some cases, the metabolism of the plant will come to a complete stop above or below certain critical temperature levels. It is therefore useful to know the temperature fluctuations in the command. 7.1.1.9 Relative Humidity The mean monthly relative humidity (RH) at Debre Zeit station is in the range of 35 to 70 percent. Generally, RH values were highest in August and September and lowest in February. The variability of RH values was highest in August and February. RH is normally maximum in the mornings and decreases towards the afternoon. The monthly RH is given in Annexure II. 7.1.1.10 Sunshine Hour The mean monthly sunshine hours at Debre Zeit varied from a low value of 5.3 hours per day during the month of July to a high of 9.5 hours per day during December. Its highest variability occurred during the wet season probably because of the frequent overcastting conditions. The monthly sunshine hours is given in Annexure II. 7.1.1.11 Wind Speed Wind speed data are used for estimating evaporation and evapotranspiration, and calculations for these parameters normally require wind speed measured at 2 m height. Wind speeds in the project area are generally low. The maximum wind speed 207.4 km/d occurred in the months of March and April and the minimum was only 95km/day in September. The monthly wind speed is given in Annexure II. 7.1.1.12 Estimation of ETo ETo has been calculated by the Modified Penman-Monteith method on a monthly basis using climatologically data of Debre Zeit station from 1978 to 2003 for each month of the year. Penman-Monteith Approach has calculated these with computer programme available in FAO D & I paper No 56. These values are available in Table 3. From these values the average ETo is 4.5 mm/d. ETo has been calculated based on non-exceedance probability. ETo has also been calculated based on average monthly climatic data for the period of 31 years. The average monthly values of ETo derived from the monthly values of ETo calculated for each month for every year of record and those calculated because of average monthly climatic data such as Temperature maximum and minimum, relative humidity, wind speed and sunshine hours. [VolumeJI^Adjfa^Agronomyjcasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project, 337.1.1.13 Cropping Pattern The Project is being planned for cultivation of cereals, pulses, and oil seeds, horticultural crops and forages. Therefore, the crop water requirement has been calculated based on the proposed percentage of land allocated for the different crops. The details of Cropping Patterns are given in Table 12. The cropping pattern and the cropping intensify has been planned for one phase. In this phase the optimum cropping intensity of 190% has been adopted. The abstracts of the monthly crop water requirement based on the proposed cropping intensity for different crops have been prepared for the given phase. These are given in Table 12. In these calculation sheets besides cropping intensity for different crops, the losses in the canal system have also been appropriately accounted for. Therefore, these calculation sheets give the gross monthly water requirement at the head of canal both in terms of depth of water in mm and m per hectare. 7.1.1.14 Planting Dates and Crop Calendar The planting dates of the various crops have been proposed based on the local practices and experiences. The different cropping calendar has already been prepared to be utilized and crop water requirement has been estimated based on these proposed crop types and cropping calendar. Keeping in view of the expected intensity of crops as the time passes and for maintaining the fertility level of fields, changing of cropping intensity has been proposed. 7.1.1.15 Crop Coefficient (Kc) Kc is the experimentally derived crop coefficient that is presented to relate ET0 to crop evapotranspiration (ETcrOp = ETc = kcET0). For the given crop types and cropping pattern the corresponding Kc values are selected from FAO's publications and other literatures available on the subject and the monthly ETC for the respective crops is computed. 2[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise! Table 14 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Meher Crop: Wheat Area: 10 ha Duration : 150 days Date: 25 June 30 Oct. Cut off date of last irrigation : 11 Oct 136 days Item Unit June July August September October Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 123 111.6 111.6 111 145.7 602.9 Daily ETo mm 4.1 3.6 3.6 3.7 4.7 No. of Days No. 5 31 31 30 10 Kc value 0.3 0.8 1.2 0.7 0.55 Etc mm 6.15 89.28 133.92 77.7 25.85 Re Monthly mm 85.6 140.5 139.8 81.1 25 Re / day mm 3.41 6.89 6.81 3.19 0.84 Re ofPeriod mm 17.05 140.5 139.8 81.1 8.4 PSI mm 100 0 Irrigation at T.P. mm NIR/ha mm 89.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 17.45 106.55 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.891 0 0 0 0.1745 1.0655 NIR for 10 ha 000 m3 8.91 0 0 0 1.745 10.655 Table 15 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Meher Crop: Teff Area: 15 ha. Duration : 105 days Date: lOJuly - 30 November. Cut off date of last irrigation ; 11 November. [VolumeJIrAjaj- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 35Water Works Design and .Supervision Enterprise) Table 16 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Meher Crop: Rice Area: 20ha Duration : 126 days Date: 15 June - 20 October. Cut off date of last irrigation : 30 September. Item Unit June July August September Mean Monthly ETo mm 123 111.6 111.6 111 Daily ETo mm 4.1 3.6 3.6 3.7 No. of Days No. 15 31 31 30 Kc value 1.1 1.1 l.l 1.1 Etc mm 67.65 111.6 111.60 111 Re Monthly mm 85.6 140.5 139.8 81.1 Re / day mm 3.41 6.89 6.81 3.19 Re of Period mm 51.15 140.5 139.8 111 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm 200 NIR/ha mm 316.50 0 0.00 0 NIR/ha 000 m3 3.17 0 0 0 NIR for 20 ha 000 m3 63.3 0 0 0 Table 17 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Meher Crop: Chickpea Area: 15 ha Cut off date of last irrigation; 6 November Duration : 91 days Date : 25-Aug. 25-Nov. Item Unit Aug Sept Oct Nov Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 111.6 111 145.7 135 Daily ETo mm 3.6 3.7 4.7 4.5 No. of Days No. 6 30 31 5 Kc value 0.3 0.7 1.05 0.55 Etc mm 6.48 111 145.7 12.375 Re Monthly mm 139.8 81.1 25 4.1 Re 1 day mm 6.81 3.19 0.89 0.41 Re of Period mm 40.86 81.1 25 2.05 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm mm NIR / ha 65.62 29.9 120.7 10.325 226.55 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.6562 0.299 1207 0.10325 2.26545 NIR for 15 ha 000 n? 9.843 4.48S 18.105 1.54875 33.98175 |VoluineJHV].Tj-ARronomy Feasibility Study For litigation IVwkyn'.eiu hvwtl $6|Watcr Works Design and Supervision Enterprise Table 18 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Crop: Perennial. Area: 5ha Area: 5 ha Unit Jun July Aug Dec . Jan Feb Mar April Mean Monthly ETo mm 123 111.6 111.6 111 136.4 145.7 148.4 176.7 165 Daily ETo mm 4.1 3.6 3.6 3.7 4.4 4.7 5.3 5.7 5.5 No. of Days No. 10 31 31 30 31 31 28 31 22 K.c value 0.65 0.65 0.65 0.75 0.6 0.55 0.55 0.55 0.55 Etc mm 26.65 72.54 72.54 83.25 81.84 80.135 81.62 97.185 66.55 Re Monthly mm 85.6 140.5 139.8 81.1 3.1 12.2 20.7 48.9 49.9 Re / day mm 3.41 6.89 6.81 3.19 0.10 0.40 0.76 1.73 1.82 Re of Period mm 34.10 140.5 139.8 81.1 3.1 12.2 20.7 48.9 40.04 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm NIR/ha mm 92.55 0 0 2.15 78.74 67.935 60.92 48.29 26.51 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.9255 0 0 0.0215 0.7874 0.67935 0.6092 0.48285 0.2651 NIR for 5 ha 000 m3 4.6275 0 0 0.1075 3.937 3.39675 3.046 2.41425 13255 Table 19 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Meher Crop: Vegetables Area: 4 ha Duration : 107 days , [Volume II: Ada*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 37jWatcr Works Design and Supervision Enterprist Table 20 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Dry Crop: Maize Duration : 105 days Date: 5 February - 20 May Cutoff date of last irrigation : 30'April. Area: 30 ha Item Unit February March April May Mean Monthly ETo mm 148.4 176.7 165 173.6 Daily ETo mm 5.3 5.7 5.5 5.6 No. of Days No. 23 31 10 0 Kc value 0.3 0.7 1.05 0.8 Etc mm 36.57 123.69 57.75 Re Monthly mm 20.7 48.9 49.9 53.8 Re / day mm 0.76 1.73 1.82 1.92 Re of Period mm 17.48 48.9 18.2 0 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm NIR / ha mm 119.09 74.79 39.55 0 NIR/ha 000 m3 1.19 0.75 0.40 0.00 NRIfor30 ha 000 m3 35.73 22.44 11.87 0.00 Table 21 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Dry Crop: Wheat Area:25 ha Duration : 111 days Date: 10 Feb - 31 May. Cut off date of last irrigation: 11 May. Item Unit Feb Mar Apr May Mean Monthly ETo mm 148.4 176.7 165 173.6 Daily ETo mm 5.3 5.7 5.5 5.6 No. of Days No. 18 31 30 20 Kc value 0.3 0.8 1.2 0.7 Etc mm 28.62 141.36 198 78.4 Re Monthly mm 20.7 48.9 49.9 53.8 Re / day mm 0.76 1.73 1.82 1.92 Re of Period mm 13.68 48.9 49.9 38.4 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm NIR/ha mm 107.92 92.46 148.1 40 NIR/ha 000 m3 1.08 0.92 1.48 0.40 NIR for 25 ha 000 m3 26.98 23.12 37.03 10.00 [yolumeJl^Adaj-jXgronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 38■ •• Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Table 22 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season : Dry Crop: Vegetable. Area: 25 ha Duration : 94 days Date: 01 Feb - 5 May. Cut off date of last ini i: 15 April. Item Unit Feb Mar Apr May Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 148.4 176.7 165 173.6 Daily ETo mm 5.3 5.7 5.5 5.6 No. of Days No. 27 31 15 0 Kc value 0.4 0.7 1.05 0.8 Etc mm 57.24 123.69 86.625 0 Re Monthly mm 20.7 48.9 49.9 53.8 Re / day mm 0.76 1.73 1.82 1.92 Re ofPeriod mm 20.52 48.9 49.9 0 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm NIR / ha mm 136.72 74.79 36.73 0 248.24 NIR/ha 000 m3 1.37 0.75 0.37 0.00 2.48 NIR for 25 ha 000 m3 34.18 18.70 9.18 0.00 62.06 Table 23 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season :Dry Crop: Soybean. Area: 10 ha Duration : 126 days Date: 15 February -10 June. Cut off date of last irrigation: 21 Item Unit February March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 148.4 176.7 165 173.6 Daily ETo mm 5.3 5.7 5.5 5.6 No. of Days No. 13 31 30 1 0 Kc value 0.3 0.7 1.05 0.8 0.4 Etc mm 20.67 123.69 173.25 4.48 0 Re Monthly mm 20.7 48.9 49.9 53.8 Re / day mm 0.76 1.73 1.82 1.92 Re of Period mm 9.88 48.9 49.9 1.92 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm NIR/ha mm 110.79 74.79 123.35 2.56 0 311.49 NIR/ha ~000 m3 1.1079 0.7479 1.2335 0.0256 0 3.1149^ NIR for 10 ha 000 m3 11.079 7.479 11335 0256 io“ 31.149] VohjjncJhAdaj-^^^ Study For Irrigation Development Proica] 39Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Table 24 Computation of CWR and NIR for 100 ha. Command Season: Dry Duration: 94 days Crop: Chickpea. Date: 30/9-5/1 Area:20 ha Cut off date of last irrigation: 16 Dec. •' Item Unit October November December January Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 145./ 87.0 136.4 18.8 Daily ETo mm 4.7 2.9 4.4 4.7 No. of Days No. 31 30 31 4 Kc value 0.3 0.7 1.05 0.55 ETc mm 43.71 60.9 143.22 10.34 Re Monthly mm 25.0 4.1 3.1 12.2 Re / day mm 0.81 0.14 0.10 0.41 Re of Period mm 25.11 4.2 3.1 1.64 PSI mm 100 Irrigation at T.P. mm NIR/ha mm 18.6 56.7 140.12 8.70 224.12 NIR/ha 000 m3 .186 .567 1.4012 .087 2.2412 NIR for 20 ha 000 ma 3.72 11.34 28.02 1.74 44.82 000mJ Total NIR In 469.67 J Therefore, for a total of 5000 ha the estimated amount of irrigation water requirement would be 23.5M m per annum. 7.1. 2 Irrigation System and Water Application Efficiencies Water application efficiency is an irrigation concept that is very important both in system selection and design and in irrigation management. The ability an irrigation system to apply water uniformly and efficiently to the irrigated area is a major factor influencing the agronomic and economic viability of the farm enterprise. Attainable water application efficiencies vary greatly with irrigation system type and management, but the following ranges give some ideas of the efficiency that maybe achieved with a reasonable desgin management as shown in Table 24. |Volumc 11: Ada'a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projcct| 40|Water Works Design and Supervision Enn Table 25 Water Application Efficiencies Type of System Attainable Efficiencies Surface Irrigation -- Basin 80 - 90% - Border 70 - 85% - Furrow 60 - 75% Sprinkler Irrigation - Hand move or Portable 65 - 75 % — Traveling Gun 60 - 70 % -- Center Pivot and Linear move 75 - 90 % - Solid set or Permanent 70 - 80 % Trickle Irrigation -- With Point Source Emitters 75 - 90% --With Line Source Product. 70 - 85 % Irrigation efficiency can be divided into two components: water losses and uniformity of application. If either the water losses are large, or the uniformity is poor, efficiency will be low. Although both components of efficiency are influenced by system design and management, losses are predominantly affected by management, while uniformity is predominantly affected by system design. Because of these facts the Adaa command area will be an over head and the efficiency will be between 65 to 75 percent. 7.1.3 Irrigation scheduling and Water management This may be noted that the actual irrigation will be carried out according to the irrigation schedule to be worked out based on stage of crop development, prevailing climatic data and water management practices proposed to be adopted during actual operation of the irrigation system. For this there is enough scope and sufficient flexibility has been provided in the system. Volume II: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project 41Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprist 8. COST OF CULTIVATION OF SELECTED CROPS 8.1 Introduction Even though a number of food and cash crops have been included in the proposed cropping system under irrigated production, but the cost of cultivation of only nine crops namely rice, wheat, tef, maize, chickpea, lentil, potato, tomato and onion are given from table 25 to 33. The cost of various inputs used is based on the information collected from woreda offices of the project command. The cost of cultivation of some seven existing crops grown under rain fed production system is also given with net income and benefit cost ratio from table 34 to 38. Benefit Cost Ratio of some crops in the Command under rain fed. Table 26 Cost of cultivation of wheat under existing rain fed condition. Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost (ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 3473.5 Human Labor Oxen days Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Miscellaneous md 60 20 1200 od 10 30 300 qt 0.3 1100 330 qt 1.5 769 1153.5 Lt 3 80 240 - - 250 250 II. Fixed cost 44 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any ha - - - - 24 24 24 5% 20 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation)........................................................................... 3517.5 III. Yield and productlon/ha. 1. Yield / ha & value qt 48 900 49200 43200 2. Value of by product & yield qt 40 150 6000 Net income 45682.5 Benefit cost ratio 12.9 :1 [Volume II: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project) 42Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprisq Table 27 Cost of cultivation of Tef under existing rain fed condition. Items Unit Inputs 1 ha Cost(ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 3943.5 Human Labour Oxen days Seed Fertilizers Pesticide Miscellaneous md 70 20 1400 od 20 30 600 qt qt Lt 0.25 1.5 3 - - 1200 769 80 250 300 1153.5 240 250 II. Fixed cost 44 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any ha - - 24 24 24 5% 20 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation)....................................................................... 3987.5 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield / ha & value qt 15 1000 18000 15000 2. Value of by product & yield qt 50 200 3000 Net income 14012.5 Benefit cost ratio 3.5:1|Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise Table 28 Cost of cultivation of maize under existing rain fed condition Items Unit Inputs 1 ha Cost (ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 2856 Human Labour Oxen days Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Miscellaneous md od qt qt Lt 55 15 0.25 1.5 3 - - 20 30 850 769 80 250 550 450 212.5 1153.5 240 250 II. Fixed cost 44 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any ha - - 5% 24 20 Total 1 -i-1| (Total cost of cultivation) 2900 ill. Yield and productlon/ha. 1. Yield/ha & value qt 60 600 39000 36000 2. Value of by product & yield qt 75 40 3000 Net income 36100 Benefit cost ratio 12.4:1 Volume II: Aila'a- Agronomy Fcj^bility Study For Irrigation Ikvrlnnn 44[Water Works Design and Su Table 29 Cost of cultivation ofchickpea under existing rain fed condition Items Unit Inputs 1 ha Cost(ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 2660 Human Labour Oxen days Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Miscellaneous md od qt qt Lt 50 15 0.6 3 - - 20 30 1200 80 250 1000 450 720 0 240 250 II. Fixed cost 44 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any ha - - 5% 24 20 24 20 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation) 2704 III. Yield and productlon/ha. 1. Yield/ha & value qt 12 1050 14200 12600 2. Value of by product & yield qt 20 80 1600 Net income 11496 Benefit cost ratio 4.3 :1 Volume 11: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Pn 45[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Table 31 Cost of cultivation of potato under existing rain fed condition. Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost(ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 1,004,286 Human Labour Oxen days Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Miscellaneous md od qt qt Lt 75 20 20 30 2000 2 5 SOO 768 80 — - - 1500 600 1,000,000 1536 300 250 II. Fixed cost 44 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any ha - - 5% 24 20 24 20 24 20 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation) 1,004,330 III. Yield and productlon/ha. 1. Yield/ha & value qt 25000 400 10,000,400 10.000.000 2. Value of by product & yield qt 20 20 400 Net income 8,996070 Benefit cost ratio 8.9:1[Water Works Design and Sui Table 32 Cost of cultivation of onion under existing rain fed condition Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost(ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 5922.5 Human Labour Oxen days Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Miscellaneous md od kg qt Lt 75 20 20 30 5 2.5 5 250 769 80 — — - 1500 600 1250 1922.5 400 250 II. Fixed cost 44 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any ha - — 5% 24 20 24 20 24 20 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation).......................................... .... .......... ................. 6966.5 III. Yield and productlon/ha. 1. Yield/ha & value qt 160 500 80300 80000 2. Value of by product & yield qt 30 10 300 Net income 74333.5 Benefit cost ratio 12.5:1 /ohinw II: Ada a* Agronomy Icasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projcvt 48Proposed Benefit Cost Ratio of Certain Crops under Irrigation and Optimum Inputs Table 33 Cost of Cultivation of Rice under Irrigation Condition. Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost (ETB)per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 6022.6 Human Labour Machine Oxen days Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Water Volume Miscellaneous md 95 hrs od qt qt Lt m 0.3 2.5 5 4957 20 1200 1000 769 80 1900 1200 300 1922.5 400 300 II. Fixed cost 74 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any - 24 50 24 50 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation)......................................... 6095.5 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield / ha & value qt 70 950 71000 66500 2. Value of by product & yield qt 100 45 4500 Net income 64904.5 Benefit cost ratio 10.6:1 [Volume 11: Atla*a- Agronomy f easibility Study Eor Irrigation Development Ptvjivtl 49water works Design and Supervision Enterprises Table 34 Cost of Cultivation of Wheat under Irrigation Condition. Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost (ETB)per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 6577.5 Human Labour Oxen days Machine Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Water Volume Miscellaneous md od 65 hrs qt qt Lt m3 1.25 2.5 6 3880 20 1200 1100 769 80 1300 1200 1375 1922.5 480 300 II. Fixed cost 74 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any - 24 50 24 50 6651.5 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield / ha & value qt 65 900 61700 58500 2. Value of by product & yield qt 80 40 3200 Net income 61038 Benefit cost ratio 9.2 :1 % Volume II: Ada‘a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 50Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Table 35 Cost of Cultivation of Maize under irrigation Condition Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost (ETB)per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 5915 Human Labour Oxen days Machine Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Water Volume Miscellaneous md od 75 qt qt Lt m 0.25 2.5 6 2340 20 1500 850 769 80 1500 1500 212.5 1922.5 480 300 II. Fixed cost 74 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any - 24 50 24 50 Total I + II (Total cost of cultivation)........................................................................... 5989 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield / ha & value qt 75 600 48500 45000 2. Value of by product & yield qt 100 35 3500 Net income 42511 Benefit cost ratio 7.1 :1 Volume II: Adaa- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project 51Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise Table 36 Cost of Cultivation of Potato under irrigation Condition Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost (ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 16897 Human Labour Oxen days Machine Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Water Volume Miscellaneous md od 120 20 qt qt Lt m3 25 3 8 2480 400 769 80 2400 1250 10000 2307 640 300 IL Fixed cost 74 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any - 24 50 24 50 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation).......................................................................... 16971 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield / ha & value qt 350 400 142000 140000 2. Value of by product & yield qt 100 20 2000 Net income 125029 Benefit cost ratio 7.4:1 |VolumeJj£Ada22APronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projoct|Table 37 Cost of Cultivation of Perennial under irrigation Condition. Items Unit Inputs 1 ha Cost (ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 21848 Human Labour Oxen days Machine Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Water Volume Miscellaneous md od 130 pl qt Lt _m3 2 12 24 4090 20 1200 3300 769 80 2600 1200 6600 9228 1920 300 II. Fixed cost 74 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any 24 50 24 50 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation)...................................................... ........ ......... 21922 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield/ha & value qt 300 500 150000 150000 2. Value of by product & yield qt - - - Net income 128078 Benefit cost ratio 5.8 :1 Note: Since it is a perennial the benefit will Increase year after year.I Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprist Table 38 Cost of Cultivation of Tef under irrigation Condition. Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost(ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 4858.5 Human Labour Oxen days Machine Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Water Volume Miscellaneous md od 75 qt qt Lt m3 0.25 1.5 6 20 1200 900 769 80 300 1500 12C0 225 1153.5 480 300 II. Fixed cost 74 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any 24 50 24 50 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation) ..................................................... . 4932.5 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield /ha & value 21600 qt 20 1000 20000 2. Value of by product & yield qt 80 20 1600 Net income 16667.5 Benefit cost ratio 3.4:1 [Volume 11: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project) 54Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Table 39 Cost of Cultivation of Chickpea under irrigation Condition. Items Unit Inputs / ha Cost (ETB) per unit Total cost (ETB) 1. Operational cost 4180 Human Labour Oxen days Machine Seed Fertilizers Pesticides Irrigation Water Volume Miscellaneous md od qt qt Lt _m3 50 0.6 6 2241.2 20 1500 1200 80 1000 1500 1200 480 II. Fixed cost 74 Rental value of owned land Rent paid for leased land Land tax paid Depreciation of farm implements if any 24 50 24 50 Total 1 + II (Total cost of cultivation).................................................. ....... 4254 III. Yield and production/ha. 1. Yield / ha & value qt 15 1050 17750 15750 2. Value of by product & yield qt 25 80 2000 Net income 13496 Benefit cost ratio 3.2 :1 9. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND STORAGE 9.1. Introduction All the agricultural produces such as cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables constitute food materials. After production and before consumption, all such type of food materials is subjected to several adverse physical and chemical factors. They are also affected by microbial and parasitic agents causing spoilages or lead to diseases when consumed. To prevent these losses (both qualitative and quantitative) and prepare food for immediate or future use some processing, preservation and storage practices are required. These practices require a multi dimensional perspective because food security is a physical, [Volume II: Adaa- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project! 55N M M 10 d d d d d d d d d N iVater Works Design and Supervision Enterprise harvest technology includes various facets of processing after harvest including the rural level agro-processing. 9.2. Post Harvest Losses Due to non-availability of appropriate processing and preservation technologies and inadequate facilities for their handling, transportation and storage at least 12-15% or more food grains and 20-30% horticultural product are lost annually. The adoption of suitable technologies for processing, preservation and storage the farm products result in conservation, value addition, income and employment generation for the benefit of both the farmers and processors. Value addition is important and critical due to socio economic and industrial factors as it makes production more suitable and generates interest in large section of rural population in agricultural and horticultural activities. 9.3 Post harvest Operation and Value addition Post-harvest operation relates to all operations such as cleaning and grading (separation), drying or dehydration, storage, milling, packaging, transportation and handling carried out on a biomass from stage of harvesting till its consumption. Post harvest management also enables creation of agro-processing industries at the rural thresholds to produce value added products assuring greater financial returns and generation of employment opportunities, thus having a greater potential in reviving rural economy. Operations performed vary from crop-to-crop due to varied physico-chemical nature of different products. For example production of rice from paddy split pulses and pulse flour from pulse grain and extraction of oilseeds involve different set of unit operations. Thus, the operations are unique for each crop as well as vary from commodity to commodity and are location-specific. They are different for adoption at the farm level, village level and at organized industrial level. N __________ ___ |Volume II; Ada*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projcct| 56ision Enterprise Unit operations Food Crops Cleaning Grading ., Curing Shelling Decortications Parboiling Dehiscing Polishing Size reduction Expelling or extraction Mixing Blending Fortification Packaging quality control Storage Transportation Marketing Fruits and Vegetables Washing Cleaning Grading Packaging Dehydration Bottling & canning Refrigeration Pickling Transportation Storage By product or residue utilization 9.4 Post harvest technology The following small-scale rural industries can be developed at the village or kebele by encouraging the interested farmers and others. 9..4.1 Spring or Paddy Rice The spring rice or paddy up to 5-10% losses is due to shattering of grains at the time of harvesting. There are losses at the threshing floor due to threshing, cleaning, drying, storage and processing operations. After harvest, the biomass is heaped before threshing causing a loss due to birds, rodents and weather hazards. Thus, the total fosses may amount to about 15%. Out of these losses at least 60% can be avoided by using simple and improved post-harvest equipments namely cleaners, graders, driers, metal bins and improved milling equipments. Before consumption, milling is essential for both raw and parboiled rice. There are two types of milling home pounding and mechanized rice nulls. The major by products of rice milling are husk and bran. 9.4.2 Wheat Wheat Is consumed mostly in the form of flour, obtained by mining of grains. A small part is also used as breakfast food namely wheat flakes, putted wheat and shredded wheat. Wheat crop suffers severe harvest and post harvest fosses if appropriate technology Is not adopted, particularly during harvesting. Storage life of wheat product is father low, There is stone burr grinder to give MQ to 95% extraction in the term of whole meal floor, In modern milling process, the wheat grains arc efeoned to tetneve[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise various types of impurities before milling. The reduced endosperm is used as flour whereas the germ, bran and residual endosperm obtained as by product are used as animal feed. In milling of wheat in roller mills, the grinding is carried out in 4-5 stages based on the gradual reduction process to have different fineness of products having low medium and high gluten content. Protein-displacement milling is also practiced which provides means of obtaining various fractions from given wheat markedly different in protein content, suitable for different uses. This process consists of fine grinding of wheat and air classification of flour particles to yield fractions with different protein contents. 9.4.3 Maize Maize is used for food, feed, and for manufacture of starch, com sugar, dextrin syrup, and industrial alcohol and alcoholic beverages. Milling is the most important operation in the processing of maize. Maize is milled either by dry or wet process. In both the processes, the germ is separated from grains to extract and recover germ oil, which is a variable product. In dry milling, the maximum amount of grit with minimum amount of flour is obtained. The yield of product in dry milling is 40% grits, 20% coarse meal, 10% fine meal, 5% flour and 14% germ. Wet milling of maize is done to obtain starch, oil, cattle feed and products of starch hydrolysis (liquid and solid glucose and syrup). The by product of wet-milling have number of uses like nutrient for micro-organisms, maize oil for edible purpose (cooking oil), protein concentrate, maize bran and oil cake for animal feed. Porridge and com flakes are prepared from grits. 9.4.4 Pulses Processing of pulse is of primary importance in improving their nutritive value. The losses in pulses go up to 20% including field level losses. Milling of pulses involves removal of outer husk followed by splitting of grain into two equal halves. Pre-milling treatments affect the percent recovery of processed pulse. Common types of equipment used in pulse milling are disc-Sheller, cylinder-concave de husker, rubber-roller Sheller and hullers. 9..4.5 Oil Seeds The losses include 5-15% in harvesting 2-5% in threshing, 2-3% seed cleaning and 10- 15% in storage. The major post harvest operation of oil seed crops include drying or curing, cleaning and grading, pre-treatments, oil expelling and extraction, refining, packaging and utilization of by products. There are two processes for oil recovery, seed crushing and solvent extraction. Extraction or expelling of oil is done by using mechanical expellers. Oil seed cake is the major by product of oilseed processing industry and fed to animals. It has high amount of proteins and 1.0 to 1.5% oil. Solvent extraction method is more efficient. Filtration and refining of crude oil is also a basic unit of oil mills. [Volume II: Ada‘a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Devetopin^^ 58Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise! 9.4.6 Fruits and Vegetables Fruits and vegetables are important supplements to the human diet, as they provide essential minerals, vitamins and fibers (roughages) required for maintaining health. There are two post-harvest approaches to solve the problem of losses, occurring from 20-30%. One is the creation'of cold storage or cool-chain facilities for fruits and vegetables producing regions and in major urban consumption centers to ensure supply of fresh fruits and vegetables throughout the year. In another approach, the fruits and vegetables can be processed and preserved for a long time with benefit of value addition. The products may be fruit and pulp, Jam and Jelly, Pickles, ready to serve beverages, synthetic syrups, squashes, tomato products (ketchup, puree and juice), and canned vegetables. These can be done in fruits and vegetables processing industries. Small and cottage industries can also be developed in kebeles or villages and women entrepreneur can be gainfully engaged in such activities. Keeping in view the vast scope of fruit and vegetable processing industry, there is need of developing packaging stations with facilities for sorting, grading and processing. For export, world-class cool chain, pre-cooling units, grading and packaging units, cold storage in production and exit points and refrigerated transport are essential to compete in export with rest of the world. 9.5 Storage Perish ability is responsible for high post-harvest losses and marketing cost, market glut, price fluctuation and other similar problems in marketing of fruits and vegetables. Storage is an interim and a repeated phase in the complex logistics of transporting agricultural products from producers to processors and from processors to consumers. Besides agricultural products like food grains need to be stored from one harvesting to next, thus demanding additional carry over as safeguard against a following crop of low yield or poor quality against speculation in price or market demand or against shortage and famines. The storage facilities in project command area are very primitive in nature. Hence, attract considerable losses. In general the losses during storage operation alone accounts for 6- 7% of production in food grains and as high as 20-30% in fruits and vegetables. The value of investment and efforts needed to produce this much lost food material stands very high and require measures to reduce the same. The storage losses are both qualitative and quantitative, affecting nutritive value of products. Insects, rodents, spillage and fungal rot are the main causes in food grains losses. Use of insecticides and pesticide may reduce the losses but the chemicals may enter in the food chain causing human health problem. The commonly used structures at the farmers’ households in Project command area are made of mud and straw, which are neither airtight nor insect proof resulting in 3-30% losses. Hence, it has been proposed that metal bins made up of galvanized iron (GI) mild steel sheets, concrete bins or silos should be popularized at domestic - level grain storage. They have the advantage of being air tight, durable and fireproof and practically [Volume 11: Acia*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projecq 59|Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise! maintenance free. Most of the crops like paddy, wheat, barley, pulses etc. can be stored in such a closed structures. The perishable products like onion; potato, fruits and vegetables are harvested at very high moisture content of.60-88% (wet basis), which limit their shelf life. At rural level potato can be stored in a pit-storage method where, potato is heaped in a pit to a height of about one meter and covered with a thick layer of straw or grass. If temperature is high, water is sprinkled on the cover of the heap. This can be stored with a loss of about 5% for a period of two months. Onion is another important perishable crop creating problem of storage at the fanners’ level, Several types of local storage structures used for onion have serious problems, which lead to 50-80% losses. However, split-bamboo storage structures, ventilated bamboo structures, natural air - ventilated structures and forced-air ventilation type onion-storage structures can be developed at the farmers level. For temporary storage of several other vegetables and fruits, a low-cost zero-energy cool chamber can be made popular. 9.6 Conclusion The machines and equipment are one of the important inputs for production and processing. Mechanization increases efficiency, enhances value of products, achieves timeliness of operation and reduces drudgery. Mechanization may take place predominantly in those operations where traditional practices fail to deliver desired level of productivity. Thus for post-harvest operations, equipment for cleaning and grading, rice and pulse milling and oil extraction should be popularized, if do not exist so far in kebeles and villages. Agro-industry is said to be an enterprise that processes agricultural raw material. The degree of processing may vary from cleaning to grading to milling, cooking, mixing and chemical alteration that creates a textured food of biological origin. Warehousing, chilling plant and cold storages are also included in agro-industries, since they enhance storability and economic value. The agro-industries may be sub-grouped as agro processing (rice-mills, pulse-mills, oil mills, fruit canning, cotton-ginning, sugar mills etc), agro-input manufacturing units and agro-service centers to undertake repairs and servicing of farm machinery and equipments. [Volume 11: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 60Water Works Design and Supervision Ente 10 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 10.1 Introduction Agricultural research is a continuous process and a must for technological advancement. It can be broadly categorized in to fundamental and applied types. Applied research to tackle area-specific problems for establishing research can only carry out increasing the production station in or in the agro-climatic region of the project command itself. There are many factors, which attribute to high level of production research singly or in combination. The field and laboratory research in irrigated production system need to be carried out. 10.2 Status of Oromiya National Regional State Research The regional research centers are coordinated in different forms. In Oromiya National ’Regional State the research centers are under the administrative control of Regional Agricultural Bureau. The National Commodity Research centers (NCR) having national mandate like agricultural implements, coffee, cotton, maize, sorghum, teff and wheat are still under EIAR but researches are being conducted in collaboration with regional research centers. Agricultural research activities of the entire country are coordinated by the Science and Technology Commission (STC) established by the Federal Government. Oromiya Regional State has three main research centers namely Debre Zeit, Jimma and Bako for crops and livestock, for soils. There are six sub centers under Debre Zeit for crops and livestock at Salem Tena, Coca, Minjar, Dembi, Akaki and Chefe Donsa. Debre Zeit is the nearest crop and livestock research center to cater the technological requirements of the command area. 10.2.1 Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center. DZARC is about 50km south east of Addis Ababa. It is located in the northeast periphery of the town of Debre Zeit at in attitude of 1900 mask It has a mean annual rainfall of 850mm and a mean temperature of 17°c. In additional to its proximity to the capital city Debre Zeit is one of the most scenic locations in the country. Crater lakes beautify the town. DZARC is well positioned to provide research information to the farmers of the central highlands where the potential for the production of cereals, pulses, oil crops, some horticultural crops such as shallot and garlic and grapevines, poultry, dairy, etc., is considerably immense. The farmers in the vicinity of the DZARC follow a mixed crop livestock farming system and a cereal-legume cropping system. The heavy black clay (koticha) and light soils (gomborie ) of Debre Zeit represent the two mahor soil types on which tef, wheat and highland pulses are grown. Moreover, Debre Zeit and its surrounding (within 50km radius) have variable and yet representative agro-ecologies of the country. Hence, in the early days since the Center being the only one in the country, it had to operate within the wide range of agro ecological zones [Volume II: Ada*a- /Xgronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project! 61Water Works Design and Supervision Entcrpri; ranging from the alpine of the central highlands to the arid and semi-arid areas of Godie in the lowlands. These varied agro climatic Zones are inhabited with different plant and animal species. Therefore, it is not daunting to note that these agro ecologies demand a sound agricultural research foundation based on adaptation of different crop plants and livestock species that are of economic importance. Consequently, DZARC had been the vanguard of research activities for the development of the agricultural sector of the country. In due course, the Center has expanded its chartered horizons to various agro-ecological zones in collaboration with national and international research organizations. 10.2.2 Research Activities. Crops Cereals; Pulses: - Vegetables: - Fruit- Tef, durum wheat, buck wheat, grain amaranth Chickpea, lentil, Grass pea Shallot, garlic and leafy highland vegetables Grapevine, Citrus, banana Spices and Herbs: Fenugreek Crop Protection: - Pathology, Entomology and weed science ii. Livestock:- Poultry, Dairy, Small ruminants, Forage and Animal Nutrition, Animal Health, Animal Biotechnology. iii. Natural Resources:- Soil and Water Management, Forestry and Agro-Met. iv. Socio - Economics: - Technology Adoption and Impact, Natural Resources and Agricultural production Economics, Agricultural Marketing and Agricultural Policy. v. Research Extension: - Pre-extension demonstration, Technology transfer, Technology Scaling- Up, and Agricultural Ext. Res. 10.2.3 Major Achievement. Study For Irrigation Development Project] 62Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprisi 10.2.3.1 Tef Research. > Characterization of 2255 pure lines obtained from 2175 fanners varieties for 15 morphological and phonological traits and Productions of catalogues were carried out. . * > A total of 15 improved tef varieties have been developed and released in low, mid and high altitude areas of the country. > In three and half decades of tef breeding, grain yield has increased from 34 to 46 q/ha (i.e.27 kg /ha /year). Varieties developed through hybridization showed a yield advantage of 9.5 % over those developed through direct selection from the fanners varieties. > The seed rate for broadcast sowing was determined to be 25 - 30 kg / ha. Fertilizer rates were determined for two soil types of the central highlands, i.e. 60 / 60 kg / ha N / P2O5 for heavy clayey Vertisols and 40 / 60 N / P2O5 for sandy clay Loam soils. Sowing date have been established around Debre Zeit, to be Mid July for Andosols (Alfisols / Mollisols) in late July for Vertisols. > Identification and cataloguing of the major diseases of tef was done. Generally, tef rust, head smudge, damping - off, and Helimonthosporium leaf spot are known to be the most economically important diseases. > Important pests in the major tef growing area of the country have been collected, identified and documented. Their distribution also determined. > The major weed flora in tef have been surveyed and identified. Evaluation and identification of proper herbicides (2 - 4 D, M C P A) for the control of broad - leaved weeds have been done. Appropriate cultural weed control (including hand Weeding) methods were development. 10.2.3.2 Durum Wheat Research. > Sixteen improved durum wheat varieties have been released for the different durum wheat agro ecologies of the country: Two landrace selections, four from introductions and eight from hybridization schemes the yield. The yield superiority of the improved varieties over the local varieties ranges from 100 - 300 percent depending on location and disease pressure. > More than 5000 landrace lines (accessions) were collected from the original durum wheat growing environment of the country characterization for their agronomic characters during the past decades. > More than 3000 crosses have been made since the start of the program in 1973 - 74. [Vol time 11: Ada*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projcct| 63Water Works Design and Supervision Enterpri; > In the year 2000 the research project started quality studies by testing 12 varieties out of the 14 released durum wheat varieties. The study was made in collaboration with the local pasta industries. The result showed that seven of the tested varieties proved their suitability for pasts making and hence were recommended for large scale production. > Study on the effect of Nitrogen fertilizer level, varieties and locations on grain quality of durum wheat showed that the effect of nitrogen on the grain quality of durum wheat depended on the growing environment 10.2.3.3 Chickpea and Lentil Research. > Twelve improved chickpea varieties, which are high yielding and resistant to wilt and root rots, have been released with their improved production packages for different agro - ecologies. > Rust, Fusarium wilt, root rots, stunt virus, aschochyta blight and others are the major diseases that affect the yield and the seed quality of chickpea and lentils. > A large number of chickpea and lentil accessions evaluated for sources of genes for resistance/tolerance of Fusarium wilt and root rots by screening effective disease infect" sick plots" > Some chemicals were recommend for the control of diseases, insect pest and weeds of lentil and chickpea: dressing of chickpea with benlate ( 0.25 % ) for Fusarium oxysporum (wilt) and Thiabendazol ( 0.25%) for ascochyta blight: are also recommended as seed dressing for aschochyta blight in lentil : Primor at lkg/ha controls pea aphid in lentil. > For seedbeds, plowing in dry season (March - May) and disking twice from mid June to early August is essential to keep the soil friable and weed free. Where chickpea is grown on the flat heavy clay soil. > For chickpea grown on the Vertisols of medium to high altitude areas, sowing from mid - August to early September is recommended depending on the slop of field and intensity of rainfall. > The recommended sowing time of lentil in both medium and high altitude areas is from late June to mid July. In “Belg” season, this depends on the onset of the rainfall between March and April. > For sowing chickpea in rows a spacing of 30 cm between rows and 10 cm between plants has been recommended for obtaining good yield. The seed rate recommended for the broadcast method appears to vary depending on the seed size of the cultivars and growth habit. For small-seeded cultivars such as DZ 10 - 4,DZ - 10 - 11 ,the seed rate of 65 - 80 kg / ha is the optimum. However, for [Volume I!: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 64[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] medium and large seeded cultivars, the seed rate up to 140 kg / ha is recommended depending on the variety used. > For row-sown lentil, a spacing of 20 - 25 cm between rows and 2.5 - 5.0 cm between plants has been recommended. Foj broadcast methods, 50 - 65 kg /ha, 65 - 80 kg/ha for medium and 120 kg / ha for large seeded lentil cultivars have been recommended. > Fertilizer studies carried out at different locations showed that neither fertilizer rate nor sources have marked effects on yield of chickpea on Vertisols. > Lentil was generally found to be non - responsive to N and P fertilizers on Vertisols. > Two hand weeding after 30 and 60 days after seedling emergence is recommended for weed control in chickpea. Application of Glyphosate (4 1 / ha) 3-4 weeks before sowing followed by plowing is also is also recommended as weed controlling means in chickpea. 10.2.3.4 Horticultural Crops Research. > Potato (Solanum tuberosum): Experimental projects at Alemaya by Debre Zeit Research Center include crossing and selection of introduced pure lines and then superior varieties, which were adapted to different agro-ecological conditions, had been released to farmers. > Pepper (Capsicum annum): Intensive research on disease resistance / tolerance, yield and quality of local and exotic accessions of Capsicum had resulted in identifying Mareko Fana as the best cultivars based in Oleoresin quality. > Carrot (Daucas carrota): Varieties, which were considered the most desirable were introduced and eventually handled by the extension services of school garden program. > Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum): Different varieties of tomatoes were tested for their yield and acceptance by consumers. By staking and urea dressing combination treatments, the yield of six varieties (Casque, Rouge, and Indian River. Best of All, VF No. 36, Purdue 136, And VF No. 11). > Allium (Shallot, Garlic, and Onion): Since 1986, a number of local shallot and garlic germplasms collected from different parts of the country have been characterized and evaluated for resistance/tolerance to diseases, yield, growth and other agronomic characteristics. As a result, two shallot improved varities namely; DZ-SHT-91 “Huruta” and DZ-SHT-50 “Negelle” were released to growers in 1991 and 1996 E.C, respectively. [Volume II: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Projcct| 65Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprii > Fruits: A number of dwarf banana varieties (e.g. Cavendish), pineapple, and watermelon were introduced, evaluated and released. > Endod: The discovery elsewhere of endod as molluscide provided the impetus for the establishment of a large-scale collection... > Enset: The relative degree of resistance/tolerance of enset to bacterial wilt had been identified. > Grapevine: Eight cultivars (Black hamburg, Cannonano, chenin Blanc, Dodoma Aleatico, Grenache Blanc, Grenachenoir, Ugani Blanc, Sangioves (Tikur) are registed and released for production in four agro-ecologies. 10.2.4 Research strategies for Adaa Project. The importance of nutritional and livelihood security, poverty alleviation, profitability, gender equity, ecology and environment and competitiveness in cost and quality will continue to be important concern and issue before the research system. Hence, the system needs to prioritize the research agenda for immediate attention. This may include the issue of immediate exploitation of water potential and quality of water, soil health, genetic resource conservation, increasing biotic and a biotic stresses, managing climate change, diversification in crop production, increasing preparedness to match rapidly evolving trade regime, reducing knowledge lag and congenial policy environment. The emphasis on the research need to be changed on the basis of above issues to generate useful technologies including high yielding and of high genetic potential cultivars resistant to biotic and a biotic factor under irrigated production system using the ground water potential. So far, the research in the country has been mainly concentrating on rain fed agriculture with commodity approach. This has made significant contribution in the Oromyia region. Immediate attention may be given to introduce high yielding, proven and photo-insensitive varieties having high input-use-efficiency from all parts of the world. They may be tested for their adaptabilities firstly at the research station located near project command area like Debre Zeit. The most adaptive varieties may be grown at different locations at the fanners’ field as on-farm trials. This will have indirectly value of demonstration. Thus, the process of introduction of new varieties in irrigated production system would be shortened and help in achieving the food and nutritional security in the country. The research activities need to be strengthened by way of increasing the number of research stations and substations to mainly concentrate on important crops and enter prizes in a system mode to give more emphasis on multi-disciplinary diversified agricultural technology development. This will help in agricultural production sustainability with appropriate care of eco-friendly environment. Since the government policy is very clear to introduce crops and varieties to enhance productivity, reduce imports and also increase exports, the emphasis on such commodities like quality rice, fruits, and vegetables should be further increased with more attention on applied research. It is, therefore, suggested that more funds be allotted to strengthen applied and [Volume 11: Acla*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 66technology generations oriented research. The technology thus generated should be assessed at the farmers’ fields and, further refined based on feedback. This requires very close linkages between the research and extension specialists. It is also proposed to strengthen the following disciplines with their changed mandates and priorities as suggested above. • Agronomy • Genetics and plant breeding • Soil science including soil and water conservation • Horticulture • Plant pathology • Entomology • Agricultural Engineering • Irrigation and drainage • Food science & processing • Agricultural Economics • Agricultural Extension[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] 11. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Adaa Ground Water Irrigation Project is one of the Projects, proposed to be considered in the in Oromiya National Region State covering parts of all the Adaa plain area. Based on the ground water irrigation potential indicated by various internal.and external agencies and policy of Ethiopian Federal Government on food securities, it has been planned to develop irrigated agriculture in Adaa project irrigation command area using the ground water as a source of water to increase the yields of field and horticultural crops. The gross command area is estimated to be over 20000 hectares and net irrigable area 10000 hectares. The feasibility study of the project command involves the overall crop production under irrigation agronomy to integrate the irrigated crop production under different farming system namely cereal crops, pulses, oilseeds and horticultural crops, and post harvest practices etc. keeping in view the climatic and soil parameters in the existing socio economic conditions without adverse effect on the environment. The scope, approach and methodology of the study include various broad aspects in view of the existing fanning systems and socio-economic situations of the area, existing crops, cropping system, production practices etc. in the light of the prevailing soils and climatic conditions and the feasibility and prospects of enhancement of productivity and production by introducing the irrigated production system. A number of cereals, pulses, oil seeds and other crops are being cultivated under rain fed production system. Meteorological characteristics are favorable for growth and productivity of many field crops, horticultural crops and other useful plants and trees. Currently the major problem of the fanners is food insecurity due to low farm productivity, land degradation and erratic rainfall. The production and productivity status of crops have been given for the country, Oromiya Region and Project command area. The average productivity of food grain is the highest in the region but the lowest in project command. The existing cropping pattern and crop-wise productivity indicates the highest yield from maize and the lowest from Soybean. The proper information on Vegetable crops, fruits and coffee are poor. Currently only local varieties or land races with poor genetic potential are being grown by the majority farmers. The farming is at subsistence level and traditional. The improved technologies have not reached to the farmers due to poor extension service. The fanners are using improved varieties, quality seeds, fertilizers, agro-chemicals, farm implements and improved tools to a limited. The credit facilities are poor and farmers with low resources have no risk bearing capacity, Hence, the farm productivity is low. On the existing status of farming system in the project command area. The main constraints identified are: the inadequate input supply (variety, seeds, fertilizers, agro [Volume 11: Ada*a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For irrigation Development Project] 68Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] chemicals) farm implements, shortage of draught power, problem of drainage, frequent natural hazards, poorly developed research-extension linkage, inadequate extension service, and poor marketing system and low market price of produce, problem of adequate rural credit facilities, inadequate transport net work and problem of health of farmers and their families and livestock specially cattle due to various diseases. Keeping in view the production potential of the project command, soils, climate and Ethiopian government policy towards agriculture called Agricultural development led Industrialization (ADLI) to attain self sufficiency in food reduction, production of cash and industrial crops for export and import substitution by full and efficient utilization of land and water resources while maintaining ecological and environmental balance etc. Suitable cropping pattern, cropping system and crop rotations have been selected with inclusion of most appropriate and potential crops of high quality. The crop calendars have been prepared for calculation of their actual water requirements under irrigated production systems. Looking at the present low cropping intensity of the project command, it has been suggested to have cropping systems to provide high and sustainable yield. Accordingly, it has been further proposed to make use of improved, photo-insensitive, medium duration high quality varieties, particularly of cereals that have greater degree of water and nutrient-use efficiency and good marketability. The crop intensity of 185 percent are proposed to be taken upon improving with the further need, experience and population pressure in the area, they may be raised to the level 195 percent or even more. It has been further proposed to integrate the crop production system with horticulture, forestry and other allied disciplines of production for sustainable yield with eco-friendly environment The crop water requirement of each crop included in rotations has been calculated following the procedures recommended in FAO publications for calculation of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) by using Pennman Montieth Approach (FAO Irrigation & Drainage paper No.46). Suitable crop coefficients were selected for different stages of growth to calculate crop water requirements by considering the agricultural practices, climatic parameters, cropping pattern, crop calendar, cropping intensities etc. The crop production technologies of important field and horticultural crops have been given considering the irrigated production system with optimum inputs and production practices to achieve reasonable yield per hectare based on the information available from IAR, personal experience of the consultant and from other countries having similar growing conditions and agro- climate. The major corps included are rice, wheat, maize (cereals), (oilseeds), Field peas, chick peas, soybean, Faba bean (Pulses), potato, onion carrot, tomato, cabbage (vegetable), In the process of the cost of cultivation of important food crops under irrigated production systems involving improved production technologies have been worked out to project the expected income. Simultaneously, the cost of cultivation of the crops under existing farm situation in rain fed production system has been also calculated to compare the benefits. Among all the crops, rice appears to be the most economical. |Volume II: Ada’a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project| 69Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise! The status of agricultural research in the region has been briefly discussed. However, Debre Zeit Agricultural Research Center has done good work for rain fed agriculture involving crops, livestock along with soils covering various aspects but the work on irrigated agriculture is not established. Moreover, the DZARC is only partly representing the conditions of project command for technology generation. There are a few sub centers near or inside the command conducting research. Research strategies have also been suggested for the Adaa project under irrigation. [VolumeJkAd^a-jXfirono^^ For Irrigation Development Project] 70Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] 12. REFERENCES 1 Kenneth H. Solomon, 1988. Irrigation Systems and Water Application Efficiency. California State University, USA. 2 Bureau of Finance and Economic Development regional government of Oromiya, statistical Abstract fifth Edition, November 2005. 3 FAO, 1975. Crop water Requirements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, 4. FAO, 1992. Crop WAT, A computer program for irrigation planning and management. Irrigation and Drainage paper No. 46. 5 Ethiopian Seed Enterprise: (1997) Improved crop varieties produced by Ethiopian seed Enterprise, Addis Ababa 6 Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), 1994, Agriculture sector strategy, Study of land and water Resources of Blue Nile Basin, (1964), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia [VolumeJhAj^ Study For Irrigation Development Projca] 71Yorks Design and Supervision Enterprise Annexure 4[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise] Annex I Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of Major Crops for Peasant Holdings in Ethiopia (2003 - 04) Mchcr (Main Season) Belg (Dry Season) Total Crops Area (000,ha.) Production (000, q.) Area (000, ha.) Production (000, q.) Area (000,ha.) Production (000, q.) Productivity Q/ha. Cereals 6,993.69 90,007.29 784.25 2,638.14 7,777.94 92,645.43 11.91 Barley Maize Sorghum Millet Teff Wheat Oats 920.13 1,367.12 1,283.65 304.76 1,989.07 1,098.91 30.05 10,796.89 25,429.65 17,424.54 3,051.01 16,773.48 16,144.41 387.34 155.31 424.00 52.18 73.54 67.42 11.80 76.87 2,009.15 418.29 97.31 36.52 1,075.44 10,873.76 10.11 1,791.12 27,438.80 15.32 1,335.83 17,842.83 13.36 304.76 3,051.01 10.01 2,062.61 16,870.79 8.18 1,166.33 16,180.93 13.87 41.85 387.34 9.26 Pulses 1,066.36 10,195.70 95.42 33.04 1,161.78 10,228.74 8.80 Chickpeas Field Peas Haricot Beans Horse-beans Lentil vetch 154.28 211.56 183.75 382.00 52.06 82.71 1,359.30 1,703.65 1,721.53 4,268.92 352.75 789.55 1,359.30 228.76 1,703.65 7.45 240.96 1,754.57 7.28 - 13.81 17.20 57.21 5.74 1.46 168.09 8.09 33.04 382.00 4,268.92 11.18 57.80 352.75 6.10 84.17 789.55 9.38 Oil seeds 570.79 3,128.62 8.39 579.18 3,128.62 5.40 Lin seed Noug Sesame Ground nut Sunflower Rape seed 142.90 281.72 91.53 20.22 8.40 26.02 773.63 1,189.95 614.62 207.15 50.43 292.84 7.62 150.52 773.63 5.14 - - - - 281.72 1,189.95 4.22 91.53 614.62 6.71 20.22 207.15 10.24 8.40 50.43 6.00 0.77 26.79 292.84 10.93 Others 40.27 24,667.30 1.59 41.86 24.667.30 589.28 Fenugreek Sugarcane 17.13 23.14 124.54 24,542.76 1.59 - 18.72 124.54 6.65 23.14 24,542.76 1060.62 Total 8,671.11 127,998.91 889.65 2,671.18 9,560.76 130,670.09 13.67 Source: Bureau of Finance and Economic Development - Statistical Abstract, 5'" Edition (2005) Ada'a- Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 11Majar<>*»e for <2891 -«/ Cr*f* Mdher lArw WM) •J ffhrSaitf) iAn» ttW.feM Total Prwdartiia A” — QW. Cma* Teff &atey lAaizt 356.14 994.76 22.11 1<M34 I 3224 145.90 u&ti O& Pate* 291103 76212 367/43 $4592 729A6 43796 4934 1937 35735 Hcoebeaas 13734 Field Peas 64.71 rSancotbeaB 63A5 GaadkFeas 5534 LasfiS Vach Ofceofc 14X0 21.97 194.94 SFtgerseed 93.15 Liaseed 6432 SLapesod 550 GmsMlaat 10.10 0.92 991 FCTKJOTdt. 6.55 44,259.94 7,13252 4,773/40 859522 16j6WX7 6.355.85 54630 2059 3,73997 137429 567.64 558.90 587X9 8733 263,71 94837 32426 39121 4425 7756 6.14 64.97 4018 45X4 62A4 15939 69236 I8J7 19139 0.16 005 924 1039 54.19 15536 129 436 1427 1424 3240 130.74 033 121 135 0.91 0.13 033 08 304 005 - 334 123 ♦ • 033 ♦ Ssasffcarr Seiasae ♦ • ♦ ♦ 366 1JW 3267.17 78423 467.77 591.76 88905 45627 4950 2431 41134 13454 4294 95 25 562? 1535 2210 201X2 9320 71.96 530 10.13 092 991 1021 45245.70 7.1M.76 495930 435736 1729653 6A572A 54655 25364 3394.73 137456 54592 6032 5030 044 23324 95131 32426 392.44 4425 77.56 6.14 6497 4193 53J5 9.14 1939 1433 1935 14.15 11X4 117 917 1211 796 720 2015 569 11.94 tn 348 5.45 L05 766 6.67 656 til Total 5 3463.12 48.93838 i 41721 ! 1,153.45 33033 5099103 12.91 Soorce: tnaopaa Agni iwxspie Eatsnctauos Resell for Ororasya < DaSavid&gd C5A 2fiO3>[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprist Station Deberzeit Element Rainfall (mm) Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual 1975 0.0 19.5 72.1 54.5 149.7 382.1 223.4 154.4 7.0 0.0 0.0 1976 0.0 0.0 71.1 106.0 80.7 102.9 230.9 232.2 42.2 3.8 35.2 0.8 905.8 1977 43.1 1.0 87.7 90.2 57.6 101.6 272.8 202.7 82.2 112.7 3.4 0.0 1055.0 1978 1.4 69.0 34.5 47.4 28.5 133.7 132.3 191.1 122.3 24.6 0.1 1979 77.7 0.0 54.7 13.5 76.0 110.9 224.9 187.6 83.8 12.6 0.0 0.0 841.7 1980 20.0 10.1 32.3 24.2 69.4 75.1 242.4 215.5 58.1 40.7 0.0 0.0 787.8 1981 0.0 20.5 164.2 62.1 7.1 35.8 294.6 151.8 162.8 4.2 0.0 1.2 904.3 1982 20.8 75.4 34.5 47.3 57.7 91.0 123.9 233.6 46.1 25.5 9.4 0.0 765.2 1983 0.0 10.2 62.8 105.2 209.5 149.4 128.8 344.8 88.6 23.4 0.0 0.0 1122.8 1984 0.0 0.0 19.3 0.0 108.7 80.7 220.5 217.3 85.0 0.0 0.0 3.6 735.2 1985 3.5 0.0 14.5 63.7 111.4 74.1 307.3 292.7 130.0 1.1 0.0 0.0 998.4 1986 81.8 116.9 120.6 11.3 0.0 0.0 1987 0.0 61.4 138.2 90.1 154.0 65.0 83.3 155.9 80.9 4.6 0.0 0.0 833.7 1988 8.0 15.9 6.0 44.7 36.8 100.7 146.0 236.8 121.4 16.7 0.0 0.0 733.0 1989 0.6 12.2 35.1 47.0 0.4 59.1 183.7 171.5 135.2 21.2 0.0 3.3 669.4 1990 0.0 123.3 58.2 86.4 36.6 76.0 224.0 173.2 102.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 880.2 1991 1992 1993 1994 0.0 29.2 19.5 19.6 74.5 232.8 187.3 108.6 0.0 10.2 0.0 1995 0.0 2.4 7.8 34.0 5.5 92.5 188.4 169.6 75.1 0.0 0.0 11.9 587.3 1996 16.4 0.0 103.1 55.3 105.4 261.5 164.1 275.6 90.0 0.1 5.9 0.0 1077.5 1997 27.8 0.0 26.7 74.8 13.6 121.7 235.8 171.8 71.4 99.9 10.9 0.0 854.5 1998 32.0 51.4 13.9 77.2 41.8 77.7 206.3 293.5 97.6 93.3 0.0 0.0 984.9 1999 0.5 0.0 36.6 0.0 10.0 176.9 298.7 258.6 48.7 90.9 0.0 0.0 920.9 2000 0.0 0.0 8.6 50.4 65.4 77.4 244.3 181.4 139.4 40.0 23.4 3.4 833.7 2001 0.0 4.6 166.4 21.8 104.0 79.5 242.3 143.4 64.3 38.2 0.0 0.0 864.5 2002 8.6 0.0 48.0 34.6 11.0 109.1 179.3 178.0 58.4 0.0 0.0 21.3 648.3 2003 38.3 55.4 64.4 100.3 21.1 81.4 277.9 285.5 120.0 6.0 3.6 35.4 1089.3 2004 Monthly 12.4 21.4 53.5 54.7 59.5 102.3 213.4 211.2 95.8 26.1 4.1 3.1 857.5 Max 77.7 123.3 166.4 106.0 209.5 261.5 382.1 344.8 162.8 Min 112.7 35.2 35.4 0.0 0.0 6.0 0.0 0.4 35.8 81.8 STDEV 116.9 42.2 0.0 19.4 0.0 33.1 0.0 46.2 31.7 51.2 45.8 71.7 54.8 33.7 75% 0.0 34.4 8.5 0.0 8.1 22.3 33.3 24.9 71.4 165.1 174.3 85% 73.0 0.0 0.0 2.8 0.0 0.0 567.1 5.6 21.8 6.4 54.8 139.1 154.5 60.8 Source : National Meteorology Agency,2007. [Ada^a-_Agronomy Feasibility Study For Irrigation Development Project] 0.0 0.0 0.0 443.0 iv[Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprisq Station Debere Zeit AF Element Wind speed m/s Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1994 1.6 1.6 1.9 2.0 1.4 1.3 1.0 1.1 2.0 1.6 1.6 1995 1.4 1.5 1.8 1.5 2.4 1.4 1.1 1.0 0.9 1.7 1.4 1.5 1996 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.5 1.5 1.4 1997 1.3 1.9 1.7 1.5 2.0 1.5 1.1 9.0 1.1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1998 1.5 1.3 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.9 1.3 1.4 1999 1.4 1.7 1.5 2.0 1.7 1.3 1.1 1.0 1.6 1.4 2000 1.5 1.7 .'.8 1.8 1.4 1.3 1.1 1.0 0.8 1.2 .3 .3 2001 1.1 1.3 .0 1.3 1.0 .1 1.0 0.9 0.9 .2 .4 .3 2002 1.2 1.3 .2 1.6 .3 .2 1.1 .0 1.0 2003 1.3 1.3 .6 1.3 2.0 .5 1.3 .0 0.9 .4 .5 1.4 2004 1.7 .6 1.3 .1 1.2 .6 .9 .7 Monthly 1.3 1.5 .5 1.6 1.7 .3 1.1 .7 1.0 1.4 .5 1.5 Max 1.5 1.9 .8 2.0 2.4 .6 1.3 ‘ 1.0 1.2 ; 1.0 .9 1 .7 Min 1.1 13 .0 1.3 1.0 .0 .0 1.9 1.8 1.9 .3 1 .3 STDEV 0.1 0.2 ).3 ).2 ).4 1.2 1.1 2 1.4 1.1 1.3 .2 0 .1 Source : National Meteorology Agency,2007. Debre zeit Station Climatic Data Summary Table, ETo, mm Month Max. Temp. °C Mini. Temp. °C Humidity % Wind Speec , km/d Sunshine ,hr Daily Montblyl January 26.1 8.6 37 172.8 8.7 4.7 145.7 February 27.3 10.1 35 198.7 8.4 5.3 148.4 March 28.3 11.5 39 207.4 8.1 5.7 176.7 April 28.1 12.1 43 207.4 7.5 5.5 165 May 28.9 11.2 4 198.7 8.3 5.6 173.6 June 27.5 11.4 52 1103.1 6/7~ 4.1 123 July 23.8 12.3 66 129.6 5.3 3.6 111.6 August 24 12.2 70 103.7 5.7 3.6 111.6 September 25 11.4 67 95 6.1 3.7 October 24.9 9 47 111 164.2 November 24.5 8.9 1.7 145.7 7.9 37 172 7.2 December 24.4 7.4 <1.3 135 36 164.2 Annual 26.1 7.5 k 10.4 1.4 136.4 47.4 145.6 1.7 |4.5 |l 683.7 | Source: National Meteorology Agency,2007. vCrop Water Requirement Analysis with another Suggested Cropping Pattern 3/1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3 ★★**************************************************************************** Crop Water Requirements Report ****************************************************************************** - Crop # : [All crops] - Block # : [All blocks] - Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) - Irrigation Efficiency = 70% Date ETo Planted Crop CWR Total Effect. Irr. FWS Area Kc (ETm) Rain Rain Req. (mm/period) (%) ------------------- (mm/period) ------------------------------- (1/s/ha) 1/1 44.47 6.00 0.06 2.73 0.00 0.00 2.73 0.05 11/1 45.82 6.00 0.06 2.82 0.00 0.00 2.82 0.05 21/1 47.05 6.00 0.06 2.89 0.11 0.11 2.78 0.05 31/1 48.12 6.00 0.06 2.96 0.41 0.38 2.58 0.04 10/2 48.98 6.00 0.06 3.01 0.64 0.56 2.46 0.04 20/2 49.63 6.00 0.06 3.05 0.80 0.70 2.36 0.04 2/3 50.03 6.00 0.06 3.07 - 0.89 0.79 2.28 0.04 12/3 50.21 6.00 0.06 3.05 0.92 0.85 2.20 0.04 22/3 50.17 6.00 0.06 3.02 0.92 0.88 2.14 1/4 49.93 0.04 6.00 0.06 2.97 0.91 0.90 11/4 2.07 49.52 6.00 0.03 0.06 2.92 0.92 0.92 21/4 48,96 2.00 6.00 0.03 0.06 2.85 0.98 0.98 1/5 48.28 6.00 1.88 0.06 0.03 2.78 1.11 1.06 11/5 47.53 15.00 1.72 0.08 0.03 3.95 3.37 21/5 46.72 21.00 2.99 0.96 0.10 0.02 4.67 5.64 31/5 45.90 21.00 4.71 0.00 0.10 0.00 4.54 6.91 10/6 45.09 36.00 5.43 0.22 0.00 0.00 10.12 20/6 44.32 14.43 63.50 10.79 0.38 0.00 0.00 16.87 30/6 43.62 30.01 66.00 21.61 0.43 0.00 18.54 0.00 10/7 43.00 66.00 35.85 25.14 0.48 0.00 20.64 0.00 20/7 42.48 66.00 39.96 0.56 27.51 0.00 0.00 30/7 42.07 23.66 76.00 42.97 0.69 29.26 0.00 28.83 0.00 9/8 41.77 76.00 51.15 0.76 34.70 31.57 0.00 0.00 19/8 41.60 76.00 50.54 0.80 34.40 33.11 0.00 0.00 29/8 41.54 76.00 0.80 47.36 32.59 33.17 0.52 0.01 8/9 41.58 76.00 41.52 0.79 29.19 32.80 3.98 0.07 18/9 41.72 74.50 0.75 33.25 24.30 31.34 8.50 0.14 28/9 41.93 61.00 22.86 0.63 17.95 26.22 13.40 0.22 8/10 42.21 61. CO C.54 10.14 9.28 18/10 42.51 22.96 16.95 2.67 0.28 51.00 0.39 2. f7 16.72 20.29 0.34 28/10 42.83 28.50 0.27 0.00 11.38 0.00 16.72 7/11 43.14 26.00 0.22 0.16 0.28 9.31 0.12 11.26 0.00 0.19 17/11 43.40 16.00 0.16 0.00 9.31 0.15 27/11 43.61 16.00 7.03 0.16 0.00 7.02 0.00 7.03 0.00 0.12 7/12 43.74 16.00 0.16 0.00 6.98 7.02 0.00 0.12 0.00 6.98 0.1217/12 27/12 43.77 21.86 16.00 16.00 0.16 0.16 6.91 3.43 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.91 3.43 0.11 0.11 Total 1649.10 449.91 447.41 320.76 163.26 {0.07] * ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. * Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. ****************************************************************************** C:\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADALCIR.TXT 3/1/2000 *********************************** CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3 ******************************************* Crop Water Requirements Report ************** **************************************************************** - Crop # 5 - Block # - Planting date - Calculation time step = io Day(s) - Irrigation Efficiency = 70% : Linseed : [All blocks] : 25/6 Date ETo (mm/period) (%) Planted Area Crop Kc CWR (ETm) Total Rain Effect. Rain Irr. Req. FWS (1/s/ha) 25/6 43.96 5.00 0.02 0.66 2.54 1.80 0.00 0.00a ■ 5/7 15/7 ■ 25/7 4/8 114/8 24/8 3/9 1 13/9 23/9 3/10 13/10 II 23/10 Total 549.47 43.30 42.72 42.26 41.91 41.67 41.55 41.55 41.64 41.82 42.06 42.36 42.67 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.65 0.95 1.51 2.05 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.29 2.30 2.00 1.45 0.9G 21.63 2.88 3.15 3.33 3.37 3.24 2.94 2.48 1.87 1.18 0.51 0.04 0.00 27.53 2.00 2.16 2.26 2.28 2.22 2.05 1.77 1.41 0.98 0.50 0.04 0.00 19.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.24 0.51 0.88 1.32 1.51 1.41 0.90 6.84 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 [0.01] * ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve U* Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve ************************************************ C:\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADOILIR.TXT . n n 3/1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3 ****************************************************************************** Crop Water Requirements Report Crop # 2 Block # Planting date : MAIZE (Grain) [All blocks] : 15/5 Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrigation Efficiency = 70% Date ETo Planted Crop CWR Total Effect. Irr. FWS Area Kc (ETm) Rain Rain Req. (mm/period) (%) ----- (mm/period) — (1/s/ha)15/5 47.21 15.00 0.05 2.12 3.57 3.10 0.00 0.00 25/5 46.39 15.00 0.05 2.09 4.37 3.56 0.00 0.00 4/6 45.57 15.00 0.05 2.28 5.34 4.11 0.00 0.00 14/6 44.78 15.00 0.08 3.60 6.41 4.72 0.00 0.00 24/6 44.03 15.00 0.11 5.03 7.52 5.35 0.00 0.00 4/7 43.36 15.00 0.15 6.41 8.54 5.94 0.47 0.01 14/7 42.78 15.00 0.18 7.55 9.39 6.43 1.12 0.02 24/7 42.30 15.00 0.18 7.61 9.95 6.76 0.86 0.01 3/8 41.94 15.00 0.18 7.55 10.11 6.86 0.69 0.01 13/8 41.69 15.00 0.18 7.50 9.79 6.68 0.82 0.01 23/8 41.56 15.00 0.17 7.26 8.95 6.20 1.06 0.02 2/9 41.54 15.00 0.14 5.95 7.59 5.41 0.54 0.01 12/9 41.63 15.00 0.11 4.51 5.80 4.34 0.17 0.00 22/9 20.87 15.00 0.08 1.71 2.14 1.71 0.01 0.00 Total 585.64 71.18 99.46 71.17 5.74 [0.01] * ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. * Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. ****************************************************************************** C: \CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADMAZIR. TXTCropWat 4 Windows Ver 4. 3/1/2000 ********************************************* jr> A a Crop Water Requirements Report ************************************ - Cron # 10 - Sock # - Planting date - Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) - Irrigation Efficiency = 70% : MAIZE 2 (Grain) : (AH blocks] : 10/10 M DI Date ETo (mm/period) Planted Area (%) Crop Kc CWR (ETm) Total Rain ----- (mm/1 Effect. Rain period) — Irr. Req. FWS (1/s/ha) M M M 10/10 42.27 10.00 20/10 42.58 10.00 30/10 42.89 10.00 9/11 43.19 10.00 19/11 43.45 10.00 29/11 43.64 10.00 9/12 43.75 10.00 19/12 43.76 10.00 29/12 44.10 10.00 M 8/1 18/1 28/1 7/2 17/2 45.42 10.00 46.70 10.00 47.82 10.00 48.75 10.00 24.65 10.00 0.03 1.27 0.26 0.26 0.03 1.28 0.00 0.00 0.03 1.43 0.06 0.05 0.05 2.32 0.00 0.00 0.08 3.31 0.00 0.00 0.10 4.30 0.00 0.00 0.12 5.15 0.00 0.00 0.12 5.25 0.00 0.00 0.12 5.29 0.00 0.00 0.12 5.45 0.00 0.00 0.12 5.44 0.06 0.06 0.10 4.56 0.56 0.53 0.07 3.52 0.96 0.84 0.05 1.35 0.60 0.52 1.01 0.02 1.28 0.02 1.39 0.02 2.32 0.04 3.31 0.05 4.30 0.07 5.15 0.09 5.25 0.09 5.29 0.09 5.45 0.09 5.38 0.09 4.03 0.07 2.67 0.04 0.83 0.03 I I 1 Total 602.98 49.92 2.51 2.26 47.66 [0.06] * ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. * Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. ***************************** **************************************♦*>***»**** C: \CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADMZIR2 . TXT * UJ/1/2000 ***********************************************************t********t******t* CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3 Crop Water Requirements Report |*ir**inlrti***tttt**tA**********t*********t**************************t****t***** | Crop # 6 : Potato | Block # : [All blocks] - Planting date : 10/6 j Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) I Irrigation Efficiency = 70% Bate ETo Planted Crop Area CWR (ETm) Total Kc Rain ---- (mtn/] Effect. Rain Irr. Req. (mm/period) (% ) perioa; “• FWS (1/s/ha) |0/6 45.09 10.00 0.05 2.25 3.98 2.98 0.00 0.00 20/6 44.32 10.00 0.05 2.22 4.72 3.40 0.00 0.00 30/6 43.62 10.00 0.05 2.32 5.43 3.81 0.00 0.00 JO/7 43.00 10.00 0.07 3.13 6.05 4.17 0.00 0.00 20/7 42.48 10.00 0.09 4.01 6.51 4.43 0.00 0.00 30/7 42.07 10.00 0.11 4.75 6.73 4.57 0.18 0.00 1/8 41.77 10.00 0.11 4.80 6.65 4.53 0.28 0.00 1-9/8 41.60 10.00 0.11 4.78 6.23 4.29 0.50 0.01 29/8 41.54 10.00 0.11 4.78 5.46 3.84 0.94 0.02 f/9 41.58 10.00 0.11 4.78 4.38 3.20 1.58 0.03 h/9 41.72 10.00 0.11 4.49 3.06 2.40 2.09 0.03 28/9 41.93 10.00 0.09 3.96 1.66 1.52 2.43 0.04 8/10 42.21 10.00 0.08 3.42 0.44 0.44 2.98 0.05 total 552.92 49.69 61.31 43.57 10.98 [0.01] r ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. * Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. **************************************** ************************* ************* L:\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADPOTIR.TXT/1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3 ***************************************************************************** Crop Water Requirements Report ***************************************************************************** Crop #11 Block # - Planting date : Pulses 2 : [All blocks] : 30/10 Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrigation Efficiency = 70% ETo Planted Crop Area Kc (mm/period) (%) Total Rain Effect. Rain Irr. Req. - (mm/period) --------------------------- 42.89 43.19 43.45 43.64 43.75 43.76 44.10 45.42 46.70 47.82 48.75 493.48 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 0.08 0.08 0.11 0.16 0.21 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.19 0.11 CWR (ETm) 3.43 3.46 4.67 6.87 9.08 10.07 10.14 10.45 10.74 8.89 5.16 82.96 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 1.13 1.93 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12 1.06 1.68 3.34 3.46 4.67 6.87 9.08 10.07 10.14 10.45 10.62 7.83 3.48 FWS (1/s/ha) 0.06 0.06 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.18 0.13 0.06 3.30 2.96 80.00 [0.12] ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. ***************************************************************************** :\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADPUIR2.TXT1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4. *************************************************************************** Crop # 4 Block # Planting date : Pulses : [All blocks] : 30/7 Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrigation Efficiency = 70% bte ETo (mm/period) Planted Area Crop Kc CWR Total (ETm) Rain ------ (mm/i Effect. Rain period) -- Irr. Req. (%) FWS (1/s/ha) 1/7 42.07 10.00 0.04 1.68 6.73 4.57 0.00 0.00 /8 41.77 10.00 0.04 1.67 6.65 4.53 0.00 0.00 t/8 41.60 10.00 0.05 2.24 6.23 4.29 0.00 0.00 b/8 41.54 10.00 0.08 3.27 5.46 3.84 0.00 0.00 /9 41.58 10.00 0.10 4.31 4.38 3.20 1.12 0.02 fc/9 41.72 10.00 0.11 4.80 3.06 2.40 2.40 0.04 p/9 /io 41.93 10.00 0.11 4.82 1.66 1.52 3.30 0.05 42.21 10.00 0.11 4.85 0.44 0.44 4.42 0.07 £/10 42.51 10.00 0.11 4.89 0.00 0.00 4.89 0.08 b/io 42.83 10.00 0.09 3.98 0.06 0.05 3.94 0.07 '/ii 43.14 10.00 0.05 2.29 0.00 0.00 2.29 0.04 fatal 462.90 38.80 34.67 24.82 22.34 [0.03] | ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. **tr****************************************************t***tttt **** * *** tt ttt t 1 : \CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADPUSIR. TXT /1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3★*★**★★★★★*★★★*★*★****★★*★★★★★★★★******************************************* Crop Water Requirements Report **************************************************************************** Crop # 3 Block # Planting date : Rice : (All : 15/6 blocks] Calc ulation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrig ation Efficiency =7 0% ate ETo Planted Crop CWR Total Effect. Irr. FWS Area Kc (ETm) Rain Rdlll Req. (mm/period) <%) (l/s/ha) 44.70 10.00 0.11 4.92 4.35 3.19 1.73 0.03 J/6 43.96 10.00 0.11 4.84 5.08 3.61 1.23 0.02 77 43.30 10.00 0.11 4.76 5.76 4.00 0.77 0.01 J/7 42.72 10.00 0.11 4.70 6.31 4.32 0.38 0.01 f/7 42.26 10.00 0.11 4.65 6.65 4.52 0.13 0.00 41.91 10.00 0.11 4.61 6.73 4.57 0.04 0.00 .4/8 41.67 10.00 0.11 4.58 6.48 4.43 0.15 0.00 B/8 41.55 10.00 0.11 4.57 5.89 4.09 0.4 0 u. Ul 1/9 41.55 10.00 0.11 4.57 4.95 3.54 1.03 0.02 .3/9 41.64 10.00 0.11 4.58 3.74 2.81 1.77 0.03 tf/9 41.82 10.00 0.11 4.60 2.36 1.97 2.63 0.04 l/io 42.06 10.00 0.11 4.63 1.01 0.99 3.63 0.06 ^3/10 42.36 10.00 0.11 4.66 0.09 0.09 4.57 0.08 >3/10 42.67 10.00 0.11 4.64 0.00 0.00 4.64 0.08 |/11 42.99 10.00 0.11 4.59 0.06 0.05 4.54 0.08 ■2/11 43.27 10.00 0.10 4.52 0.00 0.00 4.52 0.07 ’2/11 43.51 10.00 0.10 4.46 0.00 0.00 4.46 0.07 e/12 43.68 10.00 0.10 4.38 0.00 0.00 4.38 0.07 I2/12 43.77 10.00 0.10 4.29 0.00 0.00 4.29 0.07 12/12 43.75 10.00 0.10 4.20 0.00 0.00 4.20 0.07 Botal 855.14 91.74 59.47 42.18 49.57 [0.04] ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. w**************************************************************************** C:\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADRICIR.TXT 3/1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3■ ■ ■ i* **************************************************************************** Crop Water Requirements Report j* **************************************************************************** - Crop #12 Block # Planting date : Potato : [All blocks] : 20/10 Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrigation Efficiency = 70% Date ETo Planted Crop B CWR Total Effect. Irr. (ETm) Rain FWS Area Kc Rain Req. j (mm/period) (%) Ljj0/10 42.58 20.00 (mm/period) -------------------------------------------------- (1/s/ha) 0.10 4.26 0.00 0.00 4.26 0.07 ■ 0/10 42.89 20.00 0.10 4.29 0.13 0.09 4.20 0.07 r^/ii 43.19 20.00 0.11 4.60 0.00 0.00 4.60 0.08 . - A9/11 43.45 20.00 0.15 6.32 0.00 0.00 6.32 0.10 ■ 9/11 HuH /12 fl "5’/ -LZ. 43.64 20.00 0.19 8.24 0.00 0.00 8.24 0.14 43 75 20 00 0 23 9 87 0 00 0.00 9.87 0.16 1 19/12 43.76 20.00 0.23 10.07 0.00 0.00 10.07 0.17 LmM9/12 44.10 20.00 0.23 10.14 0.00 0.00 10.14 0.17 ■ /I 45.42 20.00 0.23 10.45 0.00 0.00 10.45 0.17 18/1 46.70 20.00 0.23 10.74 0.12 0.12 10.62 0.18 I—.38/1 47.82 20.00 0.22 10.29 1.13 1.06 9.23 0.15 ____ 1/2 48.75 20.00 0.19 9.20 1.93 1.68 7.51 0.12 ^^7/2 49.46 20.00 0.16 8.01 2.53 2.19 5.82 0.10 otal 585.51 106.48 5.83 5.15 101.33 [0.13] ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. ***************************************************************************** !: \CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADVEGIR2 . TXT CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3Crop # 1 Block # Planting date Crop Water Requirements Report **************************************************************************** : Spring Wheat : [All blocks] : 20/6 Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrigation Efficiency = 70% ETo Planted Crop Area Kc (mm/period) (%) CWR Total Effect. (ETm) Rain Rain Irr. Req. FWS -------------------- (mm/period) -------------------------------- (1/s/ha) tf/6 44.32 20.00 0.06 2.66 9.44 6.80 0.00 0.00 B/6 43.62 20.00 0.06 2.62 10.86 7.62 0.00 0.00 “/7 43.00 20.00 0.06 2.58 12.11 8.33 0.00 0.00 !0/7 42.48 20.00 0.09 3.87 13.02 8.87 0.00 0.00 42.07 20.00 0.15 6.22 13.46 9.13 0.00 0.00 41 77 X V7 • W0 00 V V • Z0 2-0. V 8 54 13.30 9.05 0.00 0.00 .9/8 41.60 20.00 0.23 9.57 12.46 8.58 0.99 0.02 |f/8 41.54 20.00 0.23 9.55 10.93 7.68 1.87 0.03 ■9 41.58 20.00 0.23 9.56 8.75 6.39 3.17 0.05 (.8/9 41.72 20.00 0.23 9.60 6.11 4.80 4.79 0.08 tf/9 41.93 20.00 0.20 8.34 3.33 3.04 5.29 0.09 ■''10 42.21 20.00 0.14 6.00 0.87 0.87 5.12 0.08 ft/10 42.51 20.00 0.09 3.63 0.00 0.00 3.63 0.06 82.74 114.65 81.17 24.88 [0.03] b ptal 550.35 ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. IT***************************************************************************** ":\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADWHTIR.TXT 3/1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3*************************t***************t**************************t*tt***1r** Crop Water Requirements Report ****************************************** ************************************ Crop # 9 Block # Planting date : Spring Wheat : [All blocks] : 15/10 Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrigation Efficiency = 70% Date ETo (mm/period) Planted Area Crop Kc CWR (ETm) Total Rain ----- (mm/i Effect. Rain period) -- Irr. Req. (%) FWS (1/s/ha) 15/10 42.42 10.00 0.03 1.27 0.03 0.03 1.25 0.02 25/10 42.74 10.00 0.03 1.28 0.01 0.01 1.27 0.02 4/11 43.05 10.00 0.03 1.29 0.05 0.04 1.25 0.02 14/11 43.33 10.00 0.05 1.98 0.00 0.00 1.98 0.03 24/11 43.55 10.00 0.07 3.22 0.00 0.00 3.22 0.05 4/12 43.71 10.00 0.10 4.47 0.00 0.00 4.47 0.07 14/12 43.77 10.00 0.11 5.03 0.00 0.00 5.03 0.08 24/12 43.78 10.00 0.11 5.03 0.00 0.00 5.03 0.08 3/1 44.75 10.00 0.11 5.15 0.00 0.00 5.15 0.09 13/1 46.08 10.00 0.11 5.30 0.00 0.00 5.30 0.09 23/1 47.28 10.00 0.10 4.70 0.29 0.28 4.41 0.07 2/2 48.31 10.00 0.07 3.43 0.77 0.69 2.74 0.05 12/2 49.13 10.00 0.04 2.10 1.13 0.98 1.12 0.02 Total 581.88 44.25 2.28 2.03 42.23 [0.05] * ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. * Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. ****************************************************************************** C:\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADWTIR2.TXT /1/2000 CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3 Crop # 9 Block # Planting date Calculation time step = Crop Water Requirements Report : Spring Wheat : [All blocks] : 15/10 10 Day(s)rrigation Efficiency = 70% .te ETo Planted Area Crop Kc CWR (ETm) Total Rain Effect. Rain Irr. Req. FWS (mm/period) (%) _— — — __ ( m\mm/mno/pcKi i XUU/ — — (1/s/ha) j'lO 42.42 10.00 0.03 1.27 0.03 0.03 1.25 0.02 rio 42.74 10.00 0.03 1.28 0.01 0.01 1.27 0.02 n 43.05 10.00 0.03 1.29 0.05 0.04 1.25 0.02 43.33 10.00 0.05 1.98 0.00 0.00 1.98 0.03 l11 43.55 10.00 0.07 3.22 0.00 0.00 3.22 0.05 "12 43.71 10.00 0.10 4.47 0.00 0.00 4.47 0.07 ./12 43.77 10.00 0.11 5.03 0.00 0.00 5.03 0.08 |/12 43.78 10.00 0.11 5.03 0.00 0.00 5.03 0.08 44.75 10.00 0.11 5.15 0.00 0.00 5.15 0.09 1/1 46.08 10.00 0.11 5.30 0.00 0.00 5.30 0.09 1/1 47.28 10.00 0.10 4.70 0.29 0.28 4.41 0.07 48.31 10.00 0.07 3.43 0.77 0.69 2.74 0.05 V2 49.13 10.00 0.04 2.10 1.13 0.98 1.12 0.02 leal 581.88 44.25 2.28 2.03 42.23 [0.05] [ETo data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. [Rainfall data is distributed using polynomial curve fitting. >***♦*★***★**★************************♦***★*****♦*★♦*★*★**♦*♦**★***★**♦****** f\CROPWATW\REPORTS\ADWTIR2.TXT h h h /1/2000 *************************************************** *** * CropWat 4 Windows Ver 4.3 Crop # 7 Block # Planting date t to tootttottttttM Crop Water Requirements Report |, *o******************o*****o**oow*owiooti(tot ************************ : MANGO : [All blocks] : 18/6 Calculation time step = 10 Day(s) Irrigation Efficiency = 70% . IBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Becho AgronomyBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy Table of contents TABLE OF CONTENTS .••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••*••******•**•*•**••*•**•••***••••*** ************* LIST OF TABLES-~~ * VII LIST OF ANNEXES................................................................................................... ACRONYMS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY VIE 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. General Background 1.2. National and Regional Agricultural Policies 1.2.1. National Agricultural Policies 1.2.2. Regional Agricultural Programs 1.3 . BECHO PLAIN IRRIGATION PROJECT———————————————— 1.3.1. Becho Ground Water Irrigation Project 1.4. Scope of Study 2. LAND USE, AGROCLIMATIC ZONES AND CLIMATE*.**..— 1.5. Approaches and Methodology................................................................................................... .......... * 2.1 Land use< 2.3 .Climate 2.4 . Temperature 2.5 . Relative Humidity 2.6 . Wind Speed.................................................................................... 2.7. Sunshine Hour................................................... .............................. 2.8. Rainfall............................................................................................. 2.9. Reference Evapo-Transpiration (ETo) 3.2 . Oromiya Regional Status of Production 3.5. Crop yields 3.6. Soils 3.8. Cultural practices 4. AGRICULTURAL SUPPORT SERVICES" 4.2. Credits 4.3. Storage of grains 4.4. Marketing 4.5. Agricultural research centers 5. CONSTRAINTS AND POTENTIALS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 5.1. Major Production and Development Constraints 5.1.1.1. Improved Varieties.............................. 5.1.2. Shortage of Draft Power 5.1.3. Problem of Drainage............................... f I I .11 .11 .1! .2( .21 .21 .21 .2! .2! .3: 3 .3 3 3.Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 5.1.4. Natural Hazards 5 1 5 Poor Research, Extension and Farmers Linkage..................................................................... 5 1 6 Inadequate Extension Service 5.1.7. Poor or Inadequate Rural Credit 5.2. Productions potentials 5.2.1. Cropping systems 5.2.3. Climate of the Project Command area 5.2.4. Response of Crops to Irrigation..................................................................... 5.2.5. Economic Considerations.................................................................................................. 5.2.6. Marketability of Crops ........................................................................... •: 5.2.7. Existing Crops and their Categories..................................................................................................... 6. PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN AND CROP CALENDAR3 6.1. 6.2. 6.3. Introduction------------------------------------------------------------ Crop Planning The Existing Crop Calendar in Becho Plain 3 7. CROP WATER REQUIRMENT.. 7.1. Introduction 7.2. Procedure for Calculation46 7.2.1. Calculation of Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo)46 7.2.2. Selection of Values for Crop Coefficient:—46 7.2.3. Effect of Agricultural Practice and Local Conditions46 7.2.4. Sources of Climatic Data............................................................................ ....................................... 47 7.2.5. Estimation of ETo................................................................................................................................. 47 7.2.6. Cropping Pattern.. 47 7.2.7. Planting Dates and Crop Calendar47 7.2.8. Crop Coefficient (Kc) 7. 3. Irrigation System and Water Application Efficiencies50 7.4. Irrigation Scheduling and Water Management 8.0. CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES 8.1. 8.2. Introduction 8.2.1. 8.2.3. 8.2.4. 8.2.5. 8.2.6. 8.2.7. 8.2.8. Maize, Zea mays.......................... Introduction............................. Varieties Climatic conditions Soils Field Preparation Time and method of sowing Seed rate ................... .. 8.2.9. 8.2.10. 8.2.11. 8.2.12. 8.2.13. 8.2.14. 51 ..... 51 51 ....51 ....52 ...52 ...52 ...52 ..53 Manure and Fertilizer Interculture Water requirements... " Inter cropping Harvesting and yield Pests and disease controls w 1 ..53 • 9. .53 • i .... .53 • • • i • • • • .54 •*• •* ...54 <4 ...54 ...54 iiBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.2.15. Chemical Control Measures Include____________________________________________ 8.3. Wheat (Triticum spp.) 8.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................... 8.3.2. Varieties .............................................................................................................................. 8.3.3. Climatic Conditions.. 8.3.4. Soils 8.3.5. Crop rotation 8.3.6. Field Preparation......................................................................................................... 8.3.7. Time and method of sowing................................................................................................ 8.3.8. Seed rate and spacing— 8.3.9. Manure and Fertilizers‘ 8.3.10. Interculture—- 8.3.11. Water requirement-5 8.3.12. Harvesting~...............................................................................................................5 8.3.13. Yield......................................................................................................................... 5 8.3.14. Pest and diseases control5 8.4. Field peas (Pisum Sativum L.)6 8.4.1. Introduction61 8.4.2. Varieties6( 8.4.3. Climatic conditions—6( 8.4.4. Soil-.......................................................................................................................... 6C 8.4.5. Cropping System61 8.4.6. Field Preparation_...61 8.4.7. Time and method of Sowing61 8.4.8. Seed rate and Spacing—61 8.4.9. Manuring61 8.4.10 Interculture61 8.4.11. Water Requirement 8.4.12. Harvesting and Yield 8.4.13. Pests and Diseases Control 8.5. Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.)63 8.5.1. Introduction63 8.5.2. Varieties63 8.5.3. Climatic Conditions63 62 62 8.5.4. Soils...................................................................................................... ................63 8.5.5. Cropping system63 8.5.6. Time and Method of Sowing64 8.5.7. Seedrate and Spacing64 8.5.8. Manuring64 8.5.9. Interculture.......................................................................................................... 64 8.5.10. Water Requirement............................................................................................. 64 8.5.11. Harvesting 64 8.5.12. Yield 8.5.13. Pests and Diseases,.............................................................................................65 8.5.14. Integrated Pest management .............................................................................65 8.6.1. Introduction65 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise illBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.6.2. Varieties 8.6.3. Climatic Conditions 8.6.4. 8.6.5. 8.6.6. 8.6.7. 8.6.8. 8.6.9. 8.6.10. 8.6.11. 8.6.12. 8.6.13. 8.6.14. 8.7. 8.7.1. 8.7.2. 8.7.3. 8.7.4. 8.7.5. 8.7.6. 8.7.7. 8.7.8. 8.7.9. 8.7.10. 8.7.11. 8.7.12. 8.7.13. Soils Cropping system Field preparation Time and method of sowing Seed rate and spacing.. Manuring Interculture Water Requirement......... Harvesting Yield Pests and Diseases Fababeans (Vicia faba L.) Introduction Varieties Climatic conditions Soils Field preparation Time and method of sowing Seed rate and spacing Manuring Interculture >•« Water Harvesting Yield requirement Pests and diseases................... 8.8. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) 8.8.1. 8.8.3. 8.8.4. 8.8.5. 8.8.6. 8.8.7. 8.8.8. 8.8.9. 8.8.10. 8.8.11. 8.8.12. 8.8.13. 8.8.14. 8.8.15. 8.8.16. Introduction Climate Soils Propagation Seed plot technique Seed size and spacing Pre-sprouting of Seeds Seed-bed Preparation Time and Method of Planting Manuring Interculture Irrigation Harvesting and Post-harvest Management Physiological disorders Diseases and Insect-pests........................... 8.9. Onion (Allium Cepa) 8.9.1. 8.9.2. Introduction Varieties Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise iv8.9.3. 8.9.4. 8.9.5. 8.9.6. 8.9.7. 8.9.8. 8.9.9. 8.9.10. 8.9.11. 8.9.12. 8.9.13. 8.9.14. 8.9.15. 8.9.16. 8.9.17. Climate Soils Planting Transplanting Nursery Raising... Planting by bulbs. Direct Sowing Planting by Sets .... Manuring Inter Culture Irrigation Harvesting Yield Post - harvest management Insect-pests 8.10. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) 8.10.1. 8.10.2. 8.10.3. 8.10.4. 8.10.5. 8.10.6. 8.10.7. 8.10.8. 8.10.9. 8.10.10. 8.10.11. 8.10.12. 8.10.13. 8.10.14. Introduction Varieties Climate Soils Nursery Raising Planting Training and pruning Manuring Interculture and aftercare irrigation Harvesting Yield Physiological Disorders Diseases and Pests 8.11. Cabbage (Brassica Oleracea var. Capitata) 8.11.1. 8.11.2. Introduction Varieties 8.11.3. Climate............................................................................. 8.11.4. 8.11.5. 8.11.6. 8.11.7. 8.11.8. 8.11.9. Soils Planting Manuring.......................................................................... Interculture Irrigation Harvesting 8.11.10. Yield 8.11.11. Diseases and Insect-Pests... 8.17. Improvement of Grasslands 8.17.1. 8.17.2. 8.17.3. Protection from grazing Bush cleaning ReseedingBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.17.4. Fertilizer application 8.17.5. Grazing Management' 8.17.6. Silvopastoral management 9. COST OF CULTIVATION AND RETURNS UNDER PRE AND POST PROJECT PERIOD 9.1. INTRODUCTION5 10. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND STORAGE------------------ ---------------------------------101 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Post Harvest Losses 10.3. Post harvest Operation and Value addition Unit operations 10.4. Post Harvest Technology 10.4.1. Rice or Paddy 10.4.2. Wheat 10.4.3. Maize 10.4.4. Pulses ...101 ...101 ...102 ..102 ..102 103 103 10.4.5. Oil Seeds-.............................................................................................................................................. 104 10.4.6. Fruits and Vegetables104 10.5. Storage104 10.6. Conclusion105 11. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 11.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................. 106 11.2. Status of Agricultural Research in Ethiopia................................. ........................................106 11.3. Status of Oromiya-National Regional Research107 11.3.1. Holetta Agricultural Research Center107 11.3.2. Research Atrategies for Becho Irrigation Project107 12. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 13. REFERENCES.................. .. w „.1I2Bee ho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy List of tables Table 2. 1. Categories of agro climatic zones and area coverage in Becho plain.............................. ........—................... 8 Table 2.2. Summary of meteorological characteristic of the project command area................... _ ~..............................10 Table 3.1. Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of Major Crops for Peasant Holdings in Ethiopia, 2003 - 2004.................................................................................................................................. 11 Table 3.4. Cropped areas and yield under rain fed production system in Becho plain................................... ............... 16 Table 3.5. Total cropped area and yield under rain fed and irrigation production system in Becho plain. 21 Table 3.6. Cultivation of improved crop varieties in Becho plain, 2007...................... ............................................... -22 Table 3.7. Supply & utilization of agricultural inputs in Becho plain, 2007............................................................ ™.23 Table 3.8. Crops and incidence of Insect pests & diseases in Becho plain, 2007.......................................................... 25 Table 3.9. Percent wise distribution of the cropping systems used in Becho plain, 2007.................. ...........„25 Table 3.10. Commonly found weeds in major crops of Becho plain, 2007........................................................... ....... 27 Table 4.1. On-farm generated/evaluated crop varieties by Holetta Research Center.....................................................30 Table 6.1. Proposed crop rotation scheme during the rainy and dry seasons................................................................ 42 Table 6.2. Proposed Cropping Pattern and Crop Calendar for the Project Command Area.......................................... 44 Table 7.1. Summary of CWR & NIR for Becho Plain Irrigation Development on a 100 ha Command Area.................................................................................................... „.................. ... ...................................49 Table 7.2. Water Application Efficiencies .................................................................................................................... 50 Table 9.1. Cost of Cultivation and Returns from Principal Crops under Pre and Post Project Periods 92 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise viiBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy List of Annexes Annex I - Existing land use in Becho plain.........................................................................................................11 Annex II - Estimated Maximum Tempeature at Becho plain (in °C)................................................................. 11 Annex III - Estimated Minimum Tempeature at Becho plain (in °C)................................................................ J1 Annex IV - Estimated Relative Humidity at Becho plain (in percent)............................................................. 111 Annex V - Estimated Mean Daily Sunshine Duration at Becho plain Project Area (in hrs/day)............................................................................................................................................................... Ill Annex VI - Estimated Mean Monthly Rainfall at Becho Plain Project Area (in mm)......................................119 Annex VII - Results of the household agronomic survey in Becho Project Command Area...........................121 Annex VIII- Crop Seeds requirement for Becho plain project command area, 2007.......................................133 Annex IX - The Existing Operational Crop Calendar in Becho Plain, 2007....................................................134 Annex X - Crop Water Requirement (CWR) and Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) of Crops during the Rainy/A/eAer Cropping Season in Becho plain on 100 ha command area 137 Annex XI - Crop Water Requirement (CWR) and Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) of Crops during the 'Dry!Belg Cropping Season in Becho plain on 100 ha command area 147 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise viiiBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agroaomy ACRONYMS ADLI AIDB HARC BC ratio BOA BOFED Cm CBE DA DAP EC Ece EIAR ETo ETB ETFRUIT FAO g GDP GOE ha HYV Agricultural Development Led Industrialization Agriculture and Industrial Development Bank Holetta Agricultural Research Center Benefit Cost ratio Bureau of Agriculture Bureau of Finance and Economic Development Centimeter Central Bank of Ethiopia Development Agent Di-ammonium Phosphate Ethiopian Calendar Electrical Conductivity Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research Reference Evapo transpiration Ethiopia Birr Ethiopian Fruit Food and Agriculture Organization gram Gross Domestic Products Government of Ethiopia Hectare High Yielding Variety I & D IPR Kc Kg K2O It m M M.D mm Irrigation and Drainage Intellectual Property Right Crop Coefficient Kilogram Potassium Oxide Liter Meter Million Man day millimeter MoA&RD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development MPTs NCR N NGO OD ONRS P2O5 q Multipurpose Trees National Commodity Research center Nitrogen Non Government Organization Oxen-day Oromiya National Regional State Phosphorus Pent Oxide Quintal RH RARCU SAERAR Sec STC WTO Relative Humidity Regional Agricultural Coordination Unit Sustainable Agriculture and Environment Rehabilitation Program Second Science and Technology Commission World Trade Organization 0 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise ixBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Executive Summary Becho plain Ground Water Irrigation Project is one of the very two projects proposed to be considered under Oromiya National Regional State. Based on the ground water potential of the Becho plain this project has been confirmed earlier by the different agencies. This became important to carry out for the development of irrigation project for the purpose of food security. The actual gross study area of the project is over 20,000 of land the net assumed irrigable area will be around 10,000 ha land. And still upon further study the net area could be extended. This phase study of the project command involves the overall crop production especially irrigation agronomy to integrate the irrigated crop production system with various types of field and horticultural crops, all the post harvest management of the products for the best benefit of the producer with out any harm to the environment. The very scope, approach and methodology of the study include various broad aspect views of the existing farming system of the area, crops and production practices etc. in the light of the prevailing soils and climatic conditions and the feasibility and prospects of enhancement of productivity and production by introducing irrigated production system. The soil and climatic situation have already been identified that the area is suitable for the cultivation of cereals, pulses oil seeds and horticultural crops under rain fed condition. The meteorology characteristics are favorable for growth and production of many crops. The command area and the surrounding population current problem is the food in security due to low farm productivity. The highest coverage in the command area is teff among cereals chickpea among pulses. The others crops coverage is presented in figures and cultural practices are also tabulated in the report. The farming is at subsistence level and traditional. The improved technologies have not reached to the farmers due to inadequate extension service. The farmers are rarely using improved varieties, quality seeds, fertilizers, agro-chemicals, farm implements and improved farm tools. The credit facilities are poor and farmers with low resources have no access to obtain the required amount. As a result, the farm productivity is deteriorating. Keeping in view of the production potential of the command area, soils, climate and government policy towards agriculture to attain food self sufficiency, production of cash and industrial crops for export and import substitute by full and efficient utilization of land and water resources while maintaining the environmental balance properly. Suitable cropping pattern and cropping systems have been selected with inclusion of most appropriate potential crops of high quality. The crop calendar has been prepared for calculation of their actual crop water requirement under irrigated agricultural system. The crop water requirement of each crop included has been calculated following the procedure recommended in FAO publication for calculation of reference (ETo) by using Pennman Montith Approach (FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 46). Suitable crop coefficient were selected for different stages of growth to calculate crop water requirement by considering the agricultural practices, climatic parameters, cropping pattern , cropping calendar , cropping intensity etc. The crop production packages of Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 1Becho Plain Fosibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy important field and horticultural crops have been given considering the irrigated production system with optimum inputs and production practices to achieve reasonable yield per unit of land. The major crops included are: Cereals: Rice, Tef, Wheat, Barley, Maize and Sorghum. Pulses: Haricot bean, Chickpea, Lentil, Faba bean, Field pea, Grass pea. Vegetable : Potato, Tomato , Onion , Garlic To some extent the possibility of rural based agro — industry and post harvest loss has been indicated. In the process of crop budgeting the cost of cultivation of important crops under irrigated production system involving improved production technology have been worked out to project the expected income. Similarly, the cost of cultivation of crops under rain fed / existing production condition have been calculated to compare the benefit. Among the crops, maize is the most beneficiary crop identified. The status of irrigation agronomy research has been discussed briefly. Holetaa Agricultural Research Center has been identified as the most appropriate center to carry out research for the command area. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 2Becho Plain Fusibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. General Background Food, Nutrition and Environmental security are of paramount importance globally, especially so in developing countries. About 800 million people in the developing world do not have enough to eat; another 34 million people in industrialized nation also suffer from chronic food insecurity. The world food grain production was 1881 million tones in 1997, which was above the previous record of 1869 million tones in 1996. However, the availability per person dropped from 324kg in 1996 to 322 kg subsequently. More than this, the availability of the food to the poorest section of people globally, is an issue of greater concerns. The problem of food and nutritional security is more critical among the African countries due to various reasons. The world population is expected to grow from 6.0 billion to a minimum saturation level of 8.5 billions by 2020. More than 95 percent of this additional population will be residing in the developing countries. The prospects of food security for them therefore remain bleak. The population of Ethiopia itself has reached from 50.3 million in 1990 to about 68 million and likely to increase even more with rapid rate in spite of measures taken by Ethiopian Federal Government. In South Asia and Africa, two out of five children remain malnourished, despite distinct improvement in per capital food availability. Attaining food security does not mean only producing sufficient food. It is directly related to hunger, which in turn is very closely related to poverty. Hunger and malnutrition do not exist in isolation. They are intrinsically linked with other issues such as environmental factors, social and cultural factors and other related factors such as health, education etc. Food security is not an issue of aggregate food production but household income and poverty. This issue calls for an enhanced production and productivity at the holdings of individual farmers, by making arrangements for the timely availability of desired inputs which may include capacity building, new technologies and irrigation water and other production inputs. In this process, adequate precaution is to be taken to conserve the natural resources by making their judicious use. In Ethiopia, agriculture and allied activities have been described as the main sources of many of the raw materials, investment capital, and foreign exchange and labor needed for economic growth. Improving the performance of agriculture sector is, therefore, of critical importance for fast development of countries economy. In spite of its importance, the agriculture in this country is characterized by its low productivity mainly due to limited use of improved agro-techniques, production inputs and continuous degradation of natural resources like soil. This has affected the food security and environmental stability of the country adversely at the face of prevailing rapid and uncontrolled growth of population. Due to increase in population, most of lands available for crop production have exhausted. Therefore, the only option left with the government is to enhance the crop productivity per unit area to feed the growing population. According to the census report (CSA 2003), 90% of the total cropped area is occupied by grain crops. The other Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 3Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy crops like vegetables, root crops and perennial or permanent crops are occupying only limited hectarage. 1.2. National and Regional Agricultural Policies 1.2.1. National Agricultural Policies The Federal government of Ethiopia have initiated and introduced a number of reforms aimed at transforming the previously centralized economic policy to new and free marketing economy. The agricultural strategy currently in use was formulated based on characterizing of agricultural sectors and outlining the major issues and constraints hindering production and productivity of the sector in the country. The strategy formulated is called "Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI)." The main objectives of the strategy are: • Improving quality of life of rural people, • Increasing production of food supply in order to feed not only the population of the sector but also the population of other sectors, • Increase and diversify the production of raw materials for industry, • Increase and diversify the production of export and • To make agriculture the driving force for economic development. The objectives have been aimed to be met through improvement of productivity of small holders farming and commercial extensive and intensive agricultural development. 1.2.2. Regional Agricultural Programs Oromiya National Regional State (ONRS) has also adopted the federal agricultural development strategy and formulated the same depending on the resource, social and political condition of the region for a period of five years. 1.3 . Becho Plain Irrigation Project Becho plain is located in Oromiya national regional state covering vast areas in south western administrative zone of Shoa. Becho plain is a flat land situated between Tefki and Teji villages. The plain is intersected by the Awash River and many of its tributaries which descend the steep slopes of the upland hills from which they originate. The project command area is lying in the three woredas of Becho palin, namely, Becho (consisting of 4 kebeles), Dawo (consisting of 3 kebeles) and Ilu (consisting of 4 kebeles). The greatest part of the project command area lies in Becho and Dawo woredas. On the basis of irrigation potential indicated by various internal and external agencies and policy of Ethiopian Federal government on food security, it has been planned to develop irrigated agriculture in Becho plain command area using ground water resource as source of water to increase the yields of field and horticultural crops of the woredas. The gross project command area is 20,000 hectares. Of which, the net irrigable area is estimated to be about 10,000 hectares. To exploit the available water resource and increase the production of crops and productivity of irrigable farm lands of the woredas, a feasibility study on irrigation agronomy has been proposed to be conducted in Becho plain project command area. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 4Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy The objective of the study is to improve the existing crop production practices through improved crop production technologies by integrating irrigation agronomy. The changed circumstances especially the adoption of improved technologies and diversification of crops is likely to boost production, avoid risk of crop failure & ascertain minimum or nil environmental calamities than the previous age old production practices. The project command area can be accessed through the all weather Addis Ababa-Jimma road. Moreover, Parts of the command area that protrude inside from the left and right side of the main road can be accessed through the dry weather roads. 1.3.1. Becho Ground Water Irrigation Project Becho ground water irrigation project is one of the projects proposed to be considered in the Becho plain area of Oromya National Region State covering a part of 1 zone namely South west Shoa. Because of ground water irrigation potential indicated by various internal and external agencies and policy of Ethiopian Federal government on food security. It has been planned to develop irrigated agriculture in the Becho command area using Ground Water as a source of water to increase the yields of field and horticultural crops and other related enterprises in the Becho plain. 1.4. Scope of Study The overall program of the Project in the Project command area is to develop the agricultural production namely field crops and horticulture. Keeping in view the climatic and soil parameters in the existing socioeconomic conditions both under rain fed and irrigated agro-ecosystem. While making the appropriate agricultural plan for project command, the overarching concerns would be of nutritional and livelihood security, Poverty alleviation, profitability, gender equity, ecology and environment, and competitiveness in terms of cost and quality. This will include the following broad aspects: • Study of existing farming systems and agricultural development pattern of project command area in association with socio-economic situations. • Selection of most suitable crops, fruits, vegetables and their most appropriate development with suitable economic return for different size of irrigated farm holdings. • System approach having economically dynamic and efficient cropping patterns involving selected food and cash crops and other enterprises suitable under the prevailing climate, soils and added irrigation conditions. • Identification of most appropriate agro-techniques and input support services for the farmers for increased farm productivity. • Need assessment and introduction of improved post harvest technologies and value addition. Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 5Bccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 1.5. Approaches and Methodology Comprehensive questionnaires including all required parameters of faming and house holds were developed and administered to the farmers of randomly selected kebeles of command area. After the collection of this information for the command area, the same have been analyzed and critically evaluated for the development of agricultural plans as per the objectives listed above. The secondary data have already been collected from several government offices responsible for the development of area and used in preparation of the plan. The details of existing status of farming have been given in subsequent chapter of the report. This has helped in obtaining the information on crops, varieties being grown, the existing potential under both rain fed and available irrigated production system. This will further include the study of current farming system, crop rotation and cropping intensity, the status of agricultural support services, strength and weaknesses of present research - extension- farmers' linkages including its impact on technology generation, assessment, refinement, dissemination and adoption. The study also included the type and number of crops being grown, their socio-economic importance and marketability to decide on the future crops to be included in the selected cropping plans in the light of the country’s need. Efforts have been made to select the crops, cropping pattern with appropriate varieties that may be adaptable to the present soil, climatic, socio-economic situations of the project command and are responsive to irrigation water, and other production inputs giving high and sustainable yield. The crop budget and yield projection of the system has been worked out taking important crops. The water requirement of duly selected crops and cropping pattern has also been worked out following standard scientific procedures suggested by FAO, I & D Paper No. 56. The important agricultural constraints have been studied and analyzed to formulate suitable development strategies including rural based agro-industries. Based on the above the suitable integrated and sustainable system for production has been suggested. 2. LAND USE, AGROCLIMATIC ZONES AND CLIMATE 2.1 Land use Land is one of the most essential natural resources, which is non-renewable. It supports life in all forms through various production systems and provides social environments in terms of shelter, roads and other facilities. The land has several constraints like it cannot be enlarged to meet the growing needs. It is subjected to various types of degradations like erosion, salinization, water logging, creation of ravines and gullies etc. Therefore, utmost efforts should be made to manage the existing land resources as efficiently as possible In Becho Project Command area, the major part of the area is dominantly cultivated. The lower lands are moderately cultivated. The cropping intensity, within the cultivated existing farmland varies from high 80% to low 5-10%. On an average, the Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 6Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy estimated present cropping intensity is less than 70%. Since the farmland is part of land cover, the overall land use intensity is less than 25 %, though large area of land has a good potential for cultivation. The low cropping intensity reflects the role of biomass energy in farming system and the associated requirement to assign land to these uses. After farmland, the grassland or grazing land is estimated as the second most important land cover for economic use. The present land use of the woredas in Becho plain are presented in Annex-I. The average cultivable land occupies 85% of the total area of the woredas followed by uncultivable land (11%), cultivated land (80%) and grassland (8%). The other land uses are natural pasture (8%) forest (3%), and wastelands (8%). 2.2 . Agro climatic Zones Becho plain woredas are classified in to two major agro climatic zones, i.e., Dega and woinadega. This generalized classification is based on the relation between elevation and temperature differences of an area unlike the classification of agro-ecological zones which are based on the link between climate, physiography, soils and vegetation with animal species and humans. According to the standardized definition of the agro climatic zones; Dega or cool zone represents areas above 2400m elevation above sea level with the upper part as alpine region and Woinadega or temperate zone represents areas with average monthly temperature of 20°C during the warmest months and between 1800m - 2400m elevation above sea level. In Becho plain and the project command area, Woinadega or temperate zone is the predominant agro climatic zone covering 96% of the total area (Table 2.1). 2.3. Climate Distribution of crops, their production and seasons of cropping are influenced by climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall to a much greater degree than other environmental factors. The crops differ in their response to day and night temperatures and humidity etc. and react differently to the change of levels of these factors. Soil factors such as texture, structure, depth and topography affect the moisture storage capacity of soil thereby influence crop growth and production. The project command area will be largely controlled by the interactions of soil & climatic factors. The summary of the meteorological characteristics of the project command area for the years 1962 - 2004 (43 years data), 1975 - 2004 (30 years data) and 1982 - 2004 (23 years data) is given in Table 2.2. 2.4. Temperature Mean monthly temperature in project area varies from 16.4°C in July to 19.8°C in May. The average minimum temperature varies from 9.8°C in December to 13.5°C in May and the maximum temperature ranges from 26.1 °C in May to 20.6°C in July. Air temperature regulates the growth and development of many plants by regulating the rate of biochemical processes. The growth of many crops ceases below a critical temperature of 5 C or above 35 C adversely affecting the yield. The monthly mean temperature for maximum and minimum are given in Annex - II and III. Water Works Design and Supervision EnterpriseBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 2.5. Relative Humidity The mean monthly relative humidity (RH) in the project area varies from 40.4 %in February to 75.6% in August. The mean monthly maximum relative humidity varies from 69% in January to 93% in May and August and the mean minimum RH ranges from 20% in February to 67% in August. The maximum and minimum monthly mean humidity is given in Annex - IV. Relative humidity influences the evaporation, disease prevalence, ripening and maturity of crops. 2.6. Wind Speed The average wind speed (m/sec) varies from 0.3 in August to 0.8 in March, April, May, October and November. The wind speed taken at 02-meter height will have influential effect on evaporation and evapo-transpiration. Table 2.1 Categories of agro climatic zones and area coverage in Becho plain. Woredas Becho Dawo Elu Total Agro climatic zones Area (Ha) (%) Area (Ha) (%) Area (Ha) (%) Area (Ha) Average % Dega/Cool 1343 3 5801 14 - - 7144 6 Woina dega/Temperate 43432 97 35633 86 32939 100 112004 94 Total coverage 44775 100 41434 100 32939 100 119148 100 Source: Becho plain Woredas Offices of Agriculture and rural development, 2007. 2.7. Sunshine Hour The mean monthly sunshine hours in project area varies from 3.1 hours/day in July to 9.2 hours/day in November. The maximum and minimum of the monthly sunshine hour is * given in Annex - V. This is also expressed or calculated in terms of radiation. The radiation and temperature affect the photosynthetic efficiency of crops, consequently the dry matter accumulation and yield. In general the sunshine hours are favorable for crop production mainly for cereals and sugar crops. 2.8. Rainfall The average annual rainfall recorded was 1145.0 mm with minimum of 272.0 mm and maximum of 2851.0 mm. The average monthly rainfall varied from 7.3 mm in December to 291.5 mm in July. The minimum monthly rainfall ranged from 0.0 mm (January to May and September to December) to 146.2 mm in August, while the maximum rainfall varied from 4o.6 mm in December to 575.0 mm in August This pattern of rainfall indicates the possibilities of rain fed crop production from June to Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 8Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy September/October/November supported with need-based irrigation for intensive cropping. The details of rainfall for 30 years are given in Annex - VI. 2.9. Reference Evapo-Transpiration (ETo) The monthly estimated reference evapo-transpiration (ETo) varies from 77.5 mm in July to 124 mm in March. The daily (ETo) values ranges from 2.5 mm in July to 4.0 mm in March. The mean daily (ETo) and mean monthly (ETo) are given in Table 2.2. This parameter would help in selection of rain fed and irrigated crops in the respective production system and aid in the computation of crop water requirements. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 9Table 2.2. Summary of meteorological characteristic of the project command area | | Jan | Feb. | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul J Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec. | Monthly Mean Temperature In °C Average 17.5 18.3 19.3 18.5 19.8 17.9 16.4 16.9 17 17 24.5 16.8 24.9 16.8 Maximum 25.7 23.7 26.1 23.3 20.6 21.4 21.8 22.5 23.5 23.7 Minimum 10.5 11.7 12.9 13.2 13.5 12.5 12.1 12.3 12.2 11.4 10.1 9.8 'o Average 42.1 40.4 43.0 49.1 47.9 61.2 74.0 75.6 68.1 47.1 42.9 42.0 Maximum 69.0 76.0 75.0 83.0 93.0 80.0 90.0 93.0 91.0 79.0 86.0 81.0 Minimum 30.0 20.0 25.0 25.0 30.0 44.0 64.0 67.0 56.0 27.0 31.0 31.0 Average 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.8 0.7 Maximum 1.2 1.2 1.6 3.8 1.8 0.8 0.6 0.5 1.0 1.6 1.3 1.1 Minimum 0.4 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.5 0.5 hours Average 8.3 8.2 7.4 6.6 6.9 4.9 3.1 3.3 5.0 8.0 9.2 9.1 Maximum 10.4 10.4 9.5 9.0 8.5 6.9 8.5 5.1 7.7 10.3 10.7 10.3 Minimum 6.0 5.7 4.0 5.1 4.6 2.9 1.6 1.8 3.6 4.5 “6^1 5.8 figures in parenthesis indicate the total sum. Source: National meteorology station, 2007. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 10 ••Bccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 3. PRODUCTION AND PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS 3.1. National status The national status of crop productivity has been studied for the year 2003-2004 and given on Table 3.1. During this period, the total production was estimated to be 92,645, 10,229 and 3,129 thousand quintals with average yields of 12 q/ha, 9 q/ha and 5 q/ha for cereals, pulses and oilseed crops respectively. The overall production for the above three categories of crops was 11 million tons. 3.2. Oromiya Regional Status of Production According to the Ethiopian agricultural sample enumeration result for Oromiya (CSA 2003), the total area under the various cereals, pulses and oil seed crops in Oromiya region was 3880 thousand hectares producing 50,092 thousand quintals with average yields of 13 q/ha. The area under cereals was estimated to be 3,267,170 hectares producing 45,245,700 quintals with average yields of 14 q/ha. The total area of production under oilseeds and pulses was estimated to be 201,820 and 411,340 hectares producing 351,610 and 3,894,730 quintals respectively. The average yields of oilseeds is 5 q/ha and - pulses 9 q/ha (Table 3.2). Table 3.1. Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of Major Crops for Peasant Holdings in Ethiopia, 2003 - 2004. Metier Belg (Main Season) (Dry Season)__________________ Total Productivity Area Production Area Production Are a Productio n Q/ba. Crops (000,ha.) (000, q.) (000’ ha.) (00 0* q.) (000* ha.) ( 000* q.) Cereals 6,993.69 90,007.29 784.25 2,638.14 7,777.94 92,645.43 11.91 Barley 920.13 10,796.89 155.31 76.87 1,075.44 10,873.76 10.11 Maize 1,367.12 25,429.65 424 2,009.15 1,791.12 27,438.80 1532 Sorgham 1,283.65 17,424.54 52.18 418.29 1,335.83 17,842.83 1336 Millet 304.76 3,051.01 - - 304.76 3,051.01 10.01 Teff 1,989.07 16,773.48 73.54 9731 2,062.61 16,870.79 Wheat 1,098.91 8.18 16,144.41 67.42 36.52 1,166.33 Oats 30.05 387.34 16,180.93 13.87 11.8 - 41.85 Pulses 1,06636 38734 10,195.70 9.26 95.42 33.04 Chickpeas 154.28 1,161.78 1,359.30 10,228.74 13.81 8.8 - Field Peas 211.56 168.09 1,703.65 1,35930 17.2 8.09 Haricot - 228.76 1,703.65 7.45 Beans Horse- 183.75 1,721.53 57.21 33.04 240.96 1,754.57 7.28 beans 382 4,268.92 - - Lentil 52.06 352.75 382 5.74 4,268.92 11.18 - 57.8 352.75 6.1 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprisevetch 82.71 789.55 1.46 84.17 789.55 938 Oil seeds 570.79 3,128.62 8.39 579.18 3,128.62 5.4 Lin seed 142.9 773.63 7.62 150.52 773.63 5.14 Neug 281.72 1,189.95 - 281.72 1,189.95 4.22 Sesame 91.53 614.62 Ground nut 20.22 207.15 Sunflower 8.4 50.43 - - - 91.53 614.62 20.22 207.15 6.71 10.24 8.4 50.43 6 Rape seed 26.02 292.84 0.77 Others 40.27 24,667.30 1.59 26.79 292.84 10.93 41.86 24,667.30 589.28 Fenugreek 17.13 124.54 Sugarcane 23.14 24,542.76 1.59 - 18.72 124.54 6.65 Total 8,671.11 127,998.91 889.65 2,671.18 23.14 24,542.76 1060.62 9360.76 130,670.09 13.67 Source: Bureau of Finance and Economic Development - Statistical Abstract, 5th Edition , 2005.Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 3.2. Estimate of Area Under Cultivation and Production of Major Crops for Peasant Holdings in Oromiya Region (2001 - 02) 2 Meher (Main Season) -----------------L------------------- Productivity Belg (Dry Season) Total------------------------------------------ Crops Area (000’ ha.) Production (000’ q.) Area (000’ ha.) Production (000’ q.) Area (000’ ha.) Production (000’ q.) Q/ha. Cereals 2,911.03 44,250.94 356.14 994.76 3,267.17 45,245.70 13.85 Teff 762.12 7,132.52 22.11 32.24 784.23 7,164.76 9.14 Barley 367.43 4,773.40 100.34 185.9 467.77 4,959.30 10.6 Wheat 545.92 8,595.22 45.84 62.44 591.76 8,657.66 14.63 Maize 729.46 16,603.87 159.59 602.66 889.05 17,206.53 19.35 Sorghum 437.4 6,355.85 18.87 101.39 456.27 6,457.24 14.15 Millet Oats Pulses Horse beans Field Peas Harecot beans Chick Peas 49.34 546.5 19.37 243.59 0.16 0.05 49.5 546.55 11.04 9.24 10.09 28.61 253.68 8.87 357.15 3,739.07 54.19 155.66 41134 3,894.73 9.47 137.38 1,674.20 1.2 4.36 138.58 f,678.56 12.11 64.71 567.64 63.45 558.9 55.64 587.09 18.27 18.28 82.98 585.92 7.06 Lentil 14 87.53 Vetch 21.97 263.71 32.4 130.78 95.85 689.68 7.2 0.63 1.21 56.27 588.3 10.45 1.55 0.91 15.55 88.44 5.69 0.13 0.13 22.1 263.84 . 11.94 Oilseeds 194.94 948.57 6.88 3.04 Niger seed 93.15 324.26 Linseed 68.82 391.21 0.05 201.82 951.61 4.72 - 93.2 324.26 3.48 3.14 1.23 71.96 392.44 5.45 Rapeseed Ground nut 5.5 44.25 ♦ ♦ ♦ 5.5 44.25 8.05 10.1 77.56 0.03 Sunflower 0.92 6.14 Sesame 9.91 64.97 Fenugreek 6.55 40.18 ♦ 0.92 10.13 77.56 ♦ 6.14 ♦ 7.66 6.67 3.66 1.8 9.91 64.97 6.56 10.21 41.98 4.11 Total 3,463.12 48,938.58 417.21 1,153.45 3,880.33 50,092.03 12.91 Source: Ethiopian Agricultural Sample Enumeration Result for Oromia (CSA 2003 Data Not AvailableBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 3.3. Production status and cropping practice in Becho plain In Becho plain woredas (Becho, Dawo & Elu) fanners have long standing traditions of crop cultivation practices i.e., land preparation, sowing and harvesting,. These sequential cultivation practices are solely confined to the rain fed system of production. Though linked only to the wet rainy seasons, the existing land resources and agricultural inputs are not exploited to the maximum to satisfy the requirements for the ever increasing growth of population. In Becho plain and the project command area a total of 93,746 hectares of land were allotted for growing cereals, pulses, vegetables & oilseed crops (Table 3.3). Cereal crops ranks high in terms of area coverage and total production than pulses, oil seeds & vegetables where all are at a very low level of production. The traditional farming activity is at subsistence level. Although fanners have been using some varieties of crops, to date these vaneties are intermingled with local varieties and are not in their pure state. Farmers do not have improved vanety maintenance system; as a result seed mix up is a recurrent problem. Besides, the existing poor extension service is not in a position to familiarize farmers with the current improved technologies and variety maintenance system. Credit facilities are poor and farmers with low resources have no risk bearing capacity. Hence, the farm productivity is very low. In the existing traditional cropping system, the total hectare under Teff is the highest followed by Wheat and Chickpea. The highest and the lowest crop yields were obtained from Teff and cabbage respectively. Besides, the allocated cultivable area was very low for the later crop (Table 3.4). Data from the household survey suggests that amongst other crops, Teff and Wheat are produced by 94.6% and 91.1% of the sample households respectively. Moreover, other crop categories like pulses, oilseeds and vegetables, as shown from the survey result, are not as such produced by a significant number of farmers. For instance income generating vegetables like Onion and Cabbage are produced by only 21.4% and 19.6% of the households respectively (Annex VII). This reveals that farmers’ are dependent mostly on cereal crops for multiple uses. Although they are using some varieties of crops, the yield per unit area for the different crop categories indicate that crop production is not sufficient to satisfy consumption needs & income generation for the ever growing and resource poor population. These problems can be mitigated through the introduction and proper implementation of technologies of crop production. The introduction of improved varieties should be along with complete packages of recommended crop management practices. The area and trend of production for some of the crops and commodities under project command are not available, though they are being grown; hence the table contains the list of such crops also. In the recent exploratory tour, the collected data from the respective woredas revealed that fruit production is non existent in the woredas & the project command area. The climate & the feature of the landscape are conducive for growing a variety of fruit crops. This calls for the attention of development personnel and the agriculturists in general, to introduce released fruit varieties. As a general precaution, in any one locality, prior to the introduction and extension of different varieties of crops there is a need tn nh<™ ;.e Design and Supervision Enterprise 14Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 3.3. Cropping intensity under rain fed production system in Becho plain, 2007 Becho Woreda Dawo Woreda Elu Woreda Woreda total Crop type Area, ha % Area, ha % Area, ha % Area, ha % Wheat 5,836 17.8 8,734 28.4 4,837 16.0 19,407 20.7 Barley 1,743 5.3 3,060 10.0 120 0.4 4,923 5.3 Teff 17,447 53.3 13,080 42.5 18,144 59.9 48,671 51.9 Maize 100 0.3 780 2.5 433 1.4 1,313 1.4 Sorghum 175 0.5 515 1.7 728 2.4 1,418 1.5 Finger millet 0 - - Haricot bean • 21 0.1 - 21 0.0 Chickpea 5,064 15.5 2,520 8.2 4,440 14.7 12,024 12.8 Lentil 45 0.1 510 1.7 625 2.1 1,180 1.3 Faba bean 168 0.5 722 2.3 35 0.1 925 1.0 Fenugreek - 50 02 50 0.1 Field pea 142 0.4 618 2.0 25 0.1 785 0.8 Grass pea 1,779 5.4 - .• ; - - • 1,779 1.9 Vetch - - - - 800 2.6 800 0.9 Groundnut - - - - - - - - Linseed 104 0.3 45 0.1 - 149 02 Noug 109 0.3 60 0.2 50 02 219 02 Rapeseed - - - - - - Sesame - - - - - - - Sunflower - - - - - - - Potato 0.8 0.0 15 0.0 - 16 0.0 Tomato - - - - - - * Sweet potato - - - - - • Cabbage 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.0 - 0.6 0.0 Onion 0.8 0.0 2 0.0 - 3 0.0 Pepper 0.0 Garlic 4 0.0 - 4 0,0 Others 59 02 59 0.1 Citrus - - Papaya h - - Banana - - Avocado • - Guava - • 4. Total * • 1 32,713.7 100 30,745.5 100 30.287 93,746.6 100 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 1$Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table3.4. Cropped areas and yield under rain fed production system in Becho plain. Woredas Becho Dawo EIu Total Area Yield (qt) Yield qt/ha Area (ha) Yield &!) Yield qt/ha Area Crop type (ha) (ha) Yield (qt) Yield qt/ha Area (ha) Yield (qt) Yield qt/ha CEREALS 25301 26169 24262 75732 Wheat 5836 152931 26 8734 338643 39 4837 113322 23 19407 604896 29 Barley 1743 22084 13 3060 78884 26 120 1800 15 4923 102768 18 Teff 17447 283231 16 13080 240121 18 18144 262109 13 48671 785461 16 Maize 100 1700 17 780 33540 43 433 13438 31 1313 36678 30 Sorghum 175 3831 22 515 12875 25 728 14553 20 1418 31259 22 Finger millet - - - - - • • - PULSES 7198 • 4391 • - ^975 - - 17564 - - Haricot bean • - - 21 420 20 - - 21 420 7 Chickpea 5064 82203 16 2520 63000 25 4440 80014 18 12024 225217 20 Lentil 45 225 5 510 9180 18 625 6275 10 1180 15680 11 Faba bean 168 1328 8 722 14440 20 35 280 8 925 16048 12 Fenugreek Field pea 142 1263 8 618 15450 25 50 25 200 200 4 8 50 785 200 16913 1 14OIL SEED 213 - - 105 - - 50 - - 368 - - Groundnut - - - - - - - - - - - - Linseed 104 395 4 45 315 7 - - - 149 710 4 Noug 109 422 4 390 7 50 200 4 219 1012 5 Rapeseed - - - 60 •1 - - - - - - - - Sesame - - - - - - - • • - - Sunflower - - - - - - - - - - - - Table 3.4. Continued Woredas Becho Dawo Elu Total Area Yield Yield Area Yield Yield Area Yield Yield Area Yield Yield Crop type (ha) (qt) (qt/ha) (ha) ___ (qt/ha) (ha) W (qt/ha) (ha) (qt) (qt/ha) VEGETABLES 1.7 80 • 81.7 Potato 0.8 125 125 15 1080 70 16 1205 65 Tomato - - - - - - - - - Sweet potato - - - - • - - - - Cabbage 0.1 32 32 0.5 23 46 0.6 55 26 Onion 0.8 30 30 2 110 55 3 140 28 Pepper Garlic 4 63.2 60 4 63 20 Others a - - 59 - - 59 - - Fruit w 1 Citrus • - • Papaya - * Banana - •1 Avocado - 4* Guava - Source: Becho plain woredas Agriculture and rural development Offices, 2007.Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 3.4. Existing Status of Farming System Several natural factors influence the farming system of the project command area. Among these the major ones are altitude, soil, climatic factors and the socio-economic situation. The most important climatic limitation for crop production is the quantity and distribution of annual precipitation and mean maximum and minimum temperature. The rain fed mono-cropping cultivation pattern integrated with live stock rearing is the principal mixed farming system in most part of Becho plain and the project command area. Farmers are rearing livestock mainly cattle, goats and sheep with a few poultry birds and apiculture. The cattle are given more emphasis as they are the main source of power for field preparation, planting and threshing besides providing milk, milk products and meat for sale and home consumption. They are also the source of cash income for the family. Large numbers of farmers do not have oxen. Hence, they cultivate their land by using manually operated indigenous hand tools and equipments. As a result the yields are by and large very low. The existing dominant crops are teff, wheat and barley under cereals, chickpea among the pulses and Linseed and Noug as oilseeds. Crops like sorghum, maize, Lentil, faba bean, field peas etc. are also grown along with vegetables with low hectare. Based on the statistics available from Becho plain woreda offices of agriculture, 51.9 % of the presently cultivated area is under teff, followed by wheat (20.7 %) and Chickpea (12.8 %) as given in Table 3.3. The overall cropping intensity of the project command is very low. The existing forage resources on communal grazing areas are poorly managed and are of nutritionally low as a result of poor emphasis given on the management and introduction of forage resources. The cattle are being reared mainly for fattening, for sale and draught power for land preparation, sowing and threshing. The land preparation is carried out by bullock drawn local plough (maresha) and manually operated hand tools. The frequency of ploughing depends on the type of crops to be grown, seed size and intensity of weed infestation. Generally fanners grow crops only during wet season; hence mono-cropping is the predominant system of cropping in the project command area. The seed requirement is compiled on the basis of area provided for each crop by the Woredas office of Agricultural and Rural Development and it is provided on Aneex VIII. The seed requirement is compiled on the basis of area provided for each crop by the Woredas office of Agricultural and Rural Development. 3.5. Crop yields The average crop yields for the woreda and project command area under rain fed production system is given on Table 3.4. The yields of cereals vary from 16-30 qt/ha, the lowest being in Teff and the highest in Maize. The yields of pulses range from 1-20 qt/ha and oilseeds 4-5 qt/ha. The yields of vegetables are in the range of 20-65 quintal per hectare, which is very low. Such status of low yields indicates poor levels of input use and the adoption of improved packages of farm technologies. Although no report has been made on the production of fruit trees, there is an indication for a potential introduction and adaptation of highland & intermediate fruit trees in the woredas and the project command area for there is a favorable environment. As depicted on table 3.5, total area coverage and production of vegetables under irrigation production system is more spectacular as compared to rain fed production system where the yields of vegetables range from 4-160 quintal per hectare. Moreover, additional varieties of Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 18Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy vegetable crops are being introduced as a result of the increase in moisture availability through irrigation. 3.6. Soils Soil types and their physical, chemical and biological properties greatly influence the crops and their performance. Some of the physical properties which affect the crop growth are soil depth, organic matter content, texture, structure, infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity and available soil moisture and soil strength. The chemical and biological properties are equally or sometimes more important to determine the quality and sources of nutrients to be used for high yields. Soils in the surveyed area do not show extensive variation and are limited to two main groups (i.e., luvisols and vertisols). Vertisols are by far the dominant soil group estimated to be about 85.25, Luvisols for some 11.35 percent and miscellaneous land (such as town, hills and ridges), which is amounted to some 3.4percent. Luvisols are soils having an agric horizon, which has a base saturation of more than 50% in the lower parts of the B-horizon. They are generally well drained, deep to very deep, and medium to fine textured clay to sandy clay loam soils. Vertisols are soils having 30% or more clay in all horizons to a depth at least 50cm, which develop cracks from the soil surface down ward (at some period in most years are at least 2cm wide cracks to a depth of 50cm) and have one or more of the following: gilgai, micro-relief, intersecting slikensides.or wedge shaped structure at some depth between 25 to 100cm from the surface. The soils are deep to very deep, imperfectly, to poorly drained soils, formed on flat to almost flat topography in the lower landscape positions. They are heavy clay textured through out the profile and the proportion of the clay fraction is more than 50 to 60%. Vertisols are very hard to extremely hard when dry and very sticky and plastic when wet, which reflects poor workability. The luvisols have dark reddish brown to yellowish brown and mainly dark greyish brown or dark brown in their top layers but have dark brown to brown or yellowish brown subsoils. The main textures for the luvisols in the top layer vary within clay loam, silty clay loam to clay. Luvisols have weak to moderate angular and/or sub-angular blocky to fine structure in the top layer and weak to moderate prismatic and sub-angular blocky in the sub soils were observed. Luvisols were slightly hard when dry, friable to slightly firm when moist, and slightly sticky and plastic when wet. In the luvisols roots were largely concentrated within the soil depth up to 60cm and fine roots were observed up to 120cm or more, luvisols are mostly well drained. For luvisols infiltration is moderately slow to moderate. Hydraulic conductivity rapid to moderately rapid. Available water capacity for Luvisols indicated low to medium. For the vertisols the color of the control section were typically very dark grey or black to grayish brown, very dark gray .The vertisols were found to have clayloam to heavy clay texture, with increasing more clay content in depth. It has moderate to strongly developed medium to hard coarse top layer and very strong coarse massive and prismatic which usually begin at a depth of 70/80cm or more. Vertisols have weak to well developed slikenside in the subsoils. In most cases below 70 cm depth the prismatic structure gives way to a structureless massive clay Vertisols were observed to be extremely hard when dry, very firm when moist and sticky to very sticky and plastic when wet. In the vertisols roots were concentrated to the top 40cm of the soil depth. Vertisols are imperfectly to poorly drained. Infiltration is slow to moderately slow Hydraulic conductivity slow to moderate. Available water capacity for vertisols indicated high Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 19Jfecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Soil reaction in the study area ranges from 5.38 to 8.89 (in absolute terms). Majority of the samples are classified as weakly acidic to weak basic within the pH range of 6.5 to 8. There is no significant difference between the soil types. The values are considered to be within the favourable range for most crops growing in the area. The soils in the command area are classified as non-saline soils. Most of the soils in the surveyed area have a very high Cation Exchangeable Capacity ranging from 35.40 meq/lOOgm to 87.53meq/100gm). The reference CEC values are 8 to lOmeq/lOOgm of soil. The details of physical and chemical properties and suitability of land for crop production are given in Soil Survey, Land Evaluation of Becho Plain final feasibility report. 3.7. Size of holdings Based on data collected from the farmers, land holding per house hold level is in the range of 0.5 — 8 ha. The average owned land is 3.3 ha. The number of fields owned per household range from 2-12, the average being 4.5 (Aneex VII). 3.8. Cultural practices 3.8.1. Land preparation Land preparation is accomplished by using local wooden plough drawn by a pair of bullock (71%) or by digging with the help of indigenous tools. The plough is locally called “maresha”. A survey conducted in Becho plain and project command area showed that 72% and 69% of the households begin to plow their land in the month of March and end in September respectively. Moreover, the frequency of plowing varies within localities and accordingly one time ploughing is practiced by (4%), twice (7%), thrice (25%) and four times (36%) of the sampled households (Annex VII). The frequency of ploughing depends on the intensity of weed infestation, crops to be sown and seed size of the crops. Small seeds require good soil tilth for proper germination. 3.8.2. Planting Planting involves time, date and methods. Most of the existing crops are planted during the wet season beginning from April under rain fed production system in Becho plain. Crops like Chickpea and Lentil are planted towards the end of the wet season with a residual moisture level, i.e., August & September. The common method of planting for field crops is broadcasting of seeds followed by light mixing. 57.1% of the sampled households also confirmed this method of sowing/planting to have been widely used in the farming community (Annex VII). Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 20Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 3.5. Total cropped area and yield under rain fed and irrigation production system in Becho plain. Rain fed Irrigation Yield Yield Crop type Area (ha) Yield (qt) qt/ha Area (ha) Yield (qt) qt/ha CEREALS 75732 504 Wheat 19407 604896 29 Barley 4923 102768 18 504 6272 4 Teff 48671 785461 16 - - - Maize 1313 36678 30 - - - Sorghum 1418 31259 22 - - - Finger millet - - ■ • • • PULSES 17564 - - 1915 - - Haricot bean 21 420 7 - - - Chickpea 12024 225217 20 304 3638 8 Lentil 1180 15680 11 1603 15988 6 Faba bean 925 16048 12 3 - -- Fenugreek 50 200 1 - - - Field pea 785 16913 14 - - - Grass pea 1779 39138 7 5 63 4 Vetch 800 20000 8 - - - OIL SEED 368 - - - - - Groundnut - - - - - - Linseed 149 710 4 - - - Noug 219 1012 5 - - - Rapeseed - - - - - - Sesame - - - - - - Sunflower - - - - - - VEGETABLES 81.7 - 214 Potato 16 1205 65 2 95 50 Tomato - - - 41 7551 160 Sweet potato - - - - - - Cabbage 0.6 55 26 25 4665 70 Onion 3 140 28 132 22632 81 Pepper - - - - 8 83 4 Garlic 4 63 20 3 186 25 Carrot - - - 2 400 50 Beet root - - - 1 - - Others 59 - - Source: Bccho plain worcdas Agriculture and rural development Offices, 2007. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 21Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 3.8.3. Seed Rate The project area farmers are mostly using seeds from the previous year crops produced, he , germination remains poor. This is to be compensated by using $ e ra ~ optimum plant population. As per the information received from the woredas office^ agriculture and rural development at Becho plain, a small number of farmers are using improved seed. Introduced crop varieties of Teff, Wheat, Barley and Chickpea are popular in the farming community (Table 3.6) and have the largest area coverage than the other crops. Furthennore, the household survey confirms that amongst other crops, improved seeds of TeiT, Wheat and Chickpea are the most selected priority crops by 68%, 75% and 75% of the household respondents respectively (Annex VII). To date, the type and area coverage by the improved seed varieties is not as such impressive. These introductions have long been in the area and are mixed up with local varieties. Moreover, no additional new introductions were made to substitute them. 3.8.4. Fertilizer application The farmers are using only Urea and Diammonium phosphate (DAP) each at the rate of 100 kg/ha as a source of nitrogen and phosphorus for cereal and vegetable crops. Farmers usually do not apply fertilizers for pulses. No specific data is available on the total quantity of fertilizers used by the farmers of the project command area. However, the information available from the woredas indicates that including the year 2007, 57569 quintal DAP and 50818 quintal urea were supplied to the farmers. Of which, 53,895 quintals of DAP and 47,209 quintals of urea were utilized (Table 3.7). Moreover, to maintain the soil fertility and increase the production of crops farmers are using organic fertilizers in the form of manure or compost Table 3.6. Cultivation of improved crop varieties in Becho plain, 2007 Woredas Crops Becho Teff Wheat Barley Chickpea Cultivated varieties in use DZ -01-354 “---------------- Dawo Teff Wheat Barley Chickpea HAR-1685 HB-42 Shasho; Flip-87 DZ -01-354 and DZ -01-196 HAR-1685; HAR-710; ET-13 HB-42 Shasho; Flip-87 Elu Teff Wheat Chickpea Lentil Onion DZ -01-196 HAR-1685 Flip-87 Adaa, Alamaya Tomato Bombay red; Adama red Cabbage Roma VF Copenhagen Source: Becho plain woredas Agriculture « j Agnculture „d a rllraI dw!l(>pincn, Water Works Des.go .nd Supervision Enterpr^ 22Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 3.7. Supply & utilization of agricultural inputs in Becho plain, 2007. Improved seeds (in qt) and other inputs supply Crop variety Woredas Becho Dawo Elu Total Supplied utilized Supplied utilized Supplied utilized Supplied utilized Teff Wheat Barley Chickpea Lentil Onion Tomato Cabbage Fertiizer (Qt) DZ-01-196 DZ- 01-354 - NA NA 259 259 NA NA NA NA - - HAR-1685 NA HAR-710 ET-13 HB-42 Flip-87 Shasho Adaa Alamaya Bombay red Adama red Roma VF - - NA NA NA NA NA NA 300 648 - NA NA - - NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 114 323 NA NA NA 80 2 NA NA - 1 18593 11031 11031 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 27945 24271 Chemicalsb (Lt) Copen hagen DAP 18593 UREA 14349 2,4-d (herbicide) U-46 Endosulfan 14349 8546 8546 27923 24314 • - 21500 16992 259 259 NA NA 300 648 NA NA NA NA NA NA 114 323 80 2 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 57569 53895 50818 47209 21500 16992 NT A — aBecho Plsin Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 3.8.5. Crop protection General information on the incidence of insect-pests and diseases in Becho plain is available for different crops. Crops have been seriously threatened by important insect pests and diseases. 98% of household survey respondents revealed that insect pests and diseases are the recurrent problems affecting the total produce of any one crop in the area. For instance crops like Teff, Wheat and Chickpea are the priority crops regularly affected by the important insect pests and diseases of the area (Annex VII). According to the household survey, 86% of the respondents indicated that they are applying any control measures to reduce crop loss due to insect pests and/or diseases (Annex VII). Specific control measures like the use of chemicals and the combination of chemicals + tolerant varieties have been in use as indicated by 61% and 36% of the household survey respondents respectively (Annex VII). Similarly, weeds are causing major crop losses under both rain fed and irrigated crop fields. By virtue of their aggressiveness they are producing an imbalance population growth in the grassland ecosystem. Teff, Wheat and Chickpea are also selected as the most weed affected crops by 18%, 21% and 47% of household survey respondents respectively (Annex VII). The frequency of hand weeding also varies among them. Teff has been said to be weeded once by 51% and twice by 49% of the household survey respondents. Moreover, according to the result of the household survey, Wheat and Chickepea has been confirmed to be weeded once by 100% of the respondents (Annex VII). The current status on the incidence of common insect pests & diseases and the weed infestation are given in Table 3.8 and 3.9 respectively. The extent of crop losses and the economic threshold levels are important for planning control measures at optimum time. There are no extensive crop protection measures on the control of insect pests & diseases of the area. Although there is no specific data to support the type and amount of hebicides disbursed to the woredas of Becho plain, farmers in some localities are using weed killer herbicides like 2-4, D and U-46 besides to the manual hand weeding control method. The available data from Becho plain indicate that including the year 2007, 21500 liters of 2-4,D were supplied to farmers and out of which 16, 992 liters were used (Table 3.7). Moreover, according to the household survey 94.6% and 96.4% of sample households respectively responded that they have been using labour and herbicide to control problematic weeds of the area (Annex VII). Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 24Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 3.8. Crops and incidence of Insect pests & diseases in Becho plain, 2007. Insect Diseases Wheat Hesian flies Rust Cutworm Brown eye spot Maize Stalk borer Late blight African boll worm Downy mildew White worm Weevil Chickpea Cut worm Rust Weevil African boll worm Lentil Aphids Rust Onion Thrips Blotch Teff Red teff worm Shoot fly Potato - Leaf mold - Early blight Tomato Blight Source: Becho plain woredas office of Agriculture (2007). 3.9. Cropping Pattern and Crop Rotation Based on the collected data from secondary sources and household levels, fanners have responded to the system of cropping they have been adopting. From the household survey it was noted that 66% of the interviewed households responded that they are rotating crops, whereas the remaining 34% provided no response in this regard. Although there seems to exist a practice of crop rotation, the practice is not in sustainable way and systematic to benefit production and productivity of crop. The same holds true for intercropping practice where only 30% of the farmers have positively responded that they are adopting the practice of intercropping. The secondary sources suggest that majority of the farmers in Becho plain and in the project command area have been continually practicing mono cropping cultivation for a long period of years (> 2-3 years). The practice of mono cropping among other different cropping systems is the dominant system of cropping in the farming community and accounts 97 % of the total cropping system (Table 3.9). Other cropping system like crop rotation, alley cropping, intercropping and strip cropping are meager or non existent, excepting double cropping which is practiced in some localities where ample surface water is available to use traditional irrigation scheme. Table 3.9. Percent wise distribution of the cropping systems used in Becho plain, 2007. Cropping system Becho Dawo Woredas Elu Average Monocropping Double cropping 94 6 98 2 98 2 Alley cropping Intercropping Strip cropping Others 97 3 Source: Becho plain woredas office of Agriculture (2007) Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprisejjecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 3.9.4. Irrigation practice Irrigation is a continuous surface supply of water from ground water or river for the production of economic crops of a country. In becho plain and project command area, there is no introduced modem irrigation scheme for development activities. Based on the survey conducted on 56 sample households, 46% - 48% of the farmers in becho plain and project command area possess irrigation farm lands and are using traditional irrigation for the production of consumable and income generating crops to feed their families (Annex VII). The production of crops under irrigation is to the tune of 41%. Accordingly, chickpea, onion and cabbage are the priority crops of irrigation (Annex vii). The average irrigation land holding possession is 0.27 hectare (Annex vii). the survey also revealed that 46% of the households were benefited from this practice interms of better production, better income, sustainable food supply and/or a combination of them (Annex vii). Under such situation only 14% and 16% of the households are respectively knowledgeable and have perception on the existence of water users association in their locality (Annex vii). Although farmers have been exploiting the available water resources for the production of crops, they have been complaining of associated problems of water shortage and unavailability of treadle pumps (Annex VII). Under small scale farm holdings, water users association is paramountly important to encourage farmers for best utilization of the available water resource for increased production. Moreover, the identification of ample water resource points and the supply of low cost treadle pumps are a prerequisite for sustainable crop production. 3.9.5. Harvesting, Threshing and Cleaning Crops are harvested at maturity by family labors on small farm holdings and by employing laborers for larger holdings. 100% of sample household survey respondents further revealed that methods of harvesting are still traditional and contribute to further crop losses during post harvest operations (Annex VII). The crops are harvested beginning from September to January depending on maturity periods for the different crops and varieties used. Harvesting is done by locally made sickles. Threshing is carried out by beating with wooden sticks and trampling draught oxen to separate grain from straw or stalk depending on the type of crop used. After removing straw/stalk, the grains are further separated from dust and chaffy materials by winnowing in the open air. Similarly threshing is also traditional as revealed by 98% of the household survey respondents (Annex VII). Water Works Design and Supervision EnterpriseBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 3.10. Commonly found weeds in major crops of Becho plain, 2007 Crops Wheat Faba bean Teff Field pea Barley Chickpea Sorghum Maize Common weed species Avena fatua C. dactylon P. paradoxa C. dactylon Avena fatua C. dactylon C. rotundas B. pilosa Bromus L tumulentum S. Pumila R abyssinicus C. rotundas B. pilosa C. dactylon P. lanceolata C. rotundas C.latifolia P. lanceolata A. kybriUus C.arvensis R abyssinicus B. pilosa C. dactylon L. tumulentum S. Pumila R abyssinicus C. rotundas B. pilosa R abyssinicus - - R abyssinicus S. polystatia - - - - R abyssinicus S. polystatia P. lanceolata - - - - Source: Becho plain woredas Offices of Agriculture and rural development, 2007. ______________________ ______ __________________ _ ______________________________ ________ ________________________ _ ________________ —--------------------------------------- --- Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 27Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 4. AGRICULTURAL SUPPORT SERVICES Agricultural support services are vital tools to achieve food security, combat poverty and promote economic growth & development. These services will only enhance agricultural development if the issue of system sustainability is strictly maintained at a grass root level. To date, the challenge with regard to food self sufficiency & income generation has been a blockage to feed the ever-increasing population and secure sufficient foreign exchange earnings for the purchase of agricultural and industrial inputs. Therefore, the strengthening of the currently existing agricultural support services of input supply, facility of credits, marketing, infrastructure development, agro processing, agricultural research in sustainable way is too essential. 4.1. Agricultural Extension Crop yields have remained low due to several problems among which less adoption of improved technology by farmers is the major one. The problem of technology adoption has been exacerbated as a result of inadequate agricultural support services, which in turn has resulted in production & productivity constraint. There has been no system of sustainability as to the process of introducing and familiarizing improved; technologies at a larger scale in the farming community. Moreover, scaling up and out of improved technologies has not been in place in sustainable manner for development agents and farmers at zonal and woreda levels. 4.2. Credits On the basis of the house hold survey data, it has been observed that only 46.4 percent of farmers obtained the credit facilities, the remaining 53.6 percent did not get the benefit of credit facilities due to various reasons beyond their control. Fanners who obtained the credit, used for the purchase of seeds, fertilizers, chemicals and other important inputs. The Credit sources were government, credit unions, NGO and individuals. 16% and 23% of the farmers responded that government and credit unions as sources for credit facility respectively. 4% - 5% of farmers from NGO and individuals. (Annex VII). 4.3. Storage of grains The common type of storage facility available for the farmers in the project command area is in their residential structures in gunny bags (sacks. Of the number of selected household respondents, 96% of them responded that the type of storage they have been using is in their living room. About 2% are having separate warehouse facility for storage and the remaining 2% store their produce outside in the farm by using local structure made of grass and mud called Gotera. The ‘Gotera’ is constructed outside the house or at the farm as open structure. Losses are attributed due to moisture and grain pests (Annex VII). As per the report received from the farmers, there is considerable loss of grain due to rodents and weevil infestation. There is no improved storage facility available even at retailer and whole sellers’ level due to short period storage needs. Although there is a significant amount of post harvest and storage losses, the contribution by traditional Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 28Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy storage structures currently used by farmers and traders is immensely important This may also be attributed to the less emphasis given towards to the construction of improved storage structures and the availability of credit facility. 4.4. Marketing The inputs of marketing have been impeded by rapidly escalating prices, inadequate and untimely supply, and poor access to credit facilities, involvement of limited suppliers, inadequate infrastructural development and use of inputs below optimum level. For healthy marketing, there is a need to subsidize the prices, timely delivery of adequate inputs, and empowering cooperatives with their capacity enhancement along with encouragement to free market and proper infrastructure development. More credit facilities are required to be given to the farmers to enhance their capacity to produce and sell the product at a time when it is in demand. 4.5. Agricultural research centers Although agriculture forms the basis for the livelihood of 85 % of the population, it has faced several natural and man made challenges and the rate of economic growth had failed to cope up with the rate of population growth. Such challenges were further confounded with natural calamities such as drought and depletion of the natural resource base. All these agricultural problems are again posing a significant threat to development and have to be mitigated through farmers' participatory intensive researches. Agricultural research centers are mandated to carry out on-farm and on-station experiments to generate, evaluate and introduce improved agricultural technologies that can further be used by farmers. There are no agricultural research centers in the vicinity of the project command area. Holetta research center is the only nearest agricultural research center to cater improved crop technologies required by the project command area and Becho plain in general. Holetta is the oldest research center in the country and has got strong research personnel. It is situated at an altitude >1400 m above sea level with high and inermediate agroecological zones. The center is entitled to address agricultural constraints of central and western Shoa woredas. Holetta Research Center has been generating and evaluating different crop varieties through on-farm participatory research approach (Table 4.1) for the betterment of the livelihood of the farmers. The varieties are productive and good yielder when are used in harmony with their recommended production packages like seeding rate, seeding depth, sowing time, spacings, fertilizer rates, weeding regimes, spraying, etc... Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 29Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 11. On-farm generated/evaluated crop varieties by Holetta Research Center Crops Varieties Yield (qt/ha) Barley 3369 Bulk 16.2-23.7 3293-2 20.1-20.7 3369-19 11.8-19.7 3293-6 25.0-25.2 HB379 18.9-21.9 Shege 24.0-24.6 HB-42 16.2-16.4 Wheat HAR 604 24.5 HAR 1775 19.3 HAR 1868 25.2 HAR 1899 24.1 HAR 1920 25.9 EA-I3-A2 18.7 Faba Bean BPL 1802-1-2 13.31 N86108-5 13.60 Bulga 70 11.86 CS20DK 13.23 Field Pea FpExDzX 310392-2 15.34 Holetta 17.00 PIS3 84/77 X 310392-2 13.87 G22763-2C 12.06 Tegenech 11.91 Table 4.1. Continued... Crops Varieties Yield (qt/ha) Noug Fogera 4.4 Este 5.4 Kuyu 6.0 PGRC/E 228423 6.1 PGRC/E 228423 4.3 Linseed R-11M20G 3.9 R-11N1266 7.6 PGRC/E 013627 6.4 R10-N27G 5.0 R12-N100 5.1 PGRC/E 13611 X PGRC/E 6.3 10314/D Belay-96 6.6 Potato Awash 88.0 ■■ Genet 162.0 Mcnagesha 266.0 Tolcha 140.0 Wechecha 182.0 ■ Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 30Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy The Becho plain irrigation project command area crops are moderately populated but with low cropping intensity (Table 3.3). The main cereal crops are teff, wheat and chickpea. The agriculture is at a subsistence level. Yields are very low due to the very low adoption of improved agricultural technologies and dearth of other production inputs like seed, fertilizers, agro-chemicals, credits etc. but there is tremendous scope for agricultural improvement with proper diversification and selection of crops and their appropriate varieties for irrigated production system. Since there is no agricultural center in the vicinity to generate appropriate technologies for the command area and Becho woreda in general there is an urgent need to establish technology promotion & demonstration unit under the guidance of Holetta research center within the project command to support entire agricultural activities of the area. 5. CONSTRAINTS AND POTENTIALS OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT 5.1. Major Production and Development Constraints In Becho irrigation command area, almost all the potential farm lands have been cultivated (Annex I). Crop production practices are still traditional and yields are a way below to support the increasing population. The diversity of crops in the area is very less to generate income to the farming community. Moreover, the recurrent natural hazards like drought, land degradation, hail, frost, flood and drainage problem etc... have resulted in poor yield. According to the records collected from the woredas office of agriculture and rural development, crop yields of cereals and pulses (Table 3.4) are higher than the national and regional average yields (Table 3.1 and Table 3.2) with the existing traditional practices. This is an indication for the enormous capability of farmers to double the amount of yield per unit area through maximum use of improved crop production technologies i.e., fertilizer, improved crop varieties, quality seed and agro chemicals etc.... As part and parcel of the feasibility study of Becho Irrigation project a number of production constraints were identified from the selected representative household samples. Of these, the followings are the major ones. 5.1.1. Inadequate input supply This includes the introduction of improved varieties, supply of quality seeds of varieties, fertilizers, agro-chemicals and improved tools and farm implements. 5.1.1.1. Improved Varieties The seeds of crop varieties being used by 46% of farmers in the project command area are both local (also described as “land races”) and improved ones (Annex VII). “Land races” are a multitude of naturally existing varieties which have gone through a natural selection process over time and have varying degrees of genetic potential to provide good yield as compared to the newly developed high yielding and stable varieties released from agricultural research centers of the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (E1AR). According to the survey, it was realized that farmers have poor access to superior varieties released from these centers. Only 2% of the farmers were recorded to use such types of seeds of crop varieties (Annex VII). Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 31Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 5.1.1.2. Quality Seed Seed is the basic unit of life for crops. The quality of seed has the most profound influence on crop production. The farmers of project command area have been using their own carry over seeds saved from the previous production. Although there are some improved seed varieties in the area, they have long been introduced in the area and are mixed up with local ones. Therefore, germination, seedling vigor and plant population are adversely affected thereby resulting in poor yield. It was learned that fanners have no improved methods of maintaining genetically superior varieties for next cropping season. Moreover, limited seed multiplication programs, poor extension services in this regard have contributed a lot. 5.1.1.3. Fertilizers Although soil fertility in the project command area is in good state, it has been reducing due to poor method of cultivation practices and the continuous natural resource depletion as a result of natural and man made hazards. Soil fertility depletion in small farm holdings is the fundamental biophysical limiting factor responsible for the decline of crop production. To alleviate this problem, the use of inorganic fertilizers is one among the many alternatives. Based on the household level survey, 54% of the farmers in the project command area have been continually using inorganic sources of fertilizers. (Annex VII). The limiting draw back with regard to fertilizer use isu that fanners in the project command area are not sticking to the recommended fertilizer use amounts. The probable rational for the low input use is as follows. • Inadequate knowledge on the benefit of fertilizers use. • Inadequate and untimely supply system. • Fertilizer cost. • Shortage of agricultural credit and • Inadequate research, extension and training support to farmers. 5.1.1.4. Agro- Chemicals During the survey, farmers indicated that the high incidence of insect-pests, and diseases as one of the production constraints. This was due to the inability of farmers to recognize the insect pests and diseases of many crops at early stage. Lack of knowledge regarding the control measures also favoured insect pests and diseases thereby resulted in low yield. Due to insect pest and diseases build up, 54% of the farmers were using a combination of local controlling practice and chemicals to prevent further yield loss (Annex VII). The estimated crop loss is approximately 30%. 5.1.1.5. Farm Implements Lack of improved tools and farm implements have contributed to the low level of production. Farmers of the project command area are using traditional hand tools and oxen-drawn wooden plough. These implements can not plough the land up to the required soil depth to attain good soil tilth, good aeration, infiltration, weed control, etc... for the betterment of production and productivity. So far, there are no improved farm implements distributed to the farmers to improve the fanning practices and minimize pre and post harvest crop losses. However, a few farm implements that have been developed and recommended have not been adopted by the farmers due to the higher traction power Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 32Bccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy requirements than are required by farmers, high cost and lack of awareness. In general the inability to use these improved farm implements and tools caused improper field preparation, delay in farm operations, high weed infestation etc.... This in turn has resulted in reduced production and productivity. 5.1.2. Shortage of Draft Power Samples of 56 households were surveyed to analyze the draft power requirement of the farmers in the project command area. At first it was assumed that farmers were devoid of a pair of oxen for the various crop husbandry practices. The results showed that one fourth of the households do not own or hire ox and the remaining three fourth have or use hired oxen. This situation delays farm land preparation, planting and other farm operations. The overall poor performance of farm operations will result in poor yields. 5.1.3. Problem of Drainage Drainage problem is very common in many of the project command areas especially those areas having characteristics of vertisols. Such soils by virtue of their nature are rock hard when they are dry there by affecting deep tillage by creating a hard soil pan in the subsurface zone and impeding crops root penetration for required moisture and nutrient absorption. Moreover, these types of soils are too sticky when they are wet and create a problem of water logging. Unless soil reclamation measures are applied, the productivity of such soils is very low. 5.1.4. Natural Hazards The major natural hazards in the project command area are erratic rainfall, hail, storm, frost, drought and flood. There is variation in rainfall pattern from year to year and as a result some parts get flooded and some remains dry thereby adversely affecting crop production and soil productivity. Under such situations the adoption*of improved biological and physical management measures have a paramount importance for high production and productivity. 5.1.5. Poor Research, Extension and Farmers Linkage The constraints and problems of farmers need to be addressed through the strong linkage between research and extension. This link is important to provide general research direction and for the dissemination of the latest packages of crop production technologies developed by a strong and well organized research system under EIAR. Under the existing scenario, the research-extension linkage is weak enough as a provision for required farm technologies at the grass root level. Therefore, to strengthen the out reach of packages of crop production technologies at the farm level, there is a need to revisit and revise the linkage among research, extension and farmers. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 33Bee ho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 5.1.6. Inadequate Extension Service At present, the expertise of the development workers in the dissemination of the verified packages of crop production technologies developed by the research system is not profound enough to bring far-reaching change at the woredas level. Therefore in order to upgrade and strengthen the existing extension service and enhance crop production and productivity under farmers’ field, the existing extension system needs to be reoriented for proper dissemination of need based production technologies. Reorientation can be realized through the assignment of sufficient number of development workers close to the farming community and providing intensive trainings at woreda level in sustainable way. 5.1.7. Poor or Inadequate Rural Credit The participation of commercial bank of Ethiopia (CBE) in providing credit to peasant sector for the purchase of fertilizers, seeds, agro-chemicals etc..., where agricultural and Industrial Development Bank (AIDB) services were inadequate, was introduced based on the in 1986 Credit Policy. These two credit institutions are not able to serve the majority of small farmers adequately due to the limited number of branches in close proximity to the farmers of project command area. Moreover, the exclusion of peasant association and service cooperatives from credit services, excepting fertilizer credit, has pronounced the problem of acquiring agricultural inputs. Thus, the absence of rural development banks or rural credit services at the closest reach of farmers has hindered the farming community for extensive use of packages of crop production technologies and increase farm production and productivity. 5.2. Productions potentials Becho project command, despite the number of agricultural production constraints, has high potential that can be exploited through comprehensive integrated agricultural development program, sound and applicable rural credit system, well-developed infrastructure etc. The existing farming systems being practiced in the project command is very traditional and leads to low level of output. Through proper utilization of resources, particularly the water resources and by solving, the other major agricultural constraints mentioned above, the current low level of production could be enhanced. The major potential areas requiring intervention are as mentioned below: • There is a good scope of development of agriculture under irrigated production system by exploiting the existing irrigation potential and utilizing the water available in the ground. There is already indication of enhanced productivity per unit area by using the small-scale irrigation. However, the yields of crops are not as high as expected with irrigated farming at present. The reason for this is lack of know-how among the farmers, lack of staff of relevant supporting institutions, inadequate extension agent coverage and lack of institutional support, absence of proper agricultural inputs (seeds, varieties, fertilizers, improved farm implements etc), lack of credit facilities, under developed rural infrastructures etc. Thus to achieve good results and utilize the potential of the sector the irrigated agriculture is to be fully supported and the respective and relevant back up services must be strengthened specially related to extension and credit. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 34Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy • The Rain fed Agriculture in the project command can also produce more than one good crop in a year if proper soil and water conservation measures and early maturing genetically potential crop varieties are introduced. These may be supported with quality seed and need based fertilizer application. Supply constraints and financial limitations at farm level pose a considerable hindrance to the simultaneous adoption of a comprehensive input package of fertilizers, improved varieties, quality seed and agro chemicals along with the adoption of improved package of production practices and soil moisture conservation. The increase in yield will solve the financial limitations and other constraints of small holders. To improve the productivity of small holdings, and to exploit the potential of the latest technologies and other inputs, the research extension linkage has to be made very strong, and the need based capacity building at all stages including the farmers is essential. Diversification of cropping pattern is important in the project command both under irrigated and rain fed production system. There is good potential in the area to include cash and commercial crops along with the high value cereals, pulses and oil seeds. The enhanced produetion of these may encourage the establishment of agro industries in the area to benefit the people. 5.2.1. Cropping systems In bioenergetics terms, crop production may be viewed as conversion of visible spectrum of total electro-magnetic radiation into chemical energy (Protein, fat and carbohydrate) through the photosynthetic apparatus of crop plants. The object of any crop production system is to optimize inputs of human skill, men and animal work, abiotic material mainly of Industrial origin (fertilizers, machines, pesticides, petroleum etc.), suitable genotype of plants and animals. Inter farm inputs with a view, in a given ecological situation, to maximizing crop plant growth and minimizing plant wastage so that an adequate economic return (or food output on subsistence farms) is obtained and that too in such a way that economic return on crop output is realizable from year to year and persistent over decades or even longer. The vegetable growing farmers are generally trying to adopt a multiple cropping system where the "photosynthetic factory" operates throughout the year because they have skill and knowledge along with adequate water at their disposal. Moreover, they apply heavy doses of manure and other essential inputs. Tremendous potentialities for increased agricultural crop production and high productivity exist in the country through the wider use of multiple cropping systems in cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds and fiber crops. In long duration crops (Perennial), like banana, shrub crops like coffee and tea, tree crops fruit trees, coconut palm, inter cropping holds great promise. Encouraging progress has been achieved in the bioengineering of crop varieties to meet the specific climatic requirements of the duration. This progress suggests that it is feasible to develop set of crop varieties, which can be grown either singly or in sequential combinations throughout the year. The recent technologies developed on soil management like frequency and method of tillage, residue Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 35Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy management and use of fertilizers and other agro-chemicals have enabled the multi cropping system to be feasible, desirable and even commendable under favorable sunshine and temperature. Under such agro-eco regions one or the other crops could be grown throughout the year provided water is not a limiting factor in any month of the calendar year. In cropping system, multiple cropping in essence represents a philosophy of maximum crop production per unit area of land per unit time with minimum of soil deterioration. In its simplest form, multiple cropping is a one-year cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in succession within that year. In practical terms, multiple cropping systems may involve the following categories: • Short duration crops; - relay planting or sequential planting of three or more short duration cereals, legumes, vegetables, fiber or oil seeds crops. • Intercropping of quick growing short duration crops in widely spaced slow growing long duration crops like sugarcane, banana etc. with zero competition between the crops ensuring better utilization of the ecological factors in time and space. • Multiple cropping system with perennial crops 5.2.2. Criteria for Crop Selection s The choice of a crop for a particular area under irrigated agro-eco-system is dependent on its potential response to irrigation, location specific environmental conditions, socio economic situation, marketability and expected profitability. The climatic parameters determining the choice of a crop are temperature, sunshine or radiation, wind speed, relative humidity, precipitation and evapo-transpiration. Like climatic factors, the physical, chemical and biological characters of soil and soil depth also, have direct influence on the performance of a crop. The crops widely vary in their response to irrigation. Therefore, under the irrigated agro ecosystem, with assured availability of water, the efforts are made to select the most economical, high yielding and highly irrigation responsive crops, which fit well in the production system with high degree of input- use- efficiency, eco-friendly and helping in sustainable agricultural production. The crops like vegetables, fruits, rice, wheat and maize are highly responsive to irrigation while some of the legumes/pulses and oilseeds respond moderately. On the other hand, crops like teff and barley have the ability to tolerate drought but show only marginal response to irrigation and other inputs. Besides, the above factors, the present land use, social considerations, liking of the farmers, their attitude and ability to successfully cultivate a particular crop also determine the choice of a crop and cropping pattern. 5.2.3. Climate of the Project Command area Distribution of crops, their production and seasons of cropping are influenced by climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature to a much greater degree than other Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 36Bccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy environmental factors. The crops differ in their requirements of day and night temperature, humidity, sunshine etc. and react differently to changes in these factors. Accordingly, the meteorological data estimated from meteorological station of Tulubolo has been considered for project command area. 5.2.4. Response of Crops to Irrigation Based on the investigations conducted by the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) at its research centers, it has been established that various crops respond differently to irrigation in their performance and productivity. The crop teff, Eragrostis teffhas ability to tolerate both water logging as well as drought to certain extent but its response to irrigation is marginal. However, crops like vegetables, fruits, maize, and wheat are highly responsive to irrigation. 5.2.5. Economic Considerations National and international prevailing prices greatly influence the choice of the crops. Market trends at least for the past 5 years may indicate the status and priority. Some promising crops with high export potential may be considered for inclusion or the crops which are being largely imported like food grains get priority. Accordingly it has been proposed to enhance the area under high yielding varieties of cereals like rice, wheat and maize along with fruits and vegetables under irrigated agro-eco-systems. 5.2.6. ~ Marketability of Crops The extent of commercial production of various crops depends on their scope and marketability both for domestic consumption and export purposes. Therefore, the marketing review of major crops of the country is very important. 5.2.7. Existing Crops and their Categories Cereals: Wheat, Barley, Tef, Maize, Sorghum, Finger millet. Pulses: Haricotbeans, Chickpea, Lentil, Fababean, Fenugreek, Field pea, Grasspea, Vetch Oilseeds: Linseed, Noug, Vegetables: Potato, Cabbage, Onion, Garlic Forage grasses and legumes (naturally grown) 5.2.7.I. Cereals The cereals and pulses production in Ethiopia has remained almost static with a little fluctuation due to droughts or erratic behavior of rains. The annual production during 2003-2004 was about 10, 287 tons but due to increasing trend in population, the per capita food availability is declining. Hence, with the increasing demand of food, there has been significant increase in the import of food grains. Therefore, top priorities have to be given to food production. Hence, the selection of crops and cropping pattern purely based on economic consideration will neither be realistic nor in the national interest. Keeping this in view, the priority has been given to select most productive cereals like Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 37Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy teff, wheat and maize due to their high yield potential and good response to irrigation. These crops, accordingly, have been given due emphasis in the proposed cropping pattern. 5.2.7.2. Pulses The pulses play an important role in nutritional security providing adequate proteins in the human diet and improve the soil fertility by rhizobial nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere. However, national consumption of pulses is low but there is considerable export market. Therefore, the pulse crops have been included as a component of the cropping pattern to sustain the crop productivity and part of nutritional security. 5.2.7.3. Oilseeds Although per capita edible oil consumption is low in the country, the present level of production is unable to meet the domestic needs. Therefore, the oilseeds have been added as one of the components of the cropping pattern to meet the domestic requirements and existing quantity of exports to earn foreign exchange. This will also help in the appropriate use of natural resources and maintain the eco-friendly production system. This will also promote the agro-industries at local level. 5.2.7.4. Fruits and Vegetables About 95% of the total quantity of vegetables marketed in the country comes from peasant sector where as 75% fruits from the state sector. The local consumption of fruits and vegetables are very limited. Only a small proportion of population with high income appears to consume fruits. There also seems to be the deficiency and inadequacy of quality control, grading, packaging, storage, marketing infrastructures, transport etc. adding to the unit cost of the produce. Though ETFRUIT is engaged in export of high value fruits, vegetables and cut flowers to Europe and Middle East by air, difficulties are being faced to have adequate facilities of cool chambers, cold storages and appropriate transportation systems from different parts of the country with minimum spoilage. There is, however considerable scope to increase the export particularly to Middle East and other African countries. Therefore, based on the suitability, reasonable percentage of fruits and vegetables has been included in the cropping pattern. The production of vegetables like tomato and potato will help in the promotion of agro-industries for production of tomato and potato products for their exports to neighboring countries. Therefore, it has been proposed to grow vegetables through out the year as a part of the cropping pattern for maintaining the continuous supply of materials for processing. The crops/varieties will be selected as per the climatic suitability and requirements. 5.2.7.5. Fodder Crops and Cultivated Grasses The cattle are one of the important components of Ethiopian agriculture to provide major part of energy for farm operations besides milk, meat, hides and manures. The importance of livestock is to continue even in irrigated farming system to sustain the productivity. To enhance the productivity of livestock, it is necessary to provide them adequate and nutritive feed and forages in addition to crop residues and other farm by products. Hence, adequate provision has been made in cropping pattern to grow annual and perennial forage crops and cultivated grasses to provide year round fodder to cattle. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 38II Becho Plain Feasibility Study On irrigation Agronomy M « V M 6. PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN AND CROP CALENDAR 6.1. Introduction Soil, water, vegetation and climate are considered to be the most basic natural resources for agricultural growth and development, which are subjected to various kinds of deteriorating influences and indiscriminate exploitation. In this context, to meet the challenging demand of food and fiber for burgeoning human population, fodder for animals and industrial raw materials for agro-based industries, efficient management of natural resources will continue to play a pivotal role in crop production activity. Since agricultural development with positive growth cannot subsist on deteriorating natural resource base, it will be imperative to consider the proper planning of agricultural production for their conservation and positive improvement for fiiture sustenance. This is possible mainly by the development and use of eco-friendly, resource-use-efficient agro technologies for attaining the production goals while ensuring sustainable use of natural resources and high efficiency of inputs. Besides other production inputs like seed, improved varieties, fertilizers, chemicals etc., the introduction of adequate irrigation water, one of the most important crop production inputs in irrigated agriculture, plays a vital role in the selection of crops and appropriate economic cropping pattern for sustainable agricultural production. 6.2. Crop Planning Crop planning is the judgment and decision making on how best the present way of cropping can be suitably modified so as to give best results desired. It requires efforts to integrate resources, technical knowledge and experience to maximize profits. It should be done taking fanners into confidence to consider alternatives to prepare best cropping plan to suit the conditions with optimum utilization of available resources. An essential element of the objectives of crop planning is not only the maximization of the benefits of the various inputs that go in to agriculture i.e., the land, water, human resources etc. but also an improvement in the economic situation of the people of the area under consideration. The important requirement of crop planning is not only from the point of view of balancing production with demand curves but also from the point of view of trying to use planning as a method of correcting difficult situations like failure of a particular group of crop to be off set by producing other crop of the same group subsequently to meet the requirement of the people. Hence, the purpose of crop planning should be also to help overcome the problems arising from adverse seasons. In an economic situation, which is developing as a result of fast growing population, rising aspiration of people and land going out of cultivation for various other uses like roads, bridges, factories, homes etc. where there is continuous loss of land from agriculture, crop planning becomes very important. Crop planning also tries to help to overcome the serious effects of adverse weather on agricultural economy of a country, which are so many dependants upon agriculture not only for its food supply but also for its employment and its income. Naturally it cannot afford to take risk and create conditions where serious fluctuation in production might occur year after year. Presently, there has been a positive trend of switching to crop varieties relatively insensitive to photo-period and temperature. This provides a considerable amount of flexibility in handling the material. In crop planning, the main considerations to be given are: Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 39Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy • The soil of the project command area, • Climatic condition of the area, • Cost, income and risk involved in growing crops, • Capital, labour and other resources availability, • Special needs of the farmers - home requirement of food grains, fodder for cattle etc, • Scientific advances made through research. 6.3. The Existing Crop Calendar in Becho Plain In Becho plain woredas and the project command area the existing meher crop calendar is where major crop husbandry activities, i.e., land preparation, seed sowing and harvesting commence from the month of March/April. Crop production is solely dependent on rainfall and hence termed as rain fed agriculture (Annex IX). In rain fed agriculture crop yields are higher only when the amount and distribution of rainfall is fairly distributed over large areas of farm lands. This phenomenon cannot be realized uniformly as there is unexpected drought at any one time of the year which may result in very low farm yields. The repeated climatic catastrophe over a period of years has lowered production and productivity of farm lands in Becho plain. To minimize the environmental risk related to cessation of rainfall and moisture scarcity, the use of the available ground water as supplementary measure is immensely important. In view of this fact, a new cropping pattern and crop calendar is proposed that can make use of the two systems of production by way of double cropping (Table 6.1). The system of double cropping will also enhance the introduction of new crop varieties and hence result in diversification of crops in an area where it hasn't been known. The crop calendar is also prepared to calculate actual water requirements of crops under irrigated production systems. Crop rotation or growing more than one crop in sequence in a year on the same land is a practice followed in general. Crops are chosen for rotation keeping in view of the climatic suitability, substance of soil fertility, socio-economic needis of farmers, market demand etc. Crop rotations increase the yields and facilitate sustained productivity through increased nitrogen supply, improvement of soil health, water and nutrient availability, and improvement in soil microbial activity, improvement in weed control, decreased disease-pest pressure and availability of growth promoting substances originating from crop residues. Maintenance of soil health has been kept in mind while knitting various crops in different adaptable and adoptable crop sequences. It should not be monocropped on the same field year after year or else the soil will become sick. The soil sickness owing to continuous cultivation of sorghum has been proved beyond doubt through the research work done by a good number of researchers in the country and the world at large. An examination of the crop rotations would bring out that a rotation has been so proposed that each surface feeding (exhaustive) crop has either been preceded or succeeded by a grain / fodder legume or fallow (Table 6.1). Assuming that crop rotation will be applied, the crop calendar (Table 6.2) is based on this proposed scheme of crop rotations. The cropping Pattern proposed for the Becho irrigation project is given in Table 6.1 for the main season for rain fed production system Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 40Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy after the establishment of irrigation system, based on altitude, agro-climatic parameters and land suitability. In general, a soil depth of more than 100 cm is suitable for all the crops recommended for cultivation in the project area. The introduction of high yielding photo-insensitive dwarf varieties of rice and wheat and high yielding medium duration hybrids and composites of maize have been proposed to be grown in rotation. The project command is also suitable for sugarcane but there is no provision of processing at this stage. The rotations should have proper intermix of legumes and pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, forage crops of short duration etc. instead of long duration low yielding traditional varieties which are being grown in the existing farming system. The above cereal-based rotations in the cropping system will be able to provide adequate food grains due to their 4 to 5 times high yield potential with optimum production inputs. The proposed crops like maize, wheat, rice etc. are to be grown by a few farmers in the command area, which indicates the suitability of climate and soil for these crops. Since, these crops suffer due to moisture stress in dry season, the irrigation would help to provide need-based moisture and encourage the use of other inputs for their high productivity. The land suitability report indicates large part of vertisols with water logging problems during the wet season. Such area are proposed to be cultivated with high yielding varieties of rice having fine long grains for increasing the food grain production and to contain the rice import to the country. Wheat is another important cereal crop already being grown wherever moisture is available. Since, the soil and climate are favorable for its growth, the intensification of crop in larger hectarage by introducing new varieties of bread and durum wheat responsive to nutrients and water would enhance the productivity at least 4-5 folds as compared to sorghum and teff. Since maize is already an important and productive crop of the project command, the replacement of local variety with full season (90-110 days duration) hybrids and composites with high yield potential and better nutritional value will fit very well in the proposed cropping pattern. To maintain sustainable agricultural production, it has been proposed to grow pulse crops, oil seeds and vegetables as a part of the cropping pattern. In the existing farming system of Becho plain and the command area, mixed farming is a common feature. Some sort of mixed farming system need to continue, hence the cropping system includes the perennial legumes and grasses to support the livestock with nutritive feed along with other feed resources to enhance the production of milk and meat and also to provide encouragement for product preparation and agro-industries. The above proposed patterns are in line with the current policy of Federal Government of Ethiopia on agriculture as given in the policy section 1 of this report to attain the self- sufficiency in food production, full and efficient utilization of land and water resources and maintain environmental and ecological balance while attaining maximum agricultural production potential. The yield is likely to be improved further by introduction of improved tools and bullock drawn implements for timely field operation. This type of partial mechanization would improve the efficiency of labor force, reduce their drudgery and boost the rural based agro industries generating more employment opportunities. This will help in improving the economic situation of the people by providing better nutrition and marketable surpluses, at the same time provide healthy environment. Wiiw Works SupwUtoa Eutecpnw 41Since the Becho plain and Irri^iic/n (Jommand men is tpandy pvpiA&ai and Awa «M have technological support on crop# due to the absent* of a strong research suu® h the project area, hence it is important to consider the establishment of a good research Mask® cum demonstration center for generation of need-based production tecfcnotojpe*. their assessment and refinement for further dissemination. Such msuuaiai may ahohdp «a fast resettlement of the fanners in the area and help providing improved tecoaoiogicaJ support for the farmers of the command area. Table 12Proposed crop rotation scheme during the rainy and dry hjw« Sr.No Rainy season Dtyteanon 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Rice_____________________ ________ ► CMacrpctas Teff------------------------------------------ ► Hancs&ean Wheat-------------------------------------------- ► Oadapra and hti Barley ------------------------------------- —----- ► Cnasapea Chickpea ----------------------------------------- » Sorgfram Lentil----------------------------------------------- » Maze Fababean —► Potato Field pea — ----------------------------------- * Other vegetables Maize -----------------------------------------------> Linseed SorghumLinseed Fruit crops----------------------------------------- » (coa6atm afl rand the year} Potato---------------------------------------------- •> Fodder Onion ----------------------------------------------- ► Other oil cmp» Garlic _______________________________ Fallow Pepper ______________________________ Hsof. Vetch _______________________________ >. Fenugreek _____________________ Tawatte Other vegetables -----------------------------►Fatow ffiny®. 6.4. Proposed Integrated Agricultural Production In view of intensification of irrigated agriculture, the development of dvnanric cropping plans involving various factors of production systems are of great importance for fte project command area. The above system would help maintaining the production with proper utilization of natural resources under eco-friendly environments A broad based di versification of agriculture involving field crops, horticultural crons, and agrO’forcstry with suitable mix of other related areas, need based mechanisation under the prevailing form situations would be able to improve productivity, efficiency hence, the Increase In agricultural production. In this endeavor. Increased application J edge technologies along with Improved and economically viable agro^hnioues wdd play a very vita role, The Integrated agricultural production planning would be able ro address the major issues of resource management interacting with other production VVgler Worki Design and Supervision EnterpriseI I I I I 1 I I I I I ■ ■ * Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy * * systems and system related technologies. The system will help in appreciation of value of commerce in agriculture and the decisions of the farmers on land use would be mostly based on comparative advantages rather than on subsistence needs of the farm households. Therefore, one may expect a major shift in agricultural production from food grains to vegetables, fruits, flowers, fuel wood, fodder etc. The shift in production system is likely to benefit and boost the process of integration with world market, urbanization and personal income (farmer) besides sustainable food production, and gainful employment. On the basis of existing scenario of crops and cropping pattern in Becho plain Irrigation command area supported by soil characteristics and land evaluation studies, socio economic status of the people, climatic suitability of the area for agriculture along with the export and import status of the country and present Government policy on food and nutritional security, the crops with high production potential, responsive to irrigation and other production inputs have been selected. It has also been considered important to introduce intensive agricultural production system to optimize production per unit of land and to create more employment opportunity in the area. Accordingly, it has been suggested to make use of semi-dwarf, photo-insensitive, medium duration high quality varieties, particularly of cereals that have greater degree of water and nutrient-use efficiency and good marketability. In the light of the above, the cropping pattern has been proposed under the irrigated production system • — — The detailed crop calendar has been prepared to work out efficient land use planning and appropriate crop water requirement. In view of the emphasis being given on food and nutritional security in the country and in the light of poverty alleviation programs, it has been further proposed to integrate, the crop production system with horticultural crops, livestock and allied disciplines of production for sustainable yield with eco-friendly environment. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 43 !Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Aeronomy Table 13Proposed Cropping Pattern and Crop Calendar for the Project Command Area A. Jtvainy//ne Crop /i er svusuu Cov erage % Field Occupancy period ------------------ Crop duration Tillage Period Pre-sowing Irrigation (mm) Planting period Harvesting period Cut off date for Last Irrigation Rice 15 15 June - 20 Oct 126 Apr - Jun 50 15 June 20-Oct 30-Sep Teff 10 10 July-30 Nov 143 Mar - Jun 10-Jul 30-Nov 10-Nov Wheat 10 25 June - 31 Oct 128 Apr - June 25-Jun 31-Oct 11-Nov Barley 10 25 June - 31 Oct 128 Apr - June 25-Jun 31-Oct 11-Oct Maize 5 20 June - 31 Oct 133 Apr - May 20-Jun 31-Oct 11-Oct Sorghum 5 20 June- 15 Nov 148 Apr - May 20-Jun 15-Nov 27-Oct Chickpea 5 25 Aug - 25 Nov 127 June - July 25-Aug 25-Nov 5-Nov Lentil 5 25 Jul - 25 Nov 92 May - June 25-Jul 25-Nov 5-Nov Fababean 6 10 June - 30 Sep 112 April - May 10-Jun 30-Sep 10-Sep Fieldpea 6 10 June - 30 Sep 112 April - May 10-Jun 30-Sep 10-Sep Potato 4 15 June - 30 Sep 107 Apr - May 15-Jun 30-Sep 10-Sep Onion 4 15 June - 30 Sep 107 Apr - May 15-Jun 30-Sep 10-Sep Garlic 3 15 June - 30 Sep 107 Apr - May 15-Jun 30-Sep 10-Sep Pepper 3 15 June - 30 Sep 107 Apr - May 15-Jun 30-Sep 10-Sep Other vegetables I 15 June - 30 Sep 107 Apr - May 15-Jun 30-Sep 10-Sep Vetch 2 15 July - 30 Nov 138 May - June 15-Jun 30-Nov 10-Nov Fenugreek 1 25 Aug - 25 Dec 122 July-August 25-Aug 25-Dec 5-Dec Sub total 95Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 6.2. Continued... B. Dry/Be/g season (February - June) I Crop Cov erage % Field Occupancy period Crop duration Tillage Period Pre-sowing Irrigation (mm) Planting period Harvesting period Cut off date for Last Irrigation Sorghum 14 15 Feb-31 May 105 Dec - Jan 50 15-Feb 31-May 11-May Maize 14 15Feb-31May 105 Dec - Jan 50 15-Feb 31-May 11-May Haricot Bean 10 15 Feb -10 Jun 115 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Chickpea 4 15 Feb -10 Jun 115 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Lentil 4 15 Feb-10 Jun 115 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Grasspea 6 15 Feb - 10 Jun 115 Nov - Dec 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Other pulse crops 10 15 Feb -10 Jun 115 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Linseed 10 15 Feb -10 Jun 115 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Noug 3 15 Feb -10 Jun 115 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Other oil crops 6 15 Feb -10 Jun 115 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Potato 5 5 Feb - 15 Jun 130 Nov - Dec 50 5-Feb 15-Jun 26-May Tomato 1 5 Feb - 15 Jun 130 Nov - Dec 50 5-Feb 15-Jun 26-May Other vegetables 4 15 Feb -10 Jun 130 Nov - Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Fodder crops 4 15 Feb -10 Jun 115 Nov • Jan 50 15-Feb 10-Jun 21-May Sub total 95 C. Rainy and Dry/ Melter & Belg season (all the year round) Fruit crops 5 20 June onwards 365 Apr - Jun 100 20-Jun Sub total 5 Total 195 NB: Cut off number of days for last irrigation is 20 - 21 days before harvest.Dccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 7. CROP WATER REQUIRMENT 7.1. Introduction The calculation of crop water requirement is a very important aspect for planning of a cropping system for any irrigation project. There are several methods and procedures available for this. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations has also made available several publications on this subject including the issues related to this. 7.2. Procedure for Calculation The crop water requirement of each crop included in rotations has been calculated following the procedures recommended in FAO publications for calculation of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) by using Pennman Montieth Approach (FAO Irrigation & Drainage paper No.46). Suitable crop coefficients were selected for different stages of growth to calculate crop water requirements by considering the agricultural practices, climatic parameters, cropping pattern, crop calendar, cropping intensities etc. The crop production technologies of important field and horticultural crops have been given considering the irrigated production system with optimum inputs and production practices to achieve reasonable yield per hectare. The major crops included are teff, wheat, maize (cereals), linseed, Noug (oilseeds), field peas, chick peas, hancot bean, faba bean (Pulses), potato, onion, tomato, cabbage (vegetable) and vetch (forage). As recommended in FAO Publications three steps are involved in the calculation of the crop water requirement. 7.2.1. Calculation of Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) The crop water requirement is dependent on the meteorological factors, and Reference Evapotranspiration (ET ) presents the effect of meteorological factors. The following 0 Meteorological factors are taken into consideration for calculation of Reference Evapotranspiration by Modified Penmam Method (FAO I & D paper No. 24) & Penmam Montieth Approach (FAO I & D paper No. 46): temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity and sunshine hours. 7.2.2. Selection of Values for Crop Coefficient: The effect of crop on its water requirement is represented by crop co-efficient (K<). This is presented by the relationship between reference Evapotranspiration (ET0) and crop evapotranspiration ETcrop or ETC as ET^p = KJET . The values for crop coefficient vary with the 0 crop, its stage of growth, growing season and prevailing water condition. The second step is required to select suitable values for crop coefficient. 7.2.3. Effect of Agricultural Practice and Local Conditions This requires evaluation of the effect of climate and its variability over time and space This also needs to evaluate the effect of soil water availability and agricultural and irrigation practices The three steps as enumerated above will be able to give the crop water requirement during its cron period at monthly interval. This requirement will be in the field. Therefore the losses in the Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 46JBtcho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy irrigation system have to be incorporated to arrive at the water requirement at the head of the irrigation system. 7.2.4. Sources of Climatic Data There is one observation station for recording climatic data near by the project area. This meteorological station is located at Tulubolo where recorded data for all climatic factors are available for sufficiently long periods and is closer to the command area. Therefore, the climatic data have been used for calculation of Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo). The climatic data measured at this station are rainfall, temperature, relative humidity, sunshine hours and wind speed. The summary of the Meteorological characteristics computed for the project area is given in Table 2.2 along with their characteristics and other details. The estimated maximum and minimum temperatures (°C), relative humidity (%), mean daily sunshine duration, mean daily ETo, mean monthly ETo and mean monthly rainfall are given from Annex II - VI. 7.2.5. Estimation of ETo ETo has been calculated by the Modified Penman-Monteith method on a monthly basis using estimated climatological data for the project area from 1962 to 2004 for each month of the year. These have been calculated by Penman-Monteith Approach with computer programme available in FAO I & D paper No 56. These values for the mean daily and mean monthly are available in Table 2.2. From these values the average ETo have been calculated based on non-exceedance probability as shown in Table 2.2. ETo has also been calculated on the basis of average monthly climatic data for the period 1962 to 2004. The average monthly values of ETo derived from the monthly values of ETo calculated for each month for every year of record and those calculated on the basis of average monthly climatic data tally veiy closely. 7.2.6. Cropping Pattern The Project is being planned for cultivation of cereals, pulses, oil seeds, horticultural crops and forages. Therefore, the crop water requirement has been calculated based on the proposed percentage of land allocated for the different crops. The details of cropping pattern are given in Table 6.1. The cropping pattern and the cropping intensity have been planned for one phase. In this phase the optimum cropping intensity of 195% has been adopted. The abstracts of the monthly crop water requirement based on the proposed cropping intensity for different crops have been prepared for the given phase. Besides cropping intensity for different crops, the losses in the canal system have also been appropriately accounted for. Therefore, these calculation sheets give the gross monthly water requirement at the head of canal both in terms of depth of water in mm and m per hectare. 3 7.2.7. Planting Dates and Crop Calendar The planting dates of the various crops have been proposed based on the local practices and experiences. Two different cropping calendars i.e., rainy and dry season have already been prepared to be utilized and crop water requirement (Table 7.1) has been estimated based on these proposed crop types and cropping calendars. The detailed crop water requirement during the rainy/zneher season and dry/belg season for the crops considered in the cropping calendar is presented in Annex X and XI respectively. Keeping in view of the expected in the Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 47Study On Irrigation Agronomy intensity of crops as the time passes and for maintaining the fertility level of fields, phasing of cropping intensities in two phases and a rotation in each phase have been propose 7.2.8. Crop Coefficient (Ke) Kc is the experimentally derived crop coefficient that is presented to relate ET to crop 0 evapotranspiration (ETcrop = ETc = kcET ). For the given crop types and cropping patterns; the 0 corresponding Kc values are selected from FAO's publications and other itera ures aval the subject and the monthly ET for the respective crops is computed. CBccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Table 14Summary of CWR & NIR for Becho Plain Irrigation Development on a 100 ha Command Area Rain y/Me/ier seas on Dry/Be/g se ason Total CCA CWR NIR in CCA CWR NIR in CCA CWR NIR in Crops (mm) 000’m3 Crops (mm) 000’m3 (mm) 000’m3 Rice 15 15.79 2.89 Sorghum 14 131.40 26.52 Tef 10 30.41 3.68 Maize 14 179.00 33.12 Wheat 10 0.00 0.45 Haricotbean 10 108.77 13.71 Barley 10 0.00 0.25 Linseed 10 106.11 13.44 Chickpea 5 129.16 6.77 Other Pulses 10 108.77 13.71 Lentil 5 129.16 6.77 Other Oils 6 106.11 8.06 Fababcan 6 0.00 0.00 Grasspea 6 108.77 8.22 Fieldpea 6 0.00 0.00 Potato 5 177.45 10.29 Maize 5 24.00 2.33 Chickpea 4 108.77 5.48 Sorghum 5 68.69 4.17 Lentil 4 108.77 5.48 Fruit crops 5 591.56 30.46 Fodder Crop 4 146.30 6.99 Potato 4 0.00 0.00 Other Veg. 4 166.05 7.78 Onion 4 0.00 0.00 Noug/Niger 3 106.11 4.03 Garlic 3 0.00 0.00 Tomato 1 157.21 2.06 Pepper 3 0.00 0.00 • • Vetch 2 98.60 2.09 • Fenugreek 1 182.11 1.87 Other Veg. 1 0.00 0.00jcchoi Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 7.3. Irrigation System and Water Application Efficiencies Water application efficiency is an irrigation concept that is very important both in system selection and design and in irrigation management. The ability of an irrigation system to apply water uniformly and efficiently to the irrigated area is a major factor influencing the agronomic and economic viability of the farm enterprise. Attainable water application efficiencies vary greatly with irrigation system type and management, but the following ranges give some ideas of the efficiency that maybe achieved with a reasonable design management as shown in Table 7.2. Table lSWater Application Efficiencies Type of System Attainable Efficiencies Surface Irrigation -- Basin 80 - 90% - Border 70 - 85% - Furrow 60 - 75% Sprinkler Irrigation - Hand move or Portable 65 - 75% -Traveling Gun 60 - 70 % - Center Pivot and Linear move 75 - 90% - Solid set or Permanent 70 - 80 % Trickle Irrigation - With Point Source Emitters 75 - 90 % --With Line Source Product. 70 - 85 % Irrigation efficiency can be divided into two components: water losses and uniformity of application. If either the water losses are large, or the uniformity is poor, efficiency will be low. Although both components of efficiency are influenced by system design and management, losses are predominantly affected by management, while uniformity is predominantly affected by system design. Because of these facts the Becho command area will be an over head and the efficiency will be between 65 to 75 percent. 7.4. Irrigation Scheduling and Water Management This may be noted that the actual irrigation will be carried out according to the irrigation schedule to be worked out based on stage of crop development, prevailing climatic data and water management practices proposed to be adopted during actual operation of the irrigation system. For this enough scope and sufficient flexibility has been provided in the system. Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 50Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.0. CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES 8.1. Introduction The Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) through a network of Agricultural Research centers in country has been engaged in conducting the agricultural research mainly on rain fed crops for development of production technologies on various crops and livestock for different agro-climatic regions. Only very limited efforts have, so far, been made on the generation of adequate appropriate technologies for irrigated production systems with high-yielding, genetically high potential and high input -use efficient cultivars to achieve the food and nutritional security along with efficient land use and high profitability. Hence, it is necessary that applied research related to irrigated crop production technology under the agro-climatic condition of Becho plain Irrigation Project command is separately perused to develop location-specific agro-techniques and varieties and hybrids for intensification of production system. This will help in attaining high level of production from different crops as well as full and efficient utilization of available land and water resources. While the above efforts may take time and more resources, the agro-techniques and varieties developed under irrigated production system of the appropriate part of the world may be-introduced and tested for their adaptability and immediate use. Meanwhile efforts have been made by consultant to include the crop production technologies of the important crops identified for the command area that can be authenticated as and when more and better information generated by the local research centers. The present information given is a collection of materials from EIAR and other authenticated sources on crop production and management in irrigated production system for most responsive, efficient and potential crops for the Becho plain command area. 8.2. Maize, Zea mays Local name: Bekolo 8.2.1. Introduction Maize is grown for grain as well as forage. Maize is one of the most important cereals of the world and ranks as a first followed by rice, wheat and millets. It is said to be the native to the Americas-region of Central America. Present world production of maize is about 445 million tons from about 118 million hectares. Out of many crops grown in this country, maize, which is comparatively of recent introduction, ranks first in yield/ha, fourth in total grain yield and fifth in total hectarage (after teff, barley, sorghum and wheat). The crop is used as a staple food for humans and fodder for livestock. Different types of food, like, 'Injera', porridge, malting and brewing products etc. are prepared from maize. The green cobs are roasted. In future, maize can be a source of starch, protein and oil. Maize is fermented and distilled to provide industrial products like ethyle, and butyl alcohol, acetone, glycerol and acetic acid. Maize is also a cheap and major ingredient for animal feed. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 51Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.2.3. Varieties There are seven main groups of maize varieties, namely, dent com, flint com, sweet com, flour or soft com, waxy com, pop com and pod com. Major area under maize is covered during wet season as rainfed crop. In the absence of regular rainfall, production remains low. Varieties/hybrids vary in their duration from 60-70 to 100-110 days from seed to seed. After emergence the grain colour also varies from yellow to orange and white. Mainly flint kernel type is preferred one. Based on the maturity period, the varieties can be grouped as full season maturity, medium maturity, early maturity and very early maturity. Hybrids and composites of full season maturity group-require 100-110 days or more to mature. These cultivars are more suitable for the areas having assured rainfall or sufficient irrigation water during the crop-growing period. Similarly, the medium maturity group cultivars requiring 85-95 days to mature can be grown under both rainfed and irrigated production system. 8.2.4. Climatic conditions Maize because of its many divergent types, is grown over a wide range of climatic conditions, ranging from near sea-level to several thousand meter above sea-level from temperate to tropic. Maize is essentially a warm weather crop. It is widely cultivated from sea level upto an altitude of 2,400m where mean daily temperatures are above 15 c. Adaptability of varieties and hybrids in different climates vary widely. The right xhoice of the variety should be such that the length of growing period of crop matches with the length of growing season. Maize is a sun and water-loving crop and long hot growing season with plenty of sunshine is favorable. If the mean daily temperature during the growing season is above 20°c, the crop takes much less period to mature than in lower temperatures. At temperatures ranging between 10 to 15 c, the seed setting is generally hampered. Optimum temperature for germination is 18° to 20°c. The crop fails at temperatures above 45°c. It can tolerate hot and dry weather conditions provided there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Temperature requirements, expressed as the sum of mean daily temperatures are 3,700 degree-days for late, 2,500 to 3,000 for medium and 1,800 degree-days for short duration varieties. Maize is very sensitive to frost particularly at seedling stage. The growing period can be reduced with irrigation. 8.2.5. Soils Maize can grow on any type of soil ranging from deep heavy clays to’ light sandy ones. However, heavy dense clay and very sandy soils are not so suitable but heavy soils with clay content possess a high water holding capacity, organic matter and nutrients. Deep, fertile, well-drained medium soils (loam to silty loam) are most suited to the crop. The crop is susceptible to waterlogging and poor aeration conditions. The fertility demands for grain maize are relatively high and, in general, the crop can be grown continuously as long as the soil fertility is maintained. The crop is moderately sensitive to salinity but a soil PH in the range of 7.5 to 8.5 supports good crop growth. The yield decreases under increasing soil salinity. 8.2.6. Field Preparation A clean, smooth, deeply ploughed but firm seedbed is ideal. It is desirable to give first ploughing with mould board plough to bury the previous crop residues. Two to three Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 52Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy subsequent harrowing may be done to obtain fine tilth. Surface drains can be provided under conditions where waterlogging is suspected. 8.2.7. Time and method of sowing The date of sowing has to be suitably adjusted to realize maximum yield potential by making best use of natural precipitation. Maize is generally sown in June or even earlier with the outbreak of rains. Late maturing varieties are essentially sown early. Dry season maize can be sown with irrigation in December-January. It is generally sown by seed drill in rows spaced at 60 to 75cm apart. Spacing between plants in a row is kept at 18 to 20 cm. The depth of sowing is about 3-5cm. Spacing varies with variety and agro- climatic conditions. In wet season crop a population of 70,000 and December crop 90,000 plants /ha should be maintained at harvest for good yield. 8.2.8. Seed rate A seedrate of 20 to 30 kg/ha is sufficient for the seed crop depending upon the variety/hybrids, seed weight and agroclimatic conditions. In case of fodder, the seedrate is raised to 40-50 kg/ha. When mixed with sorghum or any legume, the seedrate is reduced. It should be ensured that the seeds have at least 95% germination. Seed lots with less than 80% germination are likely to impart poor seedling vigour. 8.2.9. Manure and Fertilizer Fertilizer is one input, which plays a vital role in obtaining optimum yield. Maize is a heavy feeder of nitrogen, phosphorous, potash, calcium and magnesium. Maize contains more N in its grains than any other soil-derived nutrients; hence require more of N for its production. Fertilizer application to provide 80-120 kg nitrogen, 40-60 kg P2OS and 30- 40 kg of K2O per hectare may be given depending upon soil fertility, variety grown and adequacy of water availability. One-fourth of total nitrogen and total quantity of phsophatic and potassic fertilizers may be applied as basal dose at the time of sowing or applied in bands 5-7 cm deep before sowing. The rest of N should be applied in two equal doses as side dressing. When the crop is at knee high stage (20-30 days after germination) and rest of N should be applied after the emergence of flag leaf but before tassels emergence. Zinc sulphate @ 10 to 15 kg/ha may be applied as basal, if zinc is deficient. The fertilizer should be applied 10-12 cm away from the base of the plant to avoid any leaf injury. 8.2.10. Intcrculture Weeding can be done either manually or mechanically between the rows. However, within row itself it should be done by hand. Two to three timely weedings may be necessary to keep the field completely free from weeds and attain high yields. The crop may be earthed up to provide for better standability. Weeding after flowering may damage lateral roots. Weeds can also be controlled by the use of herbicides, like Atrazine @1.0 kg a.i. ha as pre-emergence application after sowing combined with 1-2 hand weeding. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 53I I I I I I I I I I I I fl fl I I I I Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.2.11. Water requirements Maize is an efficient user of water in terms of total dry matter production. It is potentially the highest yielding grain crop among cereals. The water requirement of medium duration crop is between 500 to 800 mm depending upon climatic conditions. The crop coefficient (Kc) for different growth stages are: initial stage 0.3-.0.5 (15 to 30 days), development stage 0.7-0.85 (30 to 45 days), mid season stage 1.05-1.2 (30 to 45 days), late season stage 0.8-0.9 and at harvest 0.55-0.6. Frequency and depth of irrigation has a pronounced effect on grain yield. Crop is tolerant to water deficits during vegetative and ripening periods and sensitive during flowering period including tasselling, silking and pollination. Severe water stress during flowering may result in little or no grain yield due to drying of silk. Water deficit during grain formation may lead to reduction in grain size and yield. Waterlogging, particularly during flowering and grain formation stages may reduce grain yield upto 50%. Most of the roots of maize are concentrated in the upper 0.8 to 1.0 m depth and 80% water is depleted from this zone. The optimum water depletion level is about 40% in establishment period, between 55-65% during vegetative, flowering and grain formation periods and upto 80% during ripening period. 8.2.12. Intercropping Short duration varieties of Pulses, most vegetables, and oilseed crops can successfully be intercropped in maize. Though maize yield under inter cropping is not less than that of the sole maize, rather enter crop yield is a bonus to the fanners. Short statured varieties of maize with erect leaf orientation Performs better under inter cropping as they not only avoid over-shadowing of the intercrop, but also make a better use of sunlight 8.2.13. Harvesting and yield Harvesting of crop is done when grains are nearly dry and do not contain more than 20% moisture. The appearance of the plant may be misleading particularly in case of high yielding hybrids whose grain may dry while the plant may still look green. Ears (cobs) are removed manually from the plant and dried in sun before shelling. In case of delayed sown crop the field is required to be prepared for next season by harvesting whole plant and cobs removed later on. All parts of the plant including the cobs, from which the grain has been removed, are utilized. In experimental plots, yields upto 120q/ha have been obtained. However, under good field conditions, yield between 60 to 70 q/ha of seed can be expected. 8.2.14. Pests and disease controls The various pests and diseases inflicting maize and their cure are as follows: a) Busseola fusca (maize stalk borer): Mostly found at elevations ranging from 1,235 to 2,600m. Cultural control measures include i) horizontal laying of stalks in the open field for several weeks, ii) removal of all trash stubbles, volunteer plants after harvest and destruction of all wild host plants, I Water Works Design and Supervision EnterpriseBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy iii) early planting iv) some hymenopterous parasitoids are known among which Apanteles seasmiae is the most widespread internal larval parasitoid killing 25.4% - 32.7% of the pest v) no resistant variety is available in the country to date, hence generation of resistant hybrids or composite is important. 8.2.15. Chemical Control Measures Include i. DDT @ 1 kg a.i./ha; two applications ii. Endosulfan @ 1 kg a.i. /ha three applications or iii. Carbaryl @ 1.3 kg. a.i./ha; three applications iv. Diazinon @ 10 kg. a.i./ha; three applications. b) Chilo Partellus (spotted stalk borer): To control 0.1% endosulfan (35 EC) should be applied on 10-15 days old crop, followed by second application of 4% Endosulfan granules at 15kg/ha in plant whorls a fortnight later, if necessary. c) Heliothis armigera (African bollworm): Their existence is found at altitudes of about 1,500m. The same control measures as for maize stalk borer may be adopted.: d) Rhopalesiphum maydis (Maize aphid): Cultural control measures are i) Timely harvesting and ii) Use of lodging resistant varieties. Chemical control measure include (Aldrin 40 WP @ 20-40 g a.i./10kg) of seed as seed dressing e) Spodoptera exampta (Army worm): Use light and pheromones traps to predict outbreak. Seed dressing with insecticides and/or fungicides is not effective. f) Diseases a) Southern com blights (Heleminthosporium maydis) b) Brown spot of com {Physo derma maydis) Spraying fungicides and sowing of resistant varieties, hybrids or composites can control the diseases.,.dd. 8.3. Wheat (Triticum spp.) Location Name: Sinde 8.3.1 Introduction Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is one of the important or second food crop of the world. The total world wheat production is estimated at 585 million tons from 214 million hectares during 1999-2001. There are three important species of Triticum namely T. aestivum. T. durum and T. dicoccum under cultivation. Out of these T. aestivum, the bread wheat and T. durum, the macoroni wheat are important. T.dicoccum, the cultivated emmer wheat is Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 55Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy grown in limited area. Triticum aestivum (bread wheat) is grown in largest area from sea level to an altitude of 3500m. Triticum durum is second most important species with good number of semi-dwarf high yielding varieties. T durum is a very good species for export due to its quality. Wheat crop was domesticated in the Near and Middle - East. Hundreds of preparations are made from wheat like bread, Indian 'Chapati', mixed with teff to prepare "Injera*1, Products like macaroni, spaghetti, noodles, porridge and host of backery products. Wheat straw is used as fodder for cattle. Bread wheat is the latest introduction in Ethiopia and has become a major cereal crop of the country. Durum wheat is indigenous and traditionally planted on heavy black clay soil (vetisols) at high altitudes. It is called "Yekinche Sinde" because of its association with above soil. 83.2. Varieties For obtaining the maximum yield, under good management and optimum conditions, the choice of appropriate variety plays a very important role. In the absence of right variety Proper technology cannot be applied effectively. Appropriate plant height, maturity, duration, disease resistance, fertilizer responsiveness, lodging and heat tolerance during grain filling period as well as shattering tolerance are some of the important features of a variety suitable for cultivation under irrigated conditions. Tall growing varieties have good performance under low input conditions but show low yield potential and poor disease resistance. Under irrigated agro-ecosystems, introduction of semi-dwarf varieties having high yield potential at all level of fertility has helped in high yields. These varieties are able to produce from 4.5 tonne to 6.5 tonnes and withstand fertilization upto 120kg N/ha. Such varieties are currently available in many countries under most irrigated production system and cultural environments namely early sown, late sown and very late situations. Semi-dwarf varieties are available for all the three wheat species for cultivation, in may wheat growing countries of the world. Development of wheat varieties is a continuous ongoing process, since most of the varieties in due course of time become susceptible to new forms of prevalent wheat diseases particularly rusts. Varieties that become extremely popular and cover more extensive area fall prey to new rust virulence more rapidly. Therefore, the coverage of very large area under one variety is discouraged and more than one variety should be made available for cultivation. More varieties need to be introduced for high yield from other countries till local research stations develop suitable and location specific high yielding varieties. 833. Climatic Conditions Wheat is grown in a wide range of climatic conditions. The crop is considered as rainfed in the temperate climates and as a winter rainfall crop in subtropics. It is also grown in highlands (above 1500m) of tropics near the equator and in tropical regions away from equator where the winter rainy season is long. Wheat is sown when average daily temperature falls to 22-23°c for good germination. Mean daily temperature for optimum growth and tillering is between 15 and 20°c. The crop can also be grown in temperature ranges of 12.5-15°c and 20°-22.5°c with reduced level of production. Temperatures of less than 10-12°c during the crop duration are hazardous. The high temperature of both Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 56Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy the ends of crop season determine the duration of crop. The crop is tolerant to frost of short durations. At the time of maturity, comparatively wanner climate is required. Optimum altitude range at which the crop growth and yield are highest is 2000-2600m. 8.3.4. Soils Wheat is grown in a wide range of soil types from sandy to clayey. Most suitable soil is medium textured sandy loam to clay loam having good drainage, high water holding capacity and fertility. The crop is moderately tolerant to salinity and optimum PH range is 6 to 8. Durum wheat is considered more suitable for cultivation on heavy and black soils whereas aestivum is grown in all types of soils. ECe at germination should not be more than 4 mmhos/cm. Yield decreases with increasing salinity. 8.3.5. Crop rotation With the increased emphasis on intensive cropping and high yields, the rotation pattern is rice-wheat as most productive one. A pulse crop is generally taken between these cereals to enrich the soil. Maize - wheat or wheat - maize is another important rotation of the area. Very intensive cropping sequences involving the raising of 3 crops within a year can also be followed by progressive farmers. This may involve raising a short duration variety of maize or rice, followed by short duration oilseeds, potato or peas for 60 days, followed by wheat sown in January. 8.3.6. Field Preparation Wheat crop requires well pulverized but compact seed-bed for good and uniform germination. To obtain well-pulverized soil having fine tilth, one deep ploughing with mould board plough is followed by 3-4 ploughings I harrowing. The field should be well leveled to obtain a uniform and good stand for efficient irrigation. It should be ensured that the field is completely free from weeds and clods. Recently zero-tillage and minimal tillage sowing practices using a specially designed zero-till seeding cum fertilizer drill have been introduced to save the time required to prepare seed-bed in rice-wheat rotations. This would reduce the cost of cultivation in weed free area. 8.3.7. Time and method of sowing The time of sowing wheat has a pronounced effect on the yield. Optimum dates for sowing in Ethiopia are considered from 25th June to early July on red and dark grey soils depending upon the onset of rains. The optimum period for seeding dry season crop is mid November to December. For seeding durum wheat it is first fortnight of July or mid November. The crop is sown by both broadcast as well as drill methods. Drilling the seed gives uniform and good stand with high yields as seed is placed at an uniform depth. This also helps in early emergence of vigorous seedlings. The depth of sowing should not be below 4-5cm for semi-dwarf varieties since they have a short coleoptile. 8.3.8. Seed rate and spacing Seed rate of the crop varies according to the soil type, climate, method of sowing and seed size. In general depending on the type of soil, die rate of seeding vary from 125-150 kg/ha for bread and durum varieties. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 57Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy In general the irrigated and timely sown crop is planted at 22.5 cm spacing between rows. Under ideal conditions of irrigation and fertility, closer row spacing of 15 to 20cm is adopted. When raised under unirrigated or rainfed conditions, wider spacing of 20cm or more is preferable. 8.3.9. Manure and Fertilizers To achieve high productivity levels use of synthetic fertilizers is very useful and essential. Large quantity of plant nutrients are removed from the soil along with the harvest of grain and straw. They are mostly N.P.K along with small quantity of several others. For sustainable production use of 5-10tons of farmyard manure 4-5 weeks before sowing is important. The fertilizer dose recommended for timely sown irrigated wheat is 80-150 kg N, 40-60kg P O 25 and 30kg k O based on soil 2 test. Half dose of nitrogenous and full dose of phosphatic fertilizers are drilled before sowing and balance dose of N is applied as top dressing at active tillering stage. Green Manuring with vetch has been found to be effective in increasing crop yield. Where green manure proceeds wheat, the fanner should give all the phosphorous that is subsequently used by wheat crop. In cropping system involving rice-wheat rotation, all the potassium needed under this system should be given to the rice crop and all the phosphorus to wheat crop, and N to both crops. 8.3.10. Interculture The crop may need one or two weeding. First weeding is done after 3-4 weeks of sowing followed by second weeding after 6 to 8 weeks depending upon the intensity of weed infestation. Weed can also be controlled by the use of herbicides. Keeping weeds under control is very crucial for achieving high yield levels. For control of non- graminaceous broad-leaf weeds, a spray of 2,4-D, sodium salt @ 625g a.i./ha in 750 liters water 4-6 weeks after sowing is effective. For control of foxtail and wild oats, use of Isoproturon @ 1.0kg a.i./ha as Pre-emergence 2-3 days after sowing is quite effective. 8.3.11. Water requirement Water requirement of high yielding crop is between 450 to 650 mm/season depending upon climate and length of growing period. The crop coefficient (Kc) during initial stage is 0.3 - 0.4 (15-20days), development stage 0.7-0.8 (25-30 days), mid-season stage 1.05- 1.2 (50 to 65 days) late season stage 0.65-0.7 (30 to 40 days) and at harvest 0.2-0.25. In case of high yielding dwarf wheat, the most critical stages of water requirement is crown root initiation or CRI stage (20 to 23 days after sowing), followed by late tillering, late jointing, milk and dough stages. Moisture stress at any of these stages singly or in combination would seriously affect the crop yield. Among these, CRI stage is most critical for irrigation since the crown roots are formed at around 2 cm of soil depth irrespective of depth of seed placement and this is the level which is subject to fastest drying. Under dry soil conditions roots fail to grow and subsequently result in yield loss. The rooting depth of wheat is comparatively shallow and about 80% of soil moisture is extracted from the topsoil layer of 60cm. Moderate moisture stress is experienced by the crop at moisture depletion levels of 60 to 70% of the total available soil moisture. The crop is generally irrigated by border and basin systems. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 58Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy The irrigation to wheat crop under medium soil conditions can be scheduled as under: i. 1 st watering at crown root initiation, after 3 weeks of sowing. ii. 2nd watering at late tillering stage iii. 3rd watering at heading or bloom stage iv. 4th watering at early dough stage v. 5th watering when the crop top is heavy. In case of sandy soils two more irrigations can be given. 8.3.12. Harvesting The crop is harvested when grains are fully developed and become dry. The plant also becomes dry and brown in colour. Harvesting may be done manually with the help of sickles. It can also be harvested and threshed mechanically with the help of combines. The crop is transported to the threshing floor, allowed to dry and threshing-winnowing operations follow. The seed is stored in bags after drying only. 8.3.13. Yield Yield of the crop depends on agro-climatic conditions, inputs applied and other factors. Under irrigated conditions, yield may vary from 30 to 65 q/ha depending on management practices and the level of inputs used. The progressive fanners may always harvest 60 q/ha and above. 8.3.14. Pest and diseases control Wheat mostly suffers from diseases only. For the control of rusts (Pucinia spp.) of different kinds, it is recommended to grow rust-resistant varieties. Three rusts namely leaf or brown caused by Puccinia recondita, Stripe or yellow rust caused by P. striformis, stem or black rust caused by P. gaminis tritici are most important. It is better to grow the latest rust resistant variety. Loose smut caused by Ustilago tritici is another important disease and can be controlled by growing resistant varieties. Hot water or solar heat treatment to seed is effective to control smut. Roughing of affected plant is also done. Before sowing the seed may be treated with systemic fungicides namely carboxin or carbendazim @ 2.5g/kg seed. For the control of rats the following measures may be adopted i. Field rat control: Zinc phosphide (2%) baited on wheat grain. ii. Mole rat control: Zinc phosphide (5%) baited on potato tuber. iii. Storage rat control: Zinc phosphide (1%) baited on wheat grain. Alternatively, brodifacoum (0.005%) can also be baited for the aforesaid three situations. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 59I I I I I I I I I I I Bee ho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.4. Field peas (Pisum Sativum L.) Local Name: Ater 8.4.1. Introduction Field peas (Pisum sativum L.) are grown for both fresh and dried seed. Present world production of field peas is about 13.5 million tons dry peas and 4.8 million tons fresh peas. Field peas are believed to have originated in Europe and western Asia from where the geographic dispersion occurred to the temperate as well as the tropical regions of the world, including Ethiopian highlands. Of the four major highland pulse crops in the country, fababeans (Vicia faba L.) and field peas rank ln and 2nd in terms of area, production and yield I ha. It is an important source of protein and has soil amelioration characteristics. Fesh pea seeds are eaten raw. Dry mature seeds contain moisture-10.6%, protein-22.5%, fats- 1.0%, carbohydrate-58.5%, fibre-4.4% and ash-3.0%. 8.4.2. Varieties Indigenous fieldpeas have poor harvest index, the plants are tall and deficient in disease resistance, the size of seeds is small and have mixed colors. Selection and hybridization programme was, therefore, initiated. A number of fieldpeas accessions/lines have been tested through national variety trials at multi locations. There are two varieties namely Adet-1 and sefinesh released from Adet Agricultural Research center for cultivation. These are high yielding varieties and shown at least 34% higher yield than local. 8.4.3. Climatic conditions Pea is a cool climate crop and requires moderately cool growing season. Hot and dry weather greatly reduce seed setting and yield. Optimum mean daily temperature for the crop is 12.5 to 17.5°C with lower and upper limits of 10°C and 23“C. Period for germination is increased with the decrease in soil temperature and reduces with the rise in I temperature. At soil temperatures between 20 to 30°C, germination takes place within 6- 7 days while at 5°C, it takes 30 days or more. It is grown as a cool season crop in areas away from equator. The growing period of fresh pea is 75 to 100 days with an addition of 20 days for dry peas. With the increase in elevation and coolness, crop duration also gets extended. The crop is sensitive to frost, particularly at flowering and green pod stages. Young plants can tolerate frost better. The optimum altitude for growing peas is between 2200 to 3000 m but it can also grow with a little reduced yield at altitude ranges of 1800-2000m and 3000 to 3200m. 8.4.4. Soil The crop does well with most of the soils (SI and S2) with good drainage and reasonably good water holding capacity. Deep loamy soils are ideal for peas. The PH range is between 5.5 to 6.5. Saline soils are not suitable for the crop. The yield decreases with different levels of ECe. The crop is sensitive to waterlogging conditions and requires good soil aeration. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 60Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.4.5. .Cropping System Field pea is more adopted than chickpea crop for late sown as well high input conditions with these stipulations, it could replace the chickpea in crop sequences and intercrops most appropriately. 8.4.6. Field Preparation Unlike chickpeas, the crop requires thorough field preparation. After one initial deep ploughing with mould board plough, 2-3 harrowings I cultivations may be done to obtain good tilth. The field should be leveled and made completely free from weeds. 8.4.7. Time and method of Sowing The sowing of peas is done with the out break of rainy season in June or July. In case of dry season, sowing is done in December-January with pre-sowing irrigation to ensure optimum moisture for germination. Seed is sown in rows by drilling method. 8.4.8. Seed rate and Spacing Spacing for the crop between row to row may be 40 to 50 cm and 5 to 10cm between plant to plant depending upon varieties and their growth habits. Wider spacing is adopted when grown along with stakes. Depth of sowing should be 2 to 4 cm. The optimum seedrate is about 80 to 120 kg per ha depending upon variety and climate. Seed may be treated with Rhizobium culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogea. 8.4.9. Manuring The per hectare fertilizer requirement for obtaining higher yield is 20 to 40 kg N, 40 to 60kg P2O5 and 80 to 150kg K O depending upon soil 2 fertility. All the fertilizers are applied as basal before sowing. High dose of nitrogen can be split into two, half as basal and remaining half after about 30 days of sowing. A general recommendation is to apply 100kg DAP per ha by drill method before sowing. Use of PSB culture improves the status of available phosphorus in the soil. In addition application of 20kg sulphur/ha, 15kg zinc sulphate, 10kg borax, 1kg sodium molybdate improves the yield considerably. 8.4.10 Interculture One weeding may be done after 20-30 days of sowing. Second weeding may follow after 20 days of 1st weeding, if necessary. Staking for spreading varieties can be done after about 40 days of sowing. It helps in harvesting fresh pods and may help in encouraeine heavy and good flowering and pod formation. 8.4.11. Water Requirement Water requirement for peas ranges between 350 to 500mm depending upon agro-dimatio conditions. The crop coefflctents (kc dwing different stages are: initM stage 0 4 no n 25 days) development stage 0.7-0.S (25 to 30 days), rJseason 0S1 V(25 3? days), late season stage 1.0-1.15 (5 to 10 days) (fresh pod) and 0 65 0 75 (20 30 ^ (dried) and at harvest 0.95-1.1 (fresh pod) and 0.25-0.3 (dried). The• ^th period 5 for various stages are given in the following table. ' S peno<3s *or Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 61Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Growth Period of Peas S.No Stage of Growth Growth Period fDavsl Fresh Dried 1 Establishment 10-25 10-25 2 Vegetative 25-30 25-30 3 Flowering (including pod se t) 15-20 15-20 4 Yield formation (pod development and pod 15-20 20-25 filling) 5 Ripening 0-5 15-20 Total 65-100 85-120 days Sensitive periods for water stress are flowering and seed formation. Water deficit at vegetative and ripening periods of dry peas have comparatively small effect on yield. Irrigation during flowering period increases the number of pods and during seed formation period increases the weight of both pod and seed. For high yields, soil water depletion should not exceed 60% during vegetative period and 40% during flowering and seed formation periods. For harvests consisting of one picking, it is recommended to withhold water at later part of pod filling period to advance ripening of most developed pods. The effective depth of water uptake is restricted to first 0.6 to 1.0 m depth. Irrigation frequencies can be 7 to lOdays. When water supply is short, irrigation should be adequate during flowering and pod filling periods with possible savings during vegetative and ripening periods. Most important irrigations are at pre-sowing, flowering and at pod formation and filling-stages. 8.4.12. Harvesting and Yield Under good conditions, 200-to 300 q/ha yield of unshelled fresh pea pods (70-80% moisture) and 10 to 15 q/ha of dry peas (12% moisture) can be obtained. Fresh pods of pea are harvested manually. The crop is harvested when leaves start getting yellowish and majority of pods are fully filled with mature and dry seeds. Peas being leguminous are ideal as a rotation crop with cereals and cash crops and help in restoring soil fertility. It is also a very good source of protein supplement for diet. 8.4.13. Pests and Diseases Control a) Pests:- Acythociphom pisum (pea aphid) and Heliothis armigera (pod borer) are the major pests of field peas. Prim phos provides good control of aphids. For pod attacking insects, dusting with DDT is effective in reducing the damage and in increasing the yield significantly. b) Disease:- Erysiphe polygomi (Powdery mildew) and Cercospora indica (Assochyta leaf spot) are the most important diseases, the former being serious in the lower altitudes. Under moderate conditions, the loss of yield due to powdery mildew can be about 20 to 25% while under severe situations, the loss could be upto 90%. The disease could be controlled by spraying copper fungicides. The use of disease free seed and crop rotation is also helpful in disease control. Water Works Design and Supervision EnterpriseBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.5. Chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.) Local name Shimbra 8.5.1. Introduction Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) like other pulses, is a rich source of protein for human diet. It is believed to have originated from Southwest Asia but it was first domesticated in Middle East. It is widely cultivated in India, Mediterranean area, the middle East, Ethiopia, Mexico, Argentina, Chile and Peru. Total world production of chickpeas is about 6 million tons. The seed is eaten raw when green, roasted, parched or boiled in split form and used in many other preparations for its flour. Green foliage is used as vegetable. Germinated seeds have medicinal value. Soaked grain or husk are fed to horses and cattle respectively. Chickpeas are an important highland pulse in Ethiopia. The crop ranks third in terms of yield per hectare, gross production and hectarage after faba beans and field peas. The crop is generally grown as a rainfed mono-culture. The protein content of grain is about 24%. It is grown in a rotation with cereals and cash crops and acts as a fertility restorer. The plant is a small herbaceous annual 25 to 50cm tall with erect much branched stem. The fruit is an inflated pod about 2cm long and 1cm broad and germination is hypogeal. 8.5.2. Varieties At various agricultural research stations, hybridization and selection methods were adopted for varietal developmental work but only limited information are available for improved varieties for the project command area. Hence, it is recommended that promising varieties with disease and insect-pest resistance, may be introduced and thoroughly tested as a part of on-farm testing for enhanement of productivity. 8.5.3. Climatic Conditions hickpeas require cool and dry climate. The crop is well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions with low to moderate rainfall. Heavy rains after sowing or at flowering and pod formation stages are harmful. Frost is also injurious to the crop. The optimum mean daily temperature for the crop is between 15 to 20°C, although it can also be grown at temperature ranges between 12.5 to 15°C and 20.0 to 25.0°C. Similarly, most suitable altitudinal range is 1,800 to 2,400m. It can, however, grow at altitudinal ranges of 1,200 to 1,800m and 2,400 to 2,800m with reduced yields. Optimum rainfall for the crop is 650-700mm/season or cultivated in Irrigated production sytem. 8.5.4. Soils The crop requires deep heavy soils with good water retentive properties though it grows well in all types of soil. Deep alluvial clay is ideal. The optimum PH range is 6 to 7 and the crop is highly sensitive to acidic or alkaline conditions. The crop requires well- drained and well-aerated soil conditions. 8.5.5. Cropping system Chickpea is generally rotated with maize, rice or any such cereals or oilseeds. It can also be sown as intercrop with wheat, barley, rapeseed and mustard. Water Workf Design and Supervision Enterprise 63Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy The crop does not need any thorough pulverization of soil and can be sown under rough field conditions. One or two ploughings including one deep ploughing, maybe adequate. Ploughing in August will help to keep the field weed-free. The crop is generally sown in cloddy fields. 8.5.6. Time and Method of Sowing Since the crop is sensitive to heavy rains, sowing is done in 2nd week of August or early September when rains recede. Yield increase due to sowing during this period has been found to be 25 to 50%. Dry season crop can be sown in December and January. The crop is sown both by broadcast and drill in rows. Drilling seed in lines at an optimum depth of 6 to 8cm gives uniform stand and high yields. It also reduces the incidence of wilt. Under irrigated conditions, when double cropping can be practiced, sowing time will have to be enhanced. 8.5.7. Seedrate and Spacing The crop is generally sown as rainfed and on conserved soil moisture. Comparatively higher seedrate of 65 to 100kg per ha or more is adopted depending upon size of the seed and method of sowing. The crop is sown at a close spacing of 30cm between rows and 5 to 10 cms between plants within a row at a depth of 7-10 cm. It is desirable to treat the seed with Rhizobium culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. 8.5.8. Manuring The crop being leguminous, the application of large quantity of fertilizer is generally not required. However, phosphatic fertilizers @ 30 to 40 kg PzOj/ha may be beneficial in phosphorus deficient soils. A starter dose of N is needed for initial growth of plants and development of nodules in roots. Only 15-20 kg N/ha along with 40kg P2O5 required. 8.5.9. Interculture In order to keep the field completely free from weeds, one weeding after about 3 weeks of sowing may be desirable. Since the crop is sown at a comparatively closer spacing, thick canopy gets developed during a short period, which has a smothering effect on weed growth. In case of luxuriant plant growth tips are nipped to encourage branching and flowering resulting high yields. 8.5.10. Water Requirement The water requirement for chickpeas is comparatively low. The crop is drought resistant Since the crop is deep rooted and its length of growing period is also short, most of the water needs are met from the conserved moisture. However, the crop responds to irrigation, if made available. One or two irrigations at growth formation, flowering and early seed formation stages may be beneficial. Moisture stress at seed formation stage may adversely affect the grain development and yield. The seeds remain less developed and shriveled under such conditions. 8.5.11. Harvesting The crop matures after 100 to 125 days depending upon the variety and climate. When the seeds in the pods develop fully and get dry, plants are either pulled or cut with the Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 64Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy help of sickles. The harvested plants are brought to the threshing floor allowed to dry and then threshed. The seeds are stored in gunny bags after complete drying. 8.5.12. Yield The crop yield varies from year to year depending upon weather conditions. Under good conditions, grain yield is as high as 20-25 q/ha. 8.5.13. Pests and Diseases a) Pests: Cutworm (Agrotis Psilon h.) is controlled by dusting the crop with 10% BHC. Pod borer is another major pest. b) Diseases: Among the common diseases are wilt {Fusarium oxysporium), root wilt {Rhijectonia batalicola) and collar rot (Sclerotium spp). These diseases cause yield losses upto 50-80%. In order to control wilt avoidance of late sowing and waterlogging conditions are recommended. For collar rot, long crop rotation and soil drenching is recommended. Use of disease resistant variety is another important aspect. For wilt and root rot seed should be treated with fungicides namely carbendazim + Thiram (lg + 2g/kg) at sowing. Seed dressing with bioagents Trichoderma viride @ 4g/kg seed + fungicide carboxin (Vitavex) @ 1.0 g/kg seed should be followed. 8.5.14. Integrated Pest management To control pod borer, it may be useful to use sex-pheromone traps (5 traps/ha) at flowering and pod formation stages. Economic thresh hold limit may be 1 larva/5-10 plants. Cultural practices include deep summer ploughing, clean cultivation, inter cropping with linseed etc. Collection and destruction of larva also helps control the borer. To have biological control spray of polyhedroxis virus (NPV) @ 20 larva equivalents (LE)/ha on noticing eggs of Helicoverpa armigera. Apply Tsprays at weekly intervals. For chemical control use Endosalfan (0.07%) or Monocrotophos (0.04%) as soon as economic threshold limit is crossed. 8.6. Haricotbeans, Phaseolus vulgaris) Local name: Boloke 8.6.1. Introduction Haricotbeans (Phaseolus vulgaris): is one of the important leguminous crops grown as a vegetable. It is consumed as fresh tender pods, shelled green beans and dry beans. It is a very good source of protein in human diet. It contains 1.7g proteins, 50mg calcium, 28mg Phoshorus, 1.7mg iron, 132 mg carotein, 0.08 mg thiamine, 0.06 mg riboflavin, and 24.0 mg vitamin C per lOOg of edible pod. Total world production of dry beans is about 18.7 million tons from about 30 million hectares and the green beans of 2.2 million tons from 0.4 million hectares. The origin of the crop is said to be North, Central and South America (Mexico) where it is being cultivated since pre-historic times. It is difficult to meet the ever-increasing human needs for protein from meat, eggs, milk and fish as the increase in their production is at a slow rate. The protein demand can be easily met by the increased production of grain legumes. Haricotbeans, in general, is better than meat with respect to both quantity and quality. Its protein content ranges from 20.1 to Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 65Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 27.9% depending upon the variety. Chemical composition of seed is water 11.0/4, protein 22.0%, fat 1.67%, carbohydrate 57.8%, fibre 4% and ash 3.67%. It is often eaten along with cereals which is advantageous to balance the diet. Haricotbeans are exported from Ethiopia and therefore it has acquired economic value. Most of the production of haricotbeans comes from peasant farmers who do not have necessary inputs due to which a low average yield level of 600 kg per ha is obtained. The crop, therefore, has great potential for increased production in the country. 8.6.2. Varieties The main activity under breeding programme is to identify high yielding varieties with wide adaptation. Similarly, species suitable for export should have medium size and shape and white seed coat with good flavour for canning. It is therefore essential that high yielding medium duration and photo-insensitive varieties of the crop are evaluated for year round cultivation both for domestic consumption and export. Haricotbeans for commercial and export use should have the following characteristics: i. Seed should be of suitable size(medium), shape (usually pea bean and white seed coat(export) with good flavour for canning. ii. All the seeds (100%) should soak when left in water for 16 hours or even less. 8.6.3. Climatic Conditions The crop is not suited to the humid, wet tropics. Excess rain and hot weather cause drop of flowers and pods and increased incidence of disease. Optimum mean daily temperature ranges between 15 and 25°c. The crop gives reduced yield when minimum temperature drops below 10°c. At high temperatures, the fibre content of the pod gets increased. In general high temperatures are conducive to germination. It takes about 7 days to germinate at 25°c and 12 days at 18°c. Extreme high temperatures interfere with pod filling while low temperatures are unfavorable for vegetative growth. Most of the varieties are not affected by day length. The length of growing period varies from 60 to 90 days for green pods and 90 to 120 days for dry bean depending upon variety and climate. The crop is most suited at the altitude range of 1400-1800 and marginally between 1000 to 1400 and 1800-2100 meters. 8.6.4. Soils The crop can be grown in a wide range of well drained soil types from light sandy to heavy clay Most suited are medium-textured, deep loamy soils, which should have good feruh'y. The optimum soil PH range is between 5.5 to 6.8. Haricotbeans are sensitive to soil salinity. The yield decreases at varying levels of ECe is:0% at ECe 1 0 10% »i 1.5.25% at 2.3, 50% at 3.6 and 100 % at ECe 6.0 mmhos/cm. 8.6.5. Cropping system The cop is prone Io soil home diseases. It is, therefore, recommended to be grown in l OniOn> ~ W Jt Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 66Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.6.6. Field preparation The field prepared for haricotbeans is comparatively rough and there is no need of fine tilth. After one initial deep ploughing with mould board plough, two harrowings/ploughings are given. It should be ensured that the field is completely free from weeds and the clods are not too big. 8.6.7. Time and method of sowing The wet season crop is grown in June- July after the out break of rainy season. Dry season crop is sown from December to January. Sowing is done both by broadcast and line methods. Line sowing by drilling is recommended to obtain a uniform and good stand. It should be ensured that the seed is placed at optimum depth of 5 to 7 cm where there is adequate moisture, too deep sowing being undesirable. Growing periods calculated from different altitudes are 1200 m-84, 1600 m-96, 1800m-103 and 2200 m- 115 days. This can be used as guideline for deciding the sowing date depending upon rainfall. 8.6.8. Seed rate and spacing Optimum seed rate varies from 40 to 60 kg per ha depending upon the variety and agroclimatic conditions. The seed is drilled in rows 40 to 60 cm apart depending upon type of variety i.e. erect or climbing. With the facilities of irrigation, spacing and seedrate are comparatively reduced. Close spacing is given to erect type and wide spacing to climbing ones. Spacing also depends upon method of harvesting and purpose of planting i.e. green pod or dry seed. For dry seeds, closer spacing is generally adopted. Plant to plant spacing varies from 5 to 10 cm for erect and 10 to 15 for climbing types. The seed may be inoculated with Rhizobium phaseoli culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by quick nodulation for high yield. 8.6.9. Manuring Although haricotbeans are a leguminous crop and capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen, a starter dose of 20 to 30 kg N per ha through chemical fertilizer is desirable. Application of 40to 60 kg P2O5 and 50 kg K per ha through chemical fertilizer is also recommended depending upon the soil tests. All the fertilizers are drilled in the soil before sowing. Application of 25-50 tons of farmyard manure per hectare at the time of land preparation helps in increased yield and quality of produce. 8.6.10. Interculture One weeding can be given to the crop manually after abut 2-3 weeks of sowing to keep the field completely free from weeds. About 02 weedings may be needed till the plants are grown enough to smother the weeds. A pre-emergence application of Alachlor at the rate of 2 to 2.5 kg /ha is recommended for effective weed control. 8.6.11. Water Requirement The water requirement for haricotbeans varies between 300 to 500 mm per season depending upon climate and crop duration. The crop coefficient (KC), for different developmental stages of green bean are; during initial stage 0.3-0.4 (15 to 20 days), Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 67Becho Plain Feasibility* Study On Irrigation Agronomy development stage 0.65-0.75 (15 to 20 days), mid- season stage 0.5-1.05 (20-30 days), late season stage 0.9-0.95 (5-20days) and harvest 0.85-0.9. For dry bean the Kc values are; during initial stage 0.3-0.4 (15 to 20 days), the development stage 0.7-0.8(15-20 days), mid- season stage 1.05-1.2 (35-40 days), late season stage 0.65-0.75 (20-25 days) and at harvest 0.25-0.3. Highest yields are obtained when frequent irrigations are given at flowering and pod formation stages. Water depletion at these critical stages should not go below 40 to 50% of total available soil water. Severe water stress during vegetative period would retard plant development and adversely affect the yield. When grown for seed purposes, water depletion at ripening period should not be below 60-70 days otherwise the grain may not fully develop and get shrunk, resulting in low yield and poor quality. In case of dry beans, water supply is discontinued 20-25 days before harvest while for green beans it is continued till the last picking. The plants are susceptible to water stress at critical periods of growth - pre -blooming, flowering and pod filling stages. The frequency of irrigation depends upon season, soil type and organic matter content. 8.6.12. Harvesting Green pods are harvested in 3 or 4 pickings by hand over a period of 25 to35 days. For dry seeds, the crop is harvested when the leaves turn yellow, plant starts dying, pods are fully matured and become dry. Harvesting is done with the help of sickles. The plants and pods are allowed to dry in small heaps in the field. The produce is subsequently brought to the floor and subjected to threshing and winnowing. The seed is cleaned and dried before storing. 8.6.13. Yield About 15 to 20 q/ha of dry seed are obtained under good conditions. The yield of green pods vary from 60 to 140 q/ha depending upon the variety, location and soil fertility. 8.6.14. Pests and Diseases a) Pests: Beetle (Madurasia obscurella) and Jassids (Empoasca kerrt) can be controlled by the application of phorate 10 G or Disulfotan 5 G granules @1.5 kg/ha at the time of sowing or dusting 5% BHC. Stem fly (Ophiomyia phaseoli) can be controlled by carbofuran (35% L.) @ 0.28g product/kg seed. Seed dressing with aldrex-T is also recommended. African bollworm (Haliothis armigera) can be controlled by single spray of 150 g a.i. of cyermethrin and sowing of trap crops like lupin, pigeon pea, maize and sunflower. b) Diseases: Bean rot (Phytophthora parasitica) and leaf spot (Cercospora cruenta) can be controlled by spray with 1% bordaux mixture 0.2 % ziram, Bacterial blight (Xanthomonas Phaseoli indicus) can be controlled by growing resistant varieties, crop rotation and use of disease free seed. Bruchids (Callosobrushus spp.) is best controlled by primphos methyl at 4-5 ppm. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 68Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy 8.7. Fababeans (Vida faba L.) Local name, Bakela 8.7.1. Introduction Out of the four important highland pulse crops, fababean (Vida faba L.) ranks first in terms of area and production in Ethiopia. The origin of the crop is Ethiopia itself. Estimated average area (ha) production (q) and average yield q/ha of the crop during 2003-04 were 382000, 4268920 and 11.18 respectively. The seed contains 22 to 26% protein depending upon the variety. The seed is eaten raw as well as in fried and boiled forms. Being a leguminous crop, it is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. The crop is ideal for rotation with cereal and cash crops to restore and maintain soil fertility. It is also a good source of protein supplement in the diet. 8.7.2. Varieties Considerable work on breed improvement of fababean in Ethiopia has been done and is being continued. Some of the locations -wise suitable varieties are given in the following table. Suitab S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 e varieties of fababeans Variety CS20 DK Kuse-2-27-33 NC58 Kasa MKT Illubabor 6 Coll 30/77 Location Holetta Goudie Bekoji Holetta Goudie Bekoji Debre zeit Goudie Bekoji Debre zeit Holetta Bekoji Holetta Grain yield potential (q/ha) 18.5 34.5 20.6 18.0 23.6 - 30.8 39.4 - 28.9 27.9 39.7 24.5 Bekoji 36.5 8.7.3. Climatic conditions Fababeans being a temperate region crop, the optimum mean daily temperature during the growing period and altitude range for high level of production are 12 5-17 5°c and 2000-3000 masl, respectively. It can also be grown successfully at temperature ranges of 10.0-12.5 c and 17.5-20.0 c and altitude ranges of 1800-200 and 3000-3200 m with somewhat reduced yields. The crop duration ranges from 120 to 150 days. Water Works Design and Supervision enterprise 69Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.7.4. Soils The crop can be grown in a wide range of soil types. However, for high yield, medium- textured, deep, sandy loam to clay loam soils with high water holding capacity and good drainage are preferred. The PH range for fababeans is 5.5 to 6.5. Saline soils are not suitable for its growth and yield. The crop is sensitive to water logging conditions. 8.7.5. Field preparation The field is well prepared to make it free from clods and weeds as well as to obtain good tilth. One deep ploughing followed by 2-3 harrowings/ploughings may be adequate. 8.7.6. Time and method of sowing Sowing is done as soon as the rains breakout in June. Delayed sowing gives low yield. Dry season crop can be sown in December-January. Timely sowing is an important aspect of cultural practices to ensure high yield. Broadcast and drill sowing can be adopted. However, drill sowing gives higher and uniform stand and yield. It also facilitates weeding. 8.7.7. Seed rate and spacing Optimum seedrate of 200 to 250 kg/ha is recommended depending upon the seed size and climate. Recommended row to row and plant to plant spacing is 40cm x 5 cm. high level of production can be attained only when the plant population is optimum and there are no gaps in the field. Seed may be treated with rhizobium culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. 8.7.8. Manuring The crop is generally not fertilized due to its leguminous nature. However, in order to get high level of production, an application of 20-30 kg N/ha and 20-40 kg P2 O5 /ha is recommended particularly where good management is practiced. Fertilizers are drilled before sowing. 8.7.9. Interculture Two weedings may be necessary in order to keep the field completely free from weeds. First weeding is done after 3-4 weeks of sowing with the help of hand hoe and the second after 6-8 weeks of sowing. Fababeans is poor competitor of weed in its early stage of growth. Timely weeding is therefore, very important. 8.7.10. Water requirement Water requirement for fababeans is 350 to 550 mm depending upon the crop duration and climate. Sensitive stages of moisture stress are vegetative stage, flowering and pod formation. Irrigation at growth stage (after about 45-50 days) helps in forming the ideal base for subsequent plant development and second irrigation at flowering (75-85 days after sowing) helps in good flowering. A third irrigation at pod-formation stage (100 - 120 days after sowing) will help better and higher pod formation and seed development. For high yields, soil- water depletion should not be allowed to go below 60% of total available soil moisture. Excessive irrigation may be harmful. Total number of irrigations may vary according to soil type, depth of irrigation and crop duration. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 70Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.7.11. Harvesting When the plants get yellowish and start drying, harvesting is done with the help of sickles. Crop is allowed to remain in small heaps in the field to dry. Later, it is taken to the threshing floor for threshing and winnowing. Seed is cleaned and fully dried before storing. 8.7.12. Yield The yield greatly varies according to variety, cultural practices adopted and climate. However, under good conditions yield of 20 to 25 q/ha can be obtained. 8.7.13. Pests and diseases a) Pests: Out of 12 insects found to be associated with fababeans, helitothis pod borer (Heliothis armigera) is the most prominent. It can be controlled by dusting 4% canberry or spraying 0.05% endosulphan among store grain pest the most important insect is collosobus spp. Fumigation is done to control the insect. b) Diseases: Important disease of the crop is rust (Uromyces fabae) which can be controlled by growing resistant varieties, dusting 25q/ha of sulphur or spray wetertable sulphur or spray Wettable sulphur @ 2.4 kg/ha. 8.8. Potato (Solanum tuberosum) Local name: Dinich 8.8.1. Introduction Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is supposed to originate in Europe. It is semi-perishable in nature due to 80% water in the tuber. Therefore, post production management of potato is very important. In Ethiopia potato is grown very widely mainly as irrigated crop. 8.8.2. Varieties There are three types of potato varieties, early, medium and late depending on their duration from tuber to tuber. The present released variety of Irish potato is zengena (200- 01) having a potential to yield 30-35 tons/ha and resistant to late blight with high dry matter content and suitable for processing. 8.8.3. Climate Potato is largely grown in cool regions, where mean temperature does not normally exceed 18°c. Optimum temperature for potato growth and development ranges between 15°c to 25°c. Minimum night temperature is of great significance for tuberization and yield. Temperature below 2l°c is favorable for tuber formation. There is little if any, tuber formation at temperature above 29°c. At low temperatures the vegetative growth of the plant is restricted. That is why potato is grown as summer crop in the hills and cool season crop in tropics and sub-tropics. Long photoperiod promotes haulm growth and delays, tuberization and maturity where as short photoperiod reduces haulm growth but tuber initiation is early and the crop maturity period is reduced. For best yields, potato Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 71Becho Plain Fenibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy crop needs long day conditions during growth and short day condition during tuberization. 8.8.4. Soils Potato can grow in all types of soils but light, well drained sandy loam soils are best- suited. Potato plant prefers soils in acidic to neutral range (PH 5.5 - 7.5). Black soils are, however, prone to cracking on drying and expose tubers to sun and tuber moth infestation. 8.8.5. Propagation Potato is conventionally grown vegetatively using tubers as planting material. Each tuber has several eyes distributed over its surface with each eye having 3-5 buds, which develop into sprouts. When planted in soil, the sprouted tuber establishes itself into a plant. Each sprout, on emergence above the ground, develops into stem bearing leaves and branches. The quality of seed is most important to ensure good crop production. This is because, seed tubers account for about 40-50% of the total input cost. 8.8.6. Seed plot technique This technique of seed production envisages raising a crop (using healthy seed) during the period when aphids (vectors of virus diseases) population is very low. Rogue the diseased plants periodically. Finally dehaulm the crop before the aphids reach the critical level of 20 aphids per 100 compound leaves. The seed potato produced in the plains gives better plant stand in all potato-growing regions because of its better physiological stage for giving quick emergence and faster growth of haulms. 8.8.7. Seed size and spacing All sizes of tubers can be utilized as seed but medium sized (25-55 mm or 25-27g) often called as seed size is better than other grades. Even in seed size tubers of 35-45 mm or 45-50g are ideal. Comparable yields can be obtained by planting medium sized tubers (35-45) at 60cm x 20cm spacing and large-sized tubers (45-55mm) at 60 x 55 cm spacing, keeping the plant population at 83000 and 67ooo plant/ha respectively. For small-sized seed (25-35 mm) a population of 1,11000 plant/ha (60cmxl5cm) is ideal. The optimum seed rate for getting high yield is 20-25q/ha for 15g seed, 25-30 q/ha for 30g seed and 30-35 q/ha for 45g seed size. 8.8.8. Pre-sprouting of Seeds Pre-sprouting of tubers before planting ensures multiple, stout and healthy sprouts which help in quick emergence and uniform stand of crop. It also increases the number of tubers and leads to larger proportion of seed-sized tubers. For pre-sprouting the tubers are kept in shade in diffused light in baskets or trays or spread in thin layer on the floor. Seed stocks are examined twice a week to remove rotten tubers. One week pre-sprouting period is enough for all sizes tubers. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 72Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.8 J. Seed-bed Preparation The seed-bed is properly prepared by a deep ploughing followed by harrowing to get a fine tilth free from weeds. The number of harrowing depends on weed infestation and type of soil. 8.8.10. Time and Method of Planting Potato can be planted at least twice in a year, August-September and December-January. At higher altitudes (2500-3000m), the crop should be grown during summer when free from frost and very low temperatures. The tubers are planted in lines 60 cm apart The furrows are opened and tubers are kept in furrows at a distance of 20cm from tuber to tuber and covered with soils using ridger. The planting should be done in the morning or in the evening to avoid heated soil covering during mid-day in plains. 8.8.11. Manuring Nitrogen is the most important nutrient for potato crop. A mature potato crop yielding between 25 and 35 tons /ha need about 120-150kg N/ha. The peak period of N uptake varies from 40-70 days or more depending on the altitude and duration. The nitrogen application increases the plant growth, leaf area, tuber number and tuber size. The maximum N responses is recorded in alluvial soil followed by red and black soils. Potato varieties also differ in their N requirements. It is recommend to apply 15-20 tons/ha farm yard (dung) manure and incorporated in the soil before planting. Half dose of N and full dose of P2Os and K.2O is applied in furrow and mixed in soil at planting. The remaining half dose of N is applied at the time of earthing-up. P is the second limiting nutrient in potato production. It is generally applied at the rate of 45kg P2O5 / ha. On an average potato crop remove 150 kg k/ha. Therefore, about 100-115 kg K/ha is required to apply. The fertilizer application should be based on the soil test value. 8.8.12. Interculture Earthing up and weeding of potato are done as soon as weeds emerge and potato plants are about 8-10 cm tall. The final earthing up is done 28-35 days after planting and half dose of N applied at this stage. 8.8.13. Irrigation Water forms about 80% of potato tuber. Therefore, adequate and regular water supply is needed for its sustained growth. The quality of water used for irrigation is also important. Water with high quantity of salt is undesirable for potato. The first irrigation is given immediately after planting, second at 12-15 days of sowing (2-5% germination). Subsequent irrigation is given at weekly or 10 days intervals. Water stress reduces tuber yield and increase the proportion of small-sized tubers. 8.8.14. Harvesting and Post-harvest Management Potato tubers are harvested as soon as they mature. In loam or heavy loam soils tubers should not be allowed to remain in wet soil after maturity because the lenticels on their surface may proliferate and impart unacceptable look to the tubers in wet land. After harvesting, tuber should be surface dried and kept in shade in heaps for about 10 days or more. The produce should be graded on the basis of tuber size and bagged for marketing. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 73Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.8.15. Physiological disorders These are normally caused by unfavorable environmental conditions due to physiological imbalance. They are non-parasitic and affect the quality of produce. These are Internal brown spot scattered through the flesh of tubers. Black heart caused due to air storage at 35° to 40°c. Hollow heart, an irregular cavity in the center of tuber due to rapid bulking over-sized tubers and chilling injury at 0°c causing discolored blotches in the flesh of tubers. 8.8.16. Diseases and Insect-pests The following diseases are likely to occur: Late blight (Phytophthora infestans ), leaf spot complex (Alternaria spp.), Stem canker (Rhizoctonia 'solani), Dry rot (Fusarium spp.), Bacterial wilt (Ralastonia solanacearum), soft rot (Erwinia spp. Pseudomonas spp and Bacillus spp.), common scab (Streptomyces spp.) Severe mosaic (PVY), Crinkle mosaic (PVX + PVA) and leaf roll (PLRV). The insect-pests are Aphids (Aphis gossypii), Mites (Hemitasonamus latus), Tuber moth (Pthorimaea operculella), Cutworm (Agrostis ipsilon), and golden cyst nematode (Globodera pallida). 8.9. Onion (Allium Cepa) Local name: Sltinkuri 8.9.1. Introduction Onion (Allium Cepa) is one of the most important commercial vegetables grown on many parts of the country having favorable climate and soil with adequate rainfall or irrigation. 8.9.2. Varieties There are not many onion varieties developed in this country. There are two types, the local and imported variety. In general onion varieties else where are grouped broadly in to two common onion and multiplier onion. The common onion is further grouped into 3 subgroups based on the color of the skin—red, yellow and white. There is a need to have more varieties of onion on the basis of yield, soil and location specificity like other onion growing regions of the world. 8.9.3. Climate Onion is a cool season crop. However, it can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. It grows well under mild climate without extreme heat or cold or excessive rainfall. In area where average rainfall exceeds 750 mm -1000 mm in the wet season, it can be successfully grown during dry season. The ideal temperature requirement of onion crop is 12.8° to 2i°c before bulbing and 15.5° - 25°c for bulb development. Very low temperature in early stages favors bolting whereas sudden rise in temperature favors early maturity resulting in small-sized bulbs. 8.9.4. Soils Onion can be grown on all types of soil. However, deep friable loam and alluvial soils are best for its successful production. Good drainage, weed free and presence of more Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 74Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy organic matter in soils favor good production of crop. It cannot be grown in alkaline and low lying marshy lands. The optimum pH is 5.8 to 6.5. 8.9.5. Planting Common onion can be grown by raising seedlings in a nursery and transplanting these in field, planting bulbs directly in the field, broadcast or drilling seeds directly in the field and planting sets for production of onion in wet season. 8.9.6. Transplanting This is most commonly practised for irrigated crop. It gives high yield of large sized bulbs. Seedlings are first raised in nursery. 8.9.7. Nursery Raising A nursery bed of 3m x 0.6m size may be raised up to 15-25 cm with a distance of 70cm between the beds to facilitate inter-cultural operations. Generally sandy loam soils are preferred for nursery beds. The edge and top of the bed should be quite firm to avoid pit formation during rain or at the time of irrigation. The top surface up to 2-3cm should be enriched with fine, sieved and decomposed farm yard manure or compost after sowing. Seeds are sown in lines 4-6 cm apart. Sowing should not be done more than 2-3cm deep. After sowing beds should be mulched with dry grass or straw or any other such material to maintain and preserve the required soil moisture. As and when there is lack of moisture in the bed, it should be watered by sprinkling can. After germination, dry grass or mulching material should be removed and nursery should be protected from heavy rain, heat or direct sun. About 10-15 kg seed is required to raise seedlings for planting one hectare. The seedlings are ready for transplanting 7-8 weeks after sowing or after attaining a height of 20-25cm. Over-aged seedlings result in bolting, taking longer time to start growth and under-aged seedling do not establish well after transplanting. 8.9.8. Planting by bulbs This is practised to meet the demand of green onion far salad. Bulbs are dibbled at 15cm on the side of 45 cm wide ridges or in beds. This can also be done in furrows. For planting one hectare 750 kg medium sized bulbs are required. The secondary bulbs developing from mother bulbs have market for green onion. 8.9.9. Direct Sowing Onion can also be sown by direct seeding. The soil is thoroughly pulverized and made free of clods. Varieties capable of having big sized bulbs are grown in rows 30cm apart. Seedlings 6-8 weeks old may be thinned. A light irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Interculture and irrigation is repeated after every 10 days. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 75Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.9.10. Planting by Sets Sets are small-sized onion produced by seedlings to mature in the nursery beds as such instead of transplanting them. Those are used to get an early crop to get more prices. For planting one hectare 5-8 kg seed is adequate to raise enough number of sets in 200m2 area. Nursery is prepared as mentioned above. The seedlings are allowed to remain in the nursery till their leaves fall and they form small bulbs (sets) due to less spacing. Later dig out 1.5-2.0 cm sized healthy sets for planting. The sets are planted 10cm apart in rows on both sides of ridges spaced at 35-45 cm spacing. A light irrigation is given immediately after planting the sets. In multiplier onion, bulbs are first separated and then bigger-sized bulbs are used far planting. 8.9.11. Manuring Onion needs a heavy dose of fertilizer for good yield. But the fertilizer requirements depend on soil type and type of crop. Farmyard or dung manure at the rate of 20-25 tons/ha may be incorporated in soil one month before transplanting. The crop requires 150 kg N, 50 Kg P and 50 kg K/ha. Full amount of P and K and half dose of N is to be added just before transplanting. The remaining quantity may be given 20-25 days after transplanting in case of sowing by sets and multiplier onions. It is applied at the rate of half of the remaining N in case of seedling-transplanted onion at 30 and 45 days after transplanting respectively. 8.9.12. Inter Culture The crop should be kept weed free at the initial stage of plant growth. Chemical weed control along with hand weeding is recommended often after 10 days of transplanting. Baseline @ one liter per ha or stomp @3.5 liter/ha immediately after transplanting are quite effective to control weeds. 8.9.13. Irrigation The water requirement in general depends upon plant, its growth stage, soil type and its climatic conditions. Onion is a shallow rooted crop with roots generally contained within 8 cm of soil surface. Water requirement of onion, therefore, is less in the beginning. Water is a critical requirement at the time of bulb formation. Frequent light irrigation at weekly intervals promote proper bulb development and good yield. 8.9.14. Harvesting Onion is ready for harvesting in 2-3 months after transplanting for dry and green onions respectively. The optimum time for harvesting bulbs for sale or for storage is when leaves start falling. The crop can be harvested a week after the falling of 50% leaves. Multiplier onions are harvested when 50-70% leaves have fallen. 8.9.15. Yield Common onion varieties yield up to 250-300 q/ha, small-sized pickling type variety 160- 200q/haand multiplier onions 150-180 q/ha. Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 76*» Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy 8.9.16. Post - harvest management Onion bulbs are thoroughly cured before being placed in storage. The purpose of curing is to remove excess moisture from the outer skin and neck of onion to reduce losses due to diseases. The time for curing largely depends upon the prevailing weather condition. The fully cured onion shows the light neck and the dried scale rustle. After curing, the onion should be graded for local market and export. Then filled in jute bags for transportation. They should be packed in 14-15 kg cane baskets for export purpose. 8.9.17. Insect-pests Thrips (Thrips tabaci), mite (Aceria tulipae), onion fly (Delia antiqua), cutworm (Agrotis ispilori) 8.10. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) Local name: Timatim 8.10.1. Introduction Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is most important remunerative vegetable. A rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acids, tomato fruits provide 3-4% sugar, 4-7% solids, 15-30 mg per lOOg ascorbic acid, 7.5-10mg/100 ml titratable acidity and 20-50mg /100g fruit weight of lycopene. It is widely grown vegetable in the country. 8.10.2. Varieties There are large number of varieties and hybrids of tomato in the world, developed for various purposes. Though good work has been done on tomato varietal development in the county but not many varieties are available so far. 8.10.3. Climate In general tomato, a warm-season vegetable, is grown in cool season also. The optimum temperature required for its cultivation is 15-27°C. At high and low temperatures, there is low germination of seeds, poor plant growth, flower drop, poor fruit set and ripening. At high temperature generally, the quality of fruits is poor and there is high evidence of sunscald. Under extreme high and low temperature conditions, the yield and quality of fruits is reduced. Mild winter condition is ideal for seed germination, plant growth, fruit set, fruit development and ripening. Excessive rains adversely affects the fruit set causing flower drop. 8.10.4. Soils Tomato is grown in varied type of soil-sandy loam to clay, black soil and red soil having proper drainage. However, Sandy loam soil, rich in organic matter is ideal for its cultivation. The PH of the soil should be 7.5 to 8.5. Tomato can tolerate moderate acid and saline soils. Red and black soils are good for commercial cultivation. Waler Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 77Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.10.5. Nursery Raising For raising the seedlings for one-hectare 250m2 area is required. Generally in wet season 7.5m x 1.2m x 0.1m beds are prepared. The beds are covered with a layer of farmyard manure and sand mixed in equal proportion. The farmyard manure should be used @ 4kg/m . 2 To protect from the incidence of damping off of seedling, the beds should be treated with 10% formaldehyde. Before sowing the bed should be drenched with 0.2% Dithane M-45 or treated with Difolaton or Capton. Solarisation is also useful to reduce the incidence of damping off. The seeds should be treated with Thiram or Bavistin @ 2g/kg. Soon after sowing the bed should be irrigated with rose can and covered with paddy straw. The beds should be irrigated every day morning. Seedlings are ready for transplanting 4-5 weeks after sowing. Before transplanting seedlings are hardened by withholding the water 4-5 days before uprooting. 8.10.6. Planting Transplanting can be done in June-July and November-December. Staggered planting is preferred to have regular and continuous production. The recommended spacing is 60cm x 45 cm and 90cmx30cm. Flat and raised bed methods are used. Raised beds economise watering, facilitate better drainage, reduce the incidence of pest and diseases and also has the advantage of staking. Hybrids are planted at wider spacing from row-to-row and close spacing from plant-to-plant. 8.10.7. Training and pruning Training helps in better utilization of light and air. The fruits are trained under leaves to protect them from sunscald. Training, pruning or pinching are required to produce quality fruits. In indeterminate tomatoes, training increases the number of fruits with uniform size increasing yield and quality of fruits. In field crop the training is done with the support of bamboo sticks and rope. If there is excessive growth pinching or pruning of side shoots improves size and uniformity of fruits. Pinching of the main shoot at the top improves the size of terminal fruits. This is done in indeterminate varieties when plants attain the maximum height. 8.10.8. Manuring Application of N,P,K and Boron is essential for high yield. NPK 120: 60: 50 kg/ha should be used. A high level of N at seedling stage and moderate level at flowering and fruiting stage is required. The application of P improves the root development whereas K promotes color of fruits. For better utilization of N split application and band placement are ideal, use of green manure and organic manure is very useful for the crop. Boron is applied as Borax @ 20-25 kg/ha as soil application. Borax improves stage, size and color of fruits. 8.10.9. Interculture and aftercare Weeding, hoeing, earthing up and mulching are very important. About 2-3 hoeing are essential at the initial stage of plant growth. Two earthling up are sufficient for optimum plant growth. Normally weeding is done manually to keep the field clean. Weeds can Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 78Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy also be controlled by using herbicides like pendimethalin @ 1 kg ai/ha plus one hand weeding 45 days after transplanting. Since 40-45 days after transplanting is the most critical stage of crop weed competition in tomato, weeding at this stage is quite essential. 8.10.10. Irrigation Frequent irrigation is essential for optimum plant growth, fruiting and yield. The crop should be irrigated at 8-12 days interval or even more frequently depending on the temperature and humidity. Generally open furrow method of irrigation is followed. 8.10.11. Harvesting Tomatoes are harvested at several-stages like mature green, turning pink, red ripe and over ripe. The stage of harvesting depends upon the purpose for which the crop is harvested Generally the harvesting is done at mature green to turning stage for distant marketing. For fresh consumption pink to light red tomatoes are preferred. To increase their shelf life after harvest tomatoes are cooled rapidly at 13°C. After harvest they are graded into A,B and C grades by hand or machine. 8.10.12. Yield On an average the crop yields 250 q/ha. However, the hybrids with staking produce more than 400 q/ha. 8.10.13. Physiological Disorders There are number of disorders caused by adverse environmental conditions during growth and development, storage and marketing. Out of these fruit cracking, blochy ripening, puffiness. Cat facing and sun scald are important ones. 8.10.14. Diseases and Pests Damping off (Pythium spp. And Phytophthora spp.), Atemaria blight (Altemeria solani), septoria leaf blight (Septoria lycopersici), bacterial wilt (Ralastonia Solanacearum). Leaf curl (transmitted by whitefly), Tomato mosaic (transmitted by contact and seed), spotted wilt (transmitted by thrips). The major insect-pests are fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera), white flies (Bemisia tabaci), mite (Tetracychus cinnabarinaes), Mealy bugs (Fenisia virgata), leaf eating caterpillars (Spodoptera litura) and thrips (thrips tabaci). 8.11. Cabbage (Brassica Oleracca var. Capitata) Local name: ‘Gommen’ 8.11.1. Introduction Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. Capitata) is an important vegetable of Cole group. A rich source of vitamin A,B,C it also contains minerals. It covers about 4% of total area of vegetables in the world. It is grown year round. The heads of cabbage vary from flat topped to long-oval. Varieties with compact, round heads are preferred. The tender leaves are primarily used as cooked vegetable, more in raw than processed form. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 79Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.11.2. Varieties In this country only limited varieties are available. In general, fanners grow only local or old varieties. 8.11.3. Climate Since it is a cool season crop, it thrives best in a relatively cool moist climate. It can withstand extreme cold and frost relatively better than cauliflower. It loses its flavour in dry warm weather. The optimum seed germination is obtained at 12.8-15% soil temperature. The growth is stopped above 25% temperature. However, the temperature barrier is removed in introduced heat tolerant hybrids/lines. 8.11.4. Soils Cabbage can be grown on all types of soils. In clay loam or silt, higher yield may be obtained from late crop. It does not grow well on a highly acidic soiL The most appropriate soil PH for the crop is between 5.5 and 6.5. 8.11.5. Planting The crop can be planted in June-August and November-January. The nursery is raised for production of seedling as in case of tomato. The seedlings become ready for transplanting in 4-6 weeks depending on the weather conditions. The seedlings are transplanted in fully prepared field at a distance of 45cm and 60-70 cm from row-to-row or 4>-60an from plant-to-plants. Pre-planting application of Trefluralin (Ikg/ha), Huchlaralin (0-5kg*ha), Nitrofen (2kg/ha), Alachlor (0.2kg/ha) or Butachlor (2kg/ha) is recommended to keep the crop weed-free. On an average 500-750g of seed is required Jar one hectare. 8.11.6. Manuring The nutrient requirement of cabbage varies fiotn soils to safl -Aprmrimr she aher mnresn: status, agroclimates and duration of varieties. eff rnnmug ta E5 tons/ha is quite useful. In general crop requires 15© ke N, S3 fca P ami Tints KL par hectare. 8.11.7. Interculture Shallow hoeing should be done to remove the weeds and kxisen the sail for better aeration. To produce solid heads, the plants are earthed 5-6 wr«ks after trasspboDag. 8.11.8. Irrigation A continuous supply of moisture is essential for proper development of headk. The first irrigation is given immediately after planting. No heavy irrigation should be give# at the lime of maturity of head. 8.11.9. Harvesting Cabbage heads should be harvested when they attain fell sice. After few feey burst or lose. Early varieties mature in 60*80 days and tale varieties 100120 day's. Wiier Works Design and Supervision Enterprise soBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.11.10. Yield Early varieties yield 33-45 tons/ha. Hybrids yield 70-80 tons/ha. Cabbage heads can be stored for 4-5 days under ordinary conditions. 8.11.11. Diseases and Insect-Pests The following diseases may affect the cabbage production; Damping off, Black rot, curd rot, stalk rot, Downy mildew and white blister. The important insect-pests are Diamond back moth, leaf-Webber, Stem borer, Aphids, Gram-caterpillar, Tobacco caterpillar, Muster saw-fly, Striped-flea beetle, painted bug. 8.12. TEF Scientific name: Eragrostis tef Local name: Tef Ethiopia is not only the place of origin of tef, but it is also the center of diversity. Out of 10 million and teff is grown on about 2.4 million hectares. It is the most adapted crop in the diverse agro-ecologies of the country. It is used to prepare injera (Ethiopian spongy and slightly sour bread), porridge and some native alcoholic drinks. The straw is mainly used for animal feed. In fact, Ethiopia is the only country in the world where tef is widely cultivated. The other important cereal crops in terms of production an area are sorghum and maize in that order. Tef is grown either as stable or as standby. As a stable, it is planted as other cereals, normally sown late and harvested during the dry season. During dry seasons or late onset of rains the production area of tef increases. As a standby, the farmers' wait until the main crops, maize and sorghum, show signs of failing. Then they sow a fast maturing tef variety as a backup source for sustenance in the case of disaster. Most tef is made into injera, flat, spongy bread like a pancake. Injera made out of tef is the stable food for the majority of Ethiopians. Tef is made into flour, prepared as gruel (muk), baked into pancake and sweet dry unleavened bread (Kita). Tef straw is also an important animal feed particularly during the dry season and farmers rely on it to strengthen their oxen at the end of the dry season. As fodder the plant is quick to raise and produce. Its straw is soft and quick to dry. It is both nutritious and exteremely palatable to livestock. Its leaf stem ratio (average 73:37) is high, its digestibility (65%) relatively high, and its protein content (1.9-5.2%) low but valuable. Tef straw is also a preferred binding material for walls, bricks and household containers made of clay. The major problems, which constrain increased tef production, are indicated as follows: > Tef is grown as a food crop in Ethiopia and there is very limited research work outside Ethiopia to share experience, thus all crop improvement methods have to be initiated by Ethiopian scientists. > The crop is not easy for improvement by breeding, because the flowers are small and open only early in the morning. > The agronomic problems related to tef production include the requirement of fine seedbed preparation, requiring several plowings. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 81Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy • Central shootfly: Central shoot fly is also an important insect pest of teff. Control measures include; Use of Carbaryl 85% W.P. or 1.5 kg of 95% trichlorfon, mixed in 100-300 liters of water per hectare. II. Weed Control: Crop loss due to weed competition is estimated to be about 50%. Hand weeding once at early tillering stage (25-30 days after emergence) is adequate, if the weed population is low. If the infestation is high, a second weeding should be done at the stem elongation period. There are also several chemicals recommended for weed control in teff. Broad-leaved weeds can be controlled by applying 2,4D @ 1.0 liter/ha 4-5 weeks after planting. 8.13. BARLEY Scientific name: Hordeum vulgare Local name: Gebs Barley is an important cereal crop in the world with an annual production of 132 million tons, ranking next to maize, wheat and rice. It is one of the earliest domesticated food crops since the dawn of civilization. Its grain has the largest use as animal feed all over the world used either alone or in combination with other grains. Barley embodies a tremendous potential and variation for production of a very high amount of digestible dry matter as well as protein yield per unit area. Hull-less barley is consumed by the human beings. Its grain is also parched for consumption. On the contrary, hulled types are used by the malting industry because of specific requirements during grain germination. It is used to make beer, whisky and other products namely, industrial alcohol and vinegar. Malt syrup (of barley) is utilized in preparation of candies, breakfast beverages and medicines. By product of brewing and distilling industry, known as brewers and distillers grain is a valuable cattle feed. Bold and plump seeded barley varieties are suitable for manufacturing 'pearl-barley’ and powder products, which form the diet of the sick and convalescent people. Pearl barley is used for barley water, which is diuretic and is given to persons suffering from kidney disorders. Like wheat, it is also a crop of temperate climate and thrives well in cool dry winter areas with low rainfall. It takes nearly 150 days from seed to seed. Intermittent drought leads to shrivelled grains. High nitrogen content is considered unfit for malting. Uniform moisture supply and bright sunshine at the ripening stage aids in production of clean and bright kernels required by the malting industry. It thrives well on well drained fertile loam or light clay soils. Heavier clay loams, it waterlogged, are undesirable. Severe lodging occurs on highly fertile soils with excess of nitrogen, which increases the nitrogen content in the grain, rendering it unsuitable for malting. It is more tolerant to saline-alkaline soils and less to acidic soils. It can be grown up to an elevation of 2,300m. 8.14. SORGHUM Scientific name: Sorghum bicolor Localname: Masltila Sorghum is one of the major crops produced in Ethiopia, and it is the fourth important crop in respect of area and production. Sorghum is adapted to highlands, medium altitude and low land areas and is highly adaptable in soil moisture stress areas. The crop Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 83Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy sowing. Give the second installment of nitrogen at the proper soil moisture status and mix it well with the soil. 8.14.5. Intercultivation One or two intercultvations with bullock drawn blade harrow or cultivator within 35-40 days after sowing would not only check weed growth, but would also facilitate free drainage of soil to provide good aeration to the roots. 8.14.6. Weed Control Spraying atrazine @ 0.5 kga.i/ha after sowing but before starting germination (pre emergence) keeps the crop free from dicot weeds for about one month. In case of dry sowing spraying should be done only after receiving adequate rain, but before germination. Subsequently, one weeding at about 20 days after sowing along with the above mentioned intercultivation provides effective control of weeds. 8.14.7. Striga Control Adopt crop rotations using trap crops like cotton, sunflower and groundnut coupled with the use of striga resistant cultivates. The losses due to striga are brought down in the long run by the rotational cropping. For immediate results, hand pulling when striga population is sparse or spraying of soduim salt of 2,4-D @ 2 kg a.i/ha helps to reduce the adverse effects of striga. Pre emergence application of primagram or gesaprim @ 41/ha dissolved in 400 liters of water also gives good control. 8.14.8. Major Insects and Their Control Need-based chemical control methods should be adopted to minimize the losses due to specific insects. The major insects and their control measures are given below. • Shootfly: It damages the crop during 1 - 4 weeks after germination. Maggots feed on growing tips causing willing of central leaf and later drying gives a typical appearance of dead heart. To schedule chemical control, monitor the egg laying on lower side of seedling leaves before the formation of dead hearts. Its infestation can be avoided, if sowing is done within 7-10 days of the onset of rains. In late plantings, use of Furadan @ 50-sp @ 100 g/kg of seed gives its effective control. Application of granular formulation of Furadan 3G or Phorate 10 G at the time of sowing as soil application in seed furrows @ 20 kg/ ha also provides satisfactory control. • Stem Borer: It infests the crop from second week after sowing till maturity. Initially, the larvae feed on upper surface of whorl of leaves leaving the lower surface intact as a transparent window. In case of severe damage scratches of epidermal feeding appears prominently. Sometimes, dead hearts symptoms also develop due to early attacks. Uprooting and burning of stubbles and chopping of stems prevent the carry over effect. Application of Endosufan 4G/4D, carbaryl Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 84Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy occupies about 1.46 million hectares to give a grain production of 23.16 million quintals annually. Based on EIAR package of practices grain yield of sorghum in research managed field is 30 - 45 q/ha. In farmers field the yield is about 25-40q/ha. The dry Fodder yield is 80-120 q/ha. Its grain is consumed by human beings as porridge Nefro, instant food, syrup, and also used in beverages like "Tella" and "Arekie". It makes a good fodder crop both in the form of dry stalks and green plants. Its dry stalks are also used as fuel wood. 8.14.1. Soil and Climate Sorghum is grown on a variety of soils from light to medium; deep black soils, it is grown in lowland areas. Heavy, deep-cracking valley bottoms soils i.e., soils with vertic properties, good structured, heavy clays, needs fine and firm seed-bed with no clods. The optimum P" is 5.5 - 8.2 but the range is 5.2 - 8.5 PH. sorghum needs moderate soil fertility. The roots penetrate up to lm with a spread of 1.0 - 1.5m, maximum rooting depth is 1 - 2m, maximum nutrients uptake is from one meter. The crop is drought hardy and is hence comprises an important component of rainfed/dryland agriculture. In Ethiopia, it can be grown between 1450 and 1850 masl in areas receiving 600-900 mm of average annual rainfall. The optimum temperature is 21- 32°C. Less than 20°C extends growth period by 10-20 days for each 0.5°C. Poor seed setting & ripening problems occurs at <15°C and > 35°C. Critical period for irrigation is 10-20 days after sowing, at flowering and seed formation upto physiological maturity. It can tolerate drought upto 14 days. It can also tolerate waterlogging but waterlogging reduces yield at a later stages. 8.14.2. Seedbed Preparation Carry out one ploughing well before the onset of rains to expose the sub-soil to bright sun so that soil insect-pests, disease inoculums and weed seeds are killed. Then plough the soil once or twice after rains and do leveling for uniform rain or irrigation water distribution and spread. 8.14.3. Planting Dates and Rates Sorghum is mostly planted in mid-July after the onset of rains in Meher season. It can also be sown in dry seedbed. Recommended seed rate for line and broadcast sowing is 5- 10 and 15-20 kg/ha, respectively. Row to row and plant to plant spacing of 45 cm and 10- 12 cm is recommended respectively. The recommended plant density is 180,000 plants/ha. Maintain only one plant per hill after final plant population adjustment. 8.14.4. Use of Manures and Fertilizers Apply well decomposed FYM or compost well before preparatory' cultivation @5-10 t/ha. The dose of 80 + 40 kg/ha of N and P2O5 is recommended. Half of the nitrogen, that is, 40 kg N/ha and full dose of phosphorous is to be applied at the time of sowing preferably through placement in rows below the seed. Fertilizer should not be in direct touch with seed. Remaining half dose of nitrogen is to be applied 30-40 days after Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 85Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 5G, Malathion 10G or Furadan 3G @ 8 and 12 kg/ha at 20 and 35 days after emergence respectively gives good control. • Sorghum Midge: Maggots that hatch from eggs deposited in spikelets at flowering panicles prevent kernel development. In severe infestation, panicle appears blasted and red liquid oozes out on pressing of spikelets. Early planting, destruction of chaffy panicles and earhead residues and removal of alternate host grassy weeds help in its control. Carbaryl 50 5P @ 3 kg/ha in 500 litters of water/ha, Endosulfan 4D or Carbaryl 5D @ 20 kg/ha at prebloom and 4-5 days thereafter checks the infestation. • Shoot Bug: Though sporadic may cause serious damage. Application of Endosulfan 4G or Carbaryl 5G gives good control. Dose will be as suggested earlier. • Earhead Bug: Infests panicles and feeds on developing seeds and other panicle parts. Early planting and application of Carbaryl 50 5P @ 3 kg/ha in 500 liters/ha or Endosulfan 4D or Carbaryl 5D @ 20 kg/ha to panicles once at prebloom followed by another at milk stage gives good control. 8.14.9. Major Diseases and Their Control Major diseases of sorghum usually coincide with grain maturation. But, the diseases cause much less damage than the insects. Some of the major diseases are: • Downy Mildew: Vivid green and white stripes appear on the leaves which subsequently are shredded leading to stunted growth. The infested plants fail to head and if heads appear, these are excerpted, small, and compact or club shaped and have no or little grain set. For its control, seed dressing with Metalaxyl, that is, Ridomil 25 @ 1 kg a. i./ liter or Apron 355 5D @ 1 g a.iJkg of seed with Thiram and BHC control the disease. Spray of Dithane M) -45 (03%) at 7 days interval beginning from germination gives satisfactory control. • Grain Molds: Grain infected with Fusarim moniliforme develops flufly white or pinkish coloration and if by Curvularia lunata a black colour, it may cause loss of yield upto 100%. Spraying of earheads with Aureofungin (200 ppm) and 0.2% Captan three times from flowering at 10 days interval gives satisfactory control. Three spray applications of distance Dithane-45 (0.2%) and Bavistin (0.2%) or Thiram (0.2%) can also control grain molds if sprayed as indicated above. • Ergot: Commonly called sugary disease wherein a secretion of clearly sticky liquid (honey dew) from infected florets takes place. Destruction of collateral hosts and removal of sclerotia from seed by washing in 30% salt solution thrice or spraying with Benlate (0.1%) or Thiram (0.2%) thrice at 50% grain formation stage has been found effective. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 86Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy • Charcoal rot: Lodging and poor grain filling are the symptoms. Losses in grain yield and seed size are observed. Minimal dose of nitrogen and low plant density minimize the intensity of the disease. Soil treatment with Thiram at sowing also reduces the charcoal rot damage. • Rust: Small flecks on the lower leaves with purple, tan or red colour appear depending on the variety. Use of clean seeds, crop rotation, destruction of refuse of previous crop, resistant cultivars is some to the recommended practices to reduce the incidence and virulence of the disease. 8.15. LENTIL Scientific name: Lens culinaris Local name: Misir 8.15.1. Introduction Lentil is one of the oldest leguminous crops believed to be indigenous to south West Asia originated in near East and Mediterranean region. It was known to ancients in Egypt and Greece. It had spread to Europe, India and China and now it is introduced and cultivated in most sub-tropical and warm temperate regions. Plant is small green annual herb with branched stem. It is rarely taller than 40 cm. The pod is flatten and broad, about 12 mm long tipped by a minute beak. The seeds are lens-shaped, light red, brown, grey and of tan speckled with black. The total world production of lentil is estimated to be about 1.5 million tons. The average composition of seed is 12.4% moisture, 25.1% Proteins, 0.7% fat, 59.7% carbohydrates and 2.1% mineral matter. Lentil is known to be very nutritive. It has easily digestible protein as compared to animal protein. Unripe pods are eaten as green vegetable and dry leaves, stalk, husk and broken grain as cattle feed. In Ethiopia The crop ranks fourth in terms of yield per hectare. Its area, yield and production during 2005-2006 as per CSA (2008) estimate were 97,110ha, 8.35 q/ha and 810,494 quintals. The crop is grown during wet season due to good rain. It has important place in cereal crop rotation as fertility restorer and as a protein supplement in peoples' diet. 8.15.2. Varieties There are generally two types of varieties bold seeded and small seeded. Introduction of Mexican varieties have helped in enhancement productivity in this country. Variety NEL (ILL) 358 appears to be better and high yielding giving 36% more yield than others. There is a need to introduce more varieties from out side to strengthen the varietal program and increase the productivity of lentil further. 8.15.3. Climatic Conditions Lentil is a cool climate crop. Optimum mean daily temperature during crop growing period is 15 to 25oC. It can also be grown with comparatively low yields at temperature Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 87Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy ranges of 10.0 to 12.5 and 17.5 to 20°C. Similarly, optimum altitude for good growth and high yield is 2,200 to 3,000m. It can, however, be grown at altitude ranges from 1,800 to 2,200 and 3,000 to 3,200 m also. The length of growing period of the crop is about 120 days depending upon the variety and climate. The crop is raised successfully where the rainfall during the growing period is 650 to 900mm or in irrigated production system. 8.15.4. Cropping System Lentil is generally grown as rainfed crop after rice and maize. In inter-cropping it is grown with crops like rape seed and mustard. 8.15.5. Soils The crop is grown in a wide range of soils from light loam to fine-textured black soils. Most suited soil type is medium-textured loam with good drainage. The crop can tolerate salinity to some extent. The optimum PH range is 6 to 7.5. 8.15.6. Field Preparation The crop does not require thorough field preparation. However, the field should be completely free from weeds. One deep ploughing with the help of mould board plough followed by two to three ploughing/harrowings may be enough for the crop. 8.15.7. Time and Method of Sowing The crop is sown in the month of June with the outbreak of rainy season. It can also be sown as a dry season crop in the months of December and January with irrigation. The crop is sown both by broadcast and drilling systems. For uniform stand and high yield, drilling seed in rows is recommended. 8.15.8. Seed rate and Spacing The optimum spacing between the rows is 25 to 30cm. A seed rate of 30 to 40 kg/ha for small seeded and 50-60 kg/ha for bold seeded variety depending on agro-climatic conditions, is required. The optimum depth of sowing is 5 to 6 cm. Seeds may be treated with Rhizobium culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. 8.15.9. Manuring The crop being leguminous is generally not manured. However, for good growth and high yield, application of fertilizers may be necessary. Application of 20 to 30 kg N per ha as basal booster dose may be very beneficial. Placement of 40 to 60 kg P2O5 per ha may also be done before sowing. Response to fertilizer application is greater where water requirement of the crop is adequately met with. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 88Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.15.10. Interculture One weeding after about 3 to 4 weeks of sowing is necessary to keep the field completely free from weeds. 8.15.11. Water Requirement The water requirement of the crop varies from 350 to 550 mm depending upon climate and crop duration. The crop is sensitive to moisture stress at growth, flowering and seed formation stages. First irrigation may be applied after 45 days of sowing, second at flowering and third at seed formation stage. 8.15.12. Harvesting The crop is harvested when the plants turn brown and seeds get dried. Harvesting is done manually with the help of sickles. Harvested crop is brought to the floor for further drying before threshing. The grains are cleaned and then stored in bags. 8.15.13. Yield Under good conditions including facilities for irrigation, the yield of 10 to 12 quintal per ha can be obtained. 8.15.14. Pests and Diseases a) Pests: The pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum) is the most important pest of the lentil crop with infestation level reaching up to 100% and yield losses estimated up to 40% in certain years. b) Diseases: Among important diseases are wilt root rots, asscochytal blight and rust. Recent studies reveal the tolerant lines to diseases as follows for which the seed production program be encouraged. Line Disease (s') R59, R18 Assocohytal blight NEL 358 Root rots Precoz Rust Asscochytal blight can be controlled by treating the seed with thiabendazole (TBZ) @2.5 g/kg of seed. 8.16. PEPPER Scientific name: Capsicum annum Local name: Berbere 8.16.1. Climate Optimum temperature is !8-24°c for germination and l8-26°c for growth, rainfall 600- 1200 mm, but no rain at flowering and fruiting, strong wind is detrimental. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 89Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 8.16.2. Soil Light, deep, well drained with adequate water holding capacity, sensitive to waterlogging. Rooting depth: 100 cm. Soil Reaction: pH 6.0 - 7.6, 50% yield decrease at 20% ESP and 100% at 8.5 dS/m of ECe and nearly nil at 1.5 d5/m. 8.17. Improvement of Grasslands The existing grasslands in the project command area can be improved for their high productivity, good quality and payability by adopting ecological succession, assisted and intensive management. This could be done by providing protection, soil and water conservation, bush cleaning, reseeding, fertilization, cutting and grazing management. 8.17.1. Protection from grazing Protection from biotic interferences brings remarkable recovery of vegetation. Though there are many methods of protection but in project command area the most cost effective method of protection is live - hedge fencing to protect the large area. Therefore, suitable and adapted impenetrable thick bushes should be introduced. The concept of social fencing in a participatory management is also found most effective and is low cost. 8.17.2. Bush cleaning Heavy infestation of unpalatable bushes in grazing lands not only adversely affects the availability of open space for growing grasses but also forage production. These can be manually removed. Sometimes the use of herbicides on the cut stumps will be able to kill them to stop coppicing. 8.17.3. Reseeding For improvement of deteriorated grassland, it will be important to replace low yielding annual grasses by reseeding with high yielding perennial grasses and legumes, which are adoptable to the prevailing conditions of the command area. The grasses and legumes may be Panicum maximum, Dichanthium annulatum, cenchrus ciliaris. Stylosanthes hamata, and Macroptilium atropurpureum. These have self - seeding habit with good persistency. 8.17.4. Fertilizer application Though it is not possible to apply fertilizers in grassland by individual farmers but based on participatory mode, if about 40kg N and 20 kg P O$ could be applied, the yield of 2 forage will increase by 100% along with quality improvement, particularly the crude protein in grasses. The addition of appropriate proportion of legume would also have similar effect. 8.17.5. Grazing Management The greatest single factor that causes deterioration of grassland is over-grazing. During the course of grazing some grasses are preferred whereas, others are avoided. On account of this selective grazing, desirable species tend to get depleted in grasslands faster than undesirable species. Most of the perennial grasses, utilizing the reserve food material stored in the lowest part of stems, crown portion or under ground parts, produce new Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 90Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy shoots after cutting or grazing. Due to overgrazing, the regeneration of these grasses and legumes are poor or negligible due to continuous drain of food reserve. This reveals the need for some period of gap or rest from cutting or grazing for to encourage the regrowth grasses and legumes. It is, therefore, essential to follow or design grazing systems namely continuous, deferred, rotational or deferred rotational with the help of the village community. The stocking rate should not exceed the carrying capacity of the grassland. In continuous grazing system animals are made to move freely in the entire area. It affects the soil health due to runoff and soil erosion. Deferred system involves the compartmentalization of grassland and keeping one of the compartments unutilized until seed setting. In rotational grazing all compartments are grazed in rotation. The deferred - rotational grazing is a combination of 2 and generally considered the best system from all points of view. 8.17.6. Silvopastoral management Considering the continuous pressure on cultivable lands and deterioration set in on the grazing land, it is imperative to look for alternative land - use systems that integrate the concern for productivity, conservation of resources and environment and profitability. Agro-forestry technologies namely silvipasture, hortipasture etc. hold promise not only for bio-remediation of degraded habitats but also forage production to meet the demands of livestock and environmental security in the project area. Wood perennials having fodder and fuel and timber value should be introduced systematically and managed scientifically. This will help in optimizing land productivity, conserving species, soils and nutrients and producing forage, timber and fire wood on sustainable basis. The tree selection should be based on its easy regeneration capacity, coppicing ability, fast growth, nitrogen - fixing ability, fodder value, high nutritive value with less toxic substances and high fuel value. The additional forage availability through such system is likely to reduce the grazing pressure and thus have important environmental implication. The system allows a good growth of grasses and legumes underneath. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 91Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 9. COST OF CULTIVATION AND RETURNS UNDER PRE AND POST PROJECT PERIOD 9.1. INTRODUCTION The cost of cultivation of five important crops of those included in the cropping systems under pre-project period (rainfed agriculture) and post-project period (irrigated agriculture) has been presented in Table 9.1 (a - d) and (e - f) respectively. The rates of various inputs and output and their prevailing prices have been collected from the various relevant sources as indicated below. The main sources of information were Central Statistical Agency and Woreda of Agriculture and Rural Development offices during the reconnaissance visit of the command area. The other sources were farmers of the project command Kebeles, discussion with the various relevant experts in Becho woreda. The yields and returns obtainable from the on-going rainfed crops cultivation have also been assessed. On comparison between the existing and proposed production it would be revealed that, under irrigated agriculture together with improved production practices, it is possible to boost productivity per unit area many folds. Table 16Cost of Cultivation and Returns from Principal Crops under Pre and Post Project Periods a) Cost of Cultivation of Tef under Pre Project Period (Rainfed Agriculture) Required labour and Particulars Unit Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Land preparation md 16 12 192 ii) Planting md 1 10 10 iii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery - - - - iv) Two intercultural operations md 32 12 384 v) Harvesting md 16 15 240 vi) Threshing md 8 12 96 vii) Pair of oxen for threshing days 16 30 480 viii) Seed rate kg 45 4.50 202.5 ix) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 100 4.04 404 b) Urea kg 100 4.17 417 c) Manure kg - - - x) Storage and bagging pcs 1 40 40 xi) Transportation md 40 1.50 60 xii) Chemicals Lt 1 50 50 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 92Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy xiii) Miscellaneous - - - - Sub total 2,575.5 II) Other Fixed Cost i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 35 35 ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - - iii) Contingent expenditure - - Sub total 35 Total 2,610.5 III) Yield & Income i) Grain yield q 16 450 7,200 ii) Yield of by-product q 40 10 400 iii) Gross income 7,600 iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) Bin- Birr 7,600 - 2,610.5 = 4,989.5 v) Benefit Cost Ratio 4,989.5/2,610.5 = 1.91:1 b) Cost of Cultivation of Wheat under Pre Project Period (Rainfed Agriculture) Required labour Particulars Unit and Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Land preparation md 8 23 184 ii) Planting md 4 15 60 iii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery - - - - iv) Land preparation and other works hour - - - v) Two intercultural operations md - - - vi) Harvesting md 1 300 300 vii) Threshing md 6 45 270 viii) Pair of oxen for threshing days 4 90 360 ix) Seed rate kg 150 3.70 555 x) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 100 4.01 401 b) Urea kg 50 4.14 207 c) Manure kg - - - xi)Storage & bagging pcs 4 30 120 xii)Chemicals Lt 1 48 48 xiii) Miscellaneous - - - - Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 93Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Sub total 2505 II) Other Fixed Cost i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 20 20 ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - - - iii) Contingent expenditure - - - Sub total 20 Total 2,525 III) Yield & Income i) Grain yield q 25 300 7,500 ii) Yield of by-product q 100 2 200 iii) Gross income - - 7,700 iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) Birr 7,700-2,525 = 5,175 v) Benefit Cost Ratio Birr 5,175/2,525 = 2.05:1 c) Cost of Cultivation of Maize under Pre Project Period (Rainfed Agriculture) Required labour Particulars Unit and Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Land preparation md 20 15 300 ii) Planting md 15 15 225 iii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery - - - - iv) Land preparation and other works hour - - - v) Two intercultural operations md - - - vi) Harvesting md 10 15 150 vii) Threshing md 15 15 225 viii) Pair of oxen for threshing days 16 30 480 ix) Seed rate kg 25 5 125 x) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 50 8.5 425 b) Urea kg 50 7.5 375 c) Manure kg 1000 0.3 300 xi) Tools pcs - - 100 xii)Chemicals Lt - - - xiii) Miscellaneous - - - - Sub total 2,705 II) Other Fixed Cost Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 94Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Aeronomy i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 35 35 ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - - - iii) Contingent expenditure - - - Sub total 35 Total 2,740 III) Yield & Income i) Grain yield q 15.1 292 4,409.2 ii) Yield of by-product q 25 15 375 iii) Gross income - - 4,784.2 iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) Birr 4,784.2-2,740 = 2,044.2 v) Benefit Cost Ratio Birr 2,044.2/2,740 = 0.74:1 d) Cost of Cultivation of Potato under Pre Project Period (Rainfed Agriculture) Required labour Particulars Unit and Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Land preparation md 40 10 400 ii) Planting md 50 10 500 iii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery - - - iv) Land preparation and other works hour - - - v) Two intercultural operations md - - - vi) Harvesting md 60 10 600 vii) Threshing md - - - viii) Pair of oxen for threshing days 20 30 600 ix) Seed rate kg 120 2 240 x) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 100 8.5 850 b) Urea kg 100 7.5 750 c) Manure kg - - - xi) Tools pcs - - 100 xii)Chemicals Lt 5 60 300 xiii) Miscellaneous - - - - Sub total 4,340 II) Other Fixed Cost i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 25 25 Waler Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 95Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - - iii) Contingent expenditure - - - Sub total 25 Total 4365 III) Yield & Income i) Grain yield q 150 120 18,000 ii) Yield of by-product q - • iii) Gross income - - 18,000 iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) Bin 18,000-4365 = 13,635 v) Benefit Cost Ratio Birr 13,635/4365 = 3.12:1 e) Cost of Cultivation of Tef Under Post Project Period (Irrigated Agriculture) Required labour and Uni t cost Total Particulars Unit Input/ha (In BIRR) (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Total mandays md 120 15 1800 ii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery - - - - iii) Land preparation and other works hour 2 300 600 iv) Two intercultural operations md 100 15 1500 v) Pair of oxen for threshing days 8 60 480 vi) Seed rate kg 30 30 900 vii) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 100 8.5 850 b) Urea kg 100 7.5 750 c) Manure kg 1000 0.3 300 viii) Miscellaneous - - - 300 Sub total 7480 II) Other Fixed Cost i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 35 35 ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - - LS* 100 iii) Contingent expenditure - - LS* 100 Sub total 235 Total 7715 III) Yield & Income Waler Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 96Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy i) Grain yield q 20 1000 20,000 ii) Yield of by-product q 120 150 18,000 iii) Gross income 38,000 iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) v) Benefit Cost Ratio Birr Birr 38,000-7715 = 30,285 30,285/7715=3.93:1 4 Least Significant f) Cost of Cultivation of Wheat Under Post Project Period (Irrigated Agriculture) Required labour Particulars Unit and Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Total mandays md 90 15 1350 ii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery - - - iii) Land preparation and other works hour 2 300 600 iv) Two intercultural operations md 60 15 900 v) Pair of oxen for threshing days 3 30 90 vi) Seed rate kg 175 6 1050 vii) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 100 8.5 850 b) Urea kg 100 7.5 750 c) Manure kg 1000 0.3 300 viiil Miscellaneous - - - 200 Sub total 6090 II) Other Fixed Cost i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 30 30 ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - - LS* 100 iii) Contingent expenditure - - LS* 100 Sub total 230 Total 6,320 i) Grain yield III) Yield & Income iii) Gross income iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) v) Benefit Cost Ratio q 45 750 33,750 ii) Yield of by-product q 50 30 1,500 35,250 BirT 35,250 - 6,320 = 28,930 Birr 28,930/6,320 = 4.58;! Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 97Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Least Significant g) Cost of Cultivation of Maize Under Post Project Period (Irrigated Agriculture) Required labour Particulars Unit and Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Total mandays md 100 15 1,500 ii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery hour 3 300 900 iii) Land preparation and other works md - - - iv) Two intercultural operations md 60 15 900 v) Pair of oxen for threshing days 6 30 180 vi) Seed rate kg 20 4.5 90 vii) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 80 8.5 680 b) Urea kg 150 7.5 1125 c) Manure kg - - - viii) Miscellaneous - - - - Sub total 5,375 II) Other Fixed Cost i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 25 25 ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - - LS* 100 iii) Contingent expenditure - - LS* 100 Sub total 225 Total 5,600 i) Grain yield q 50 292 14,600 ii) Yield of by-product III) Yield & Income iii) Gross income iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) v) Benefit Cost Ratio Least Significant q 65 30 1,950 16,550 Bin- Birr 16,550 - 5,600 = 10,950 10,950/5,600= 1.96:1 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 98Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy h) Cost of Cultivation of Potato Under Post Project Period (Irrigated Agriculture) Particulars Unit Required labour and Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Total mandays md 120 15 1,800 ii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery hour - LS* - iii) Land preparation and other works md - - iv) Two intercultural operations md - - - v) Pair of oxen for threshing days 15 30 450 vi) Seed rate kg 150 25 3,750 vii) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 100 8.5 850 b) Urea kg 200 7.5 1,500 c) Manure kg - - - viii) Miscellaneous - - - 650 Sub total ii) Depreciation on farm 8350 II) Other Fixed Cost i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 35 35 machinery - LS 100 iii) Contingent expenditure - LS* 100 Sub total 235 Total 8,585 III) Yield & Income i) Grain yield q 400 120 48,000 ii) Yield of by-product q - - iii) Gross income - - 48,000 iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) Bin 48,000-8,585 = 39,415 v) Benefit Cost Ratio Bin 39,415/8,585 = 4.59:1 Least Significant Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 99Becho Plain Feiifbllity Study On Irrigation Agronomy i) Cost of Cultivation of Rice Under Post Project Period (Irrigated Agriculture) Required labour Particulars Unit and Input/ha Unit cost (In BIRR) Total (In BIRR) I) Operation i) Total mandays md 150 15 2,250 ii) Hiring cost of tractors and machinery iii) Land preparation and hour 5 300 1,500 other works iv) Two intercultural md operations v) Pair of oxen for md threshing days 4 30 120 vi) Seed rate kg 4.1 110 451 vii) Fertilizers a) DAP kg 150 8.5 850 b) Urea kg 200 7.5 1,500 c) Manure kg - - - viii) Miscellaneous - - - - Sub total II) Other Fixed Cost 6,671 i) Land rent (tax) ha 1 35 35 ii) Depreciation on farm machinery - LS* 100 iii) Contingent expenditure - LS* 100 Sub total Total_____________________________________________ ___ III) Yield & Income____________________________________ i) Grain yield ii) Yield of by-product iii) Gross income iv) Net Income (Gross income-expenditure) v) Benefit Cost Ratio Least Significant q 410 50 q 15 70 Birr 21,550-6,906 = 14,644 Bin- 14,644/6,906 = 2.12:1 235 6,906 20,500 1,050 21,550 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 100Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy 10. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND STORAGE 10.1. Introduction Man, basic drive is food to satisfy his hunger. Most of the agricultural produces such as cereals, pulses, fruits, vegetables, milk, eggs, fish and meat constitute food materials. After production and before consumption, all such types of food materials are subjected to several adverse physical and chemical factors. They are also affected by microbial and parasitic agents causing spoilages or lead to diseases when consumed. To prevent these losses (both qualitative and quantitative) and prepare food for immediate or future use some processing, preservation and storage practices are required. These practices require a multi dimensional perspective because food security is a physical, environmental, economic and social issue. This multi disciplinary approach for food security may perhaps be the simplest definition of post-harvest technology. The post harvest technology includes various facets of processing after harvest including the rural level agro-processing. 10.2. Post Harvest Losses Due to non-availability of appropriate processing and preservation technologies and inadequate facilities for their handling, transportation and storage at least 12-15% or more food grains, 20- 30% horticultural produce and 15-20% animal and fishery production are lost annually. The adoption of suitable technologies for processing, preservation and storage of food and other farm products result in conservation, value addition, income and employment generation for the benefit of both producers; the farmers and processors. Value addition is important and critical due to socio-economic and industrial factors as it makes production more lucrative and also generates interest in large section of rural population in agricultural and horticultural activities. 10.3. Post harvest Operation and Value addition Post-harvest operation relates to all operations such as cleaning and grading (separation), drying or dehydration, storage, extraction, milling, fortification, packaging, transportation and handling carried out on a biomass from stage of harvesting till its consumption. Post harvest management also enables creation of agro-processing industries at the rural thresholds to produce value added products assuring greater financial returns and generation of employment opportunities, thus having a greater potential in reviving rural economy. Operations performed vary from crop-to-crop due to varied physico-chemical nature of different products. For example production of rice from paddy, split pulses and pulse flour from pulse grain and extraction of oilseeds involve different set of unit operations. Thus, the operations are unique for each crop as well as vary from commodity to commodity and are location-specific. They are different for adoption at the farm level, village level and at organized industrial level. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 101Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy Unit operations Food Crops Fruits and Vegetables Animal Products (meat and milk) Cleaning Washing Slaughtering Grading Cleaning Dressing Curing - Grading Cutting Shelling Packaging Packaging Decortications Dehydration Refrigerated storage Parboiling Bottling & canning Cooking or curing Dehusking Refrigeration Smoking Polishing Pickling Handling Size reduction Transportation Transportation Expelling or extraction Storage Marketing Mixing Byproducts or residue Abattoir management and waste utilization management Blending - Tanning of skin and hides. Fortification - Collection Packaging quality control - Processing and utilization of byproducts (horns, hooves, bone, blood) Storage - milk and milk product processing Transportation - Byproducts or residue utilization Marketing - There will be different unit operation for poultry products, fish products and others. Value addition to food itself can be of various types namely isolation of constituents that provide avenues for expanding food uses (essential oils, vitamins etc) processing for transformation into products with precise utilization, formulation with multiple ingredients to promote health and well being, improved nutritional quality by enriching with nutrients that are other wise deficient. 10.4. Post Harvest Technology The following, small-scale rural industries can be developed at the village or Kebele level by encouraging the interested farmers and others. 10.4.1. Rice or Paddy The spring rice or paddy up to 5-10% losses are due to shattering of grains at the time of harvesting. There are losses at the threshing floor due to threshing, cleaning, drying storage and processing operations. After harvest the biomass is heaped before threshing causing a loss due to birds, rodents and weather hazards. Thus, the total losses may amount to about 15% Out of these losses at least 60% can be avoided by using simple and improved post-harvest equipments Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 102Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy namely cleaners, graders, driers, metal bins and improved milling equipments, e ore consumption milling is essential for both raw and parboiled rice. There are two types of mi ling home pounding and mechanized rice mills. The major by products of rice milling are hus bran. 10,4.2. Wheat Wheat is consumed mostly in the form of flour, obtained by milling of grains A part h also used as breakfast food namely wheat flakes, puffed wheat and shredded wheal. Wheat oop suffers severe harvest and post harvest losses if appropriate technology fc particularly during harvesting. Storage life of wheat product is rather tow. There are «swt ban grinders to give 90 to 95% extraction in the form of whole meal floor la assrfsm process, the wheat grains are cleaned to remove various types of imparities before ssl&ig. The reduced endosperm is used as flour whereas the germ, bran and residual endosperm otsrised as byproduct are used as animal feed. In milling of wheat m roller milk, the grinding is carried otM in 4-5 stages based on the gradual reduction process to have different fineness of products having low medium and high gluten content. Protein-displacement milling is also practiced which provides means of obtaining various fractions from given wheat markedly different in protein content, suitable for different uses. This process consists of fine grinding of wheat and air classification of flour particles to yield fractions with different protein contents. 10.4.3. Maize Maize is used for food, feed, and for manufacture of starch, com sugar, dextrin syrup, industrial alcohol and alcolholic beverages. Milling is the most important operation in the processing of maize. Maize is milled either by dry or wet process. In both the processes, the geim is separated from grains to extract and recover germ oil, which is a variable product. In dry milling, the maximum amount of grit with minimum amount of flour is obtained. The yield of product in dry milling is 40% grits, 20% coarse meal, 10% fine meal, 5% flour and 14% germ. Wet milling of maize is done to obtain starch, oil, cattle feed and products of starch hydrolysis (liquid and solid glucose and syrup). The byproduct of wet-milling have number of uses like nutrient for micro organisms, maize oil for edible purpose (cooking oil), protein concentrate, maize bran and oil cake for animal feed. Porridge and com flakes are prepared from grits. 10.4.4. Pulses Processing of pulse is of primary importance in improving their nutritive value The « pulses go up to 20% including field level losses. Milling of pulses invoke removalo^S husk followed by splitting of gram mto two equal halves. Prelim* treatments affJT percent recover)' of processed pulse. Common types of equipment used in pulse milli™ Z < Shelter, cylinder-concave dehusker, rubber-roller Shelter and hulters. are discs Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 103Decho Plain Fwlbllily Study On Irrlgiltofl A|rooomy 10.4.5. Oil Seeds The losses include 5-15% in harvesting 2-5% in threshing, 2-3% seed cleaning and 10-15% in storage. The major post harvest operation of oil seed crops include drying or curing, cleaning and grading, pre-treatments, oil expelling and extraction, refining, packaging and utilization of byproducts. There are two processes for oil recovery, seed crushing and solvent extraction. Extraction or expelling of oil is done by using mechanical expellers. Oil seed cake is the major byproduct of oilseed processing industry and fed to animals. It has high amount of proteins and 1.0 to 1.5% oil. Solvent extraction method is more efficient. Filtration and refining of crude oil is also a basic unit of oil mills. 10.4.6. Fruits and Vegetables Fruits and vegetables are important supplements to the human diet, as they provide essential minerals, vitamins and fibers (roughages) required for maintaining health. There are two post harvest approaches to solve the problem of losses, occuring from 20-30%. One is the creation of cold storage or cool-chain facilities for fruits and vegetables producing regions and in major urban consumption centers to ensure supply of fresh fruits and vegetables throughout the year. In another approach, the fruits and vegetables can be processed and preserved for a long time with benefit of value addition. The products may be fruit and pulp, Jam and Jelly, Pickles, ready to serve beverages, synthetic syrups, squashes, tomato products (ketchup, puree and juice), and canned vegetables. These can be done in fruits and vegetables processing industries. Small and ™ttage industries can also be developed in kebeles or villages and women entrepreneurer can be gainfully engaged in such activities. Keeping in view of the vast scope of fruit and vegetable processing industry, there is a need of developing packaging stations with facilities for sorting, grading and processing. For export, world-class cool chain, pre-cooling units, grading and packaging units, cold storage in production and exit points and refrigerated transport are essential to compete in export with the rest of the world. 10.5. Storage Perishability is responsible for high post-harvest losses and marketing cost, market glut, price fluctuation and other similar problems in marketing of fruits and vegetables, meat, fish etc. Storage is an interim and a repeated phase in the complex logistics of transporting agricultural products from producers to processors and from processors to consumers. Besides agricultural products like food grains need to be stored from one harvesting to next, thus demanding additional carry over as safeguard against a following crop of low yield or poor quality against speculation in price or market demand or against shortage and famines. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 104-£l ho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy c The storage facilities in project command area are very primitive in nature, hence attract considerable losses. In general the losses during storage operation alone accounts for 6-7% of Production in food grains and as high as 20-30% in fruits and vegetables. The value of ^vestment and efforts needed to produce this much lost food material stands very high and require measures to reduce the same. The storage losses are both qualitative and quantitative, affecting nutritive value of products. Insects, rodents, spillage and fungal rot are the main causes >n food grains losses. Use of insecticides and pesticide may reduce the losses but the chemicals may enter in the food chain causing human health problem. The commonly used structures at the farmers’ households in Project command area are made of mud and straw which are neither airtight nor insect proof resulting in 3-30% losses. Hence, it has been proposed that metal bins made up of galvanized iron (GI) mild steel sheets, concrete bins or silos should be popularized at domestic - level grain storage. They have the advantage of being air tight, durable and fire-proof and also practically maintenance free. Most of the crops like paddy, wheat, barley, pulses etc. can be stored in such a closed structures. The perishable products like onion, potato, fruits and vegetables are harvested at very high moisture content of 60-88% (wet basis), which limit their shelf life. At rural level potato can be stored in a pit-storage method where potato is heaped in a pit to a height of about one meter and covered with a thick layer of straw or grass. If temperature is high, water is sprinkled on the cover of the heap. This can be stored with a loss of about 5% for a period of two months. Onion is another important perishable crop, creating problem of storage at the farmers’ level. Several types of local storage structures used for onion have serious problems, which lead to 50- 80% losses. However, split-bamboo storage structures, ventilated bamboo structures, natural air -ventilated structures and forced-air ventilation type onion-storage structures can be developed at the farmers level. For temporary storage of several other vegetables and fruits, a low-cost zero energy cool chamber can be made popular. 10.6. Conclusion The machines and equipment are one of the important inputs for production and processing. Mechanization increases efficiency, enhances value of products, achieves timeliness of operation and reduces drudgery. Mechanization may take place predominantly in those operations where traditional practices fail to deliver desired level of productivity. Thus for post-harvest operations, equipment for cleaning and grading, rice and pulse milling and oil extraction should be popularized, if do not exist so far in kebeles and villages. Agro-industry is said to be an enterprise that processes agricultural raw material. The degree of processing may vary from cleaning to grading to milling, cooking, mixing and chemical alteration that creates a textured food of biological origin. Warehousing, chilling plant and cold storages are also included in agro-industries, since they enhance storability and economic value. The agro-industries may be sub-grouped as agro-processing (rice-mills, pulse-mills, oil mills, fruit canning, dairy product processing, cotton-ginning, sugar mills etc), agro-input manufacturing units and agro-service centers to undertake repairs and servicing of farm machinery and equipments. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 105^BcchoPlihFea si bility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 11. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 11.1. Introduction Scientific research is a continuous process and essential for the technological advancement. However efficient the organization, which is built up for agricultural demonstration and extension, unless that organization is based on the solid foundations provided by research, it is merely a house built on sand. Science and technology are the engines of agricultural growth and development. This was amply demonstrated in countries like India where green revolution” process triggered by development and widespread adoption of high yielding varieties (HYVs) of rice and wheat and usher in by synergistic congruence of technological, political and socio-economic forces in 1968. Green Revolution technologies played a major role in increasing food grain supplies, in lowering and stabilizing food prices, in increasing farm incomes and in generating additional income and employment in non-farm economy. 11.2. Status of Agricultural Research in Ethiopia The Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), formerly known as Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) was established in 1966. The research activities initially covered agriculture, livestock and forestry. Later, the national and coordinated research started. The major objectives of the EIAR are:- • Generate develop and adapt agricultural technologies that focus on the needs of the overall agricultural development and its beneficiaries, • Coordinate research activities of agricultural research centers or higher learning institutes and other related establishments which undertake agricultural research on contractual basis, • Build up a research capacity and establish a system that will make agricultural research efficient, effective and based on development needs and, • Popularize agricultural research results. The research programs of the institute are covered under the directorates of crops, animal sciences, forestry, soils and water management and dry land agriculture. There are number of research centers covering the various agro-ecologies (18) identified for agricultural research. These research centers fall under the following categories. • Federal research centers and sub-centers (all under EIAR) • Regional research centers and sub-centers (all under regional agricultural research institutes) • Higher learning Institutions research centers and trial sites (under universities and colleges). EIAR is working very closely with all stakeholders including the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of water Resources Development, Regional Bureaus of Agriculture higher learning Institutions, farmers and NGOs. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 106Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 11.3. Status of Oromiya-National Regional Research The regional research centers are coordinated in different forms. In Oromiya National Regional State the research centers are under the administration of regional bureau of agriculture. The National Commodity Research centers (NCR) having national mandate like agricultural implements, coffee, cotton, maize, sorghum, teff and wheat are still under El AR but researches are being conducted in collaboration with regional research centers. Agricultural research activities of the entire country are supported by the Science and Technology Commission (STC) established by the Federal Government 11.3.1. Holetta Agricultural Research Center HARC is about 45km south west of Addis Ababa. It is located in the south west the town of Holetta at in attitude > 1400 mask It has a mean annual rainfall > 1200 mm and a mean temperature of 23°c . HARC is well positioned to provide research information to the farmers of the highlands where the potential for the production of cereals, pulses, oil crops, and some horticultural and fruit crops are considerably immense. The farmers in the vicinity of the HARC follow a mixed crop- livestock farming system and a cereal-legume intercropping system. The heavy black clay (koticha) and light soils (gembore ) of Holetta represent the two major soil types on which tef, wheat and highland pulses are grown. Moreover, Holetta and its surrounding (within 50km radius) have variable and yet representative agro ecologies of the country. Hence, in the early days since the center was the only one in the country, it had to operate across the wide range of agro ecological zones. TTiese varied agro climatic Zones are inhabited with different plant and animal species. Therefore, it is not daunting to note that these agro ecologies demand a sound agricultural research foundation based on adaptation of different crop plants and livestock species that are of economic importance. Consequently, HARC had been the vanguard of research activities for the development of the agricultural sector of the country. In due course, the Center has expanded its chartered horizons to various agro-ecological zones in collaboration with national and international research organizations. 11.3.2. Research Atrategies for Becho Irrigation Project The importance of nutritional and livelihood security, poverty alleviation, profitability gender equity, ecology and environment and competitiveness in cost and quality will continue to be important concern and issue before the research system. Hence the system needs to prioritize the research agenda for immediate attention. This may include the issue of immediate exploitation of water potential and quality of water soil health genetic resource conservation, increasing biotic and a biotic stresses, managing climate change, diversification in crop production, increasing preparedness to match rapidly evolving trade regime, reducing knowledge lag and congenial policy environment The emphasis on the research need to be changed on the basis of above issues to generate useful technologies including high yielding and of high genetic potential cultivars resistant to biotic and a biotic factor under irrigated production system using the ground 107Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy water potential. So far, the research in the country has been mainly concentrating on rainfed agriculture with commodity approach. This has made significant contribution in the Oromyia region. Immediate attention may be given to introduce high yielding, proven and photo-insensitive varieties having high input-use-efficiency from all parts of the world. They may be tested for their adaptabilities firstly at the research station located near project command area like. The most adaptive varieties may be grown at different locations on farmers’ field as on-farm trials. Thus, the process of introduction of new varieties in irrigated production system would be shortened and help in achieving the food and nutritional security in the country. The research activities need to be strengthened by way of increasing the number of research stations and substations to mainly concentrate on important crops and enterprizes in a system mode to give more emphasis on multi-disciplinary diversified agricultural technology development. This will help in agricultural production sustainability with appropriate care of eco-friendly environment. Since the government policy is very clear to introduce crops and varieties to enhance productivity, reduce imports and also increase exports, the emphasis on such commodities like quality rice, fruits, and vegetables should be further increased with more attention on applied research. It is, therefore, suggested that more funds be allotted to strengthen applied and technology generations oriented research. The technology thus generated should be assessed at the fanners’ fields and, further refined based on feedback. This requires very close linkages between the research and extension specialists. Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 108Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 12. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Becho ground water irrigation project is one of the Projects, proposed to be considered in the Oromiya National Region State covering parts of all the Becho plain area. Based on the ground water irrigation potential indicated by various internal and external agencies and policy of Ethiopian Federal Government on food securities, it has been planned to develop irrigated agriculture in Becho plain irrigation command area using the ground water as a source of water to increase the yields of field and horticultural crops. The gross command area is estimated to be over 20,000 hectares and the net irrigable area is 10,000 hectares. The feasibility study of the project command involves the overall crop production under irrigation agronomy to integrate the irrigated crop production under different fanning system namely cereal crops, pulses, oilseeds and horticultural crops, and post harvest practices etc. keeping in view the climatic and soil parameters in the existing socio economic conditions without adverse effect on the environment. The scope, approach and methodology of the study include various broad aspects in view of the existing farming systems and socio-economic situations of the area, existing crops, cropping system, production practices etc. in the light of the prevailing soils and climatic conditions and the feasibility and prospects of enhancement of productivity and production by introducing the irrigated production system. A number of cereals, pulses, oil seeds and other crops are being cultivated under rain fed production system. Meteorological characteristics are favorable for growth and productivity of many field crops, horticultural crops and other useful plants and trees. Currently the major problem of the farmers is food insecurity due to low farm productivity, land degradation and erratic rainfall. The production and productivity status of crops have been given to the country, Oromiya region and project command area. The average productivity of food grain is the highest in the region but the lowest in project command. The existing cropping pattern and crop-wise productivity indicates the highest yield from maize and the lowest from fenugreek. The proper information on Vegetable crops and fruits are poor. Currently only local varieties or land races with poor genetic potential are being grown by the majority farmers. Farming is at subsistence level and traditional. The improved technologies have not reached to the farmers due to poor extension service. The farmers are using improved varieties, quality seeds, fertilizers, agro-chemicals, farm implements and improved tools to a limited. The credit facilities are poor and farmers with low resources have no risk bearing capacity. Hence, the farm productivity is low. On the existing status of fanning system in the project command area. The main constraints identified are: the inadequate input supply (variety, seeds, fertilizers, agro chemicals) farm implements, shortage of draught power, problem of drainage, frequent natural hazards, poorly developed research-extension linkage, inadequate extension service, and poor marketing system and low market price of produce, problem of Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 109Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy adequate rural credit facilities, inadequate transport net work and problem of health of farmers and their families and livestock specially cattle due to various diseases. Keeping in view the production potential of the project command, soils, climate and Ethiopian government policy towards agriculture called Agricultural development led Industrialization (ADLI) to attain self sufficiency in food reduction, production of cash and industrial crops for export and import substitution by full and efficient utilization of land and water resources while maintaining ecological and environmental balance etc. Suitable cropping pattern, cropping system and crop rotations have been selected with inclusion of most appropriate and potential crops of high quality. The crop calendars have been prepared for calculation of their actual water requirements under irrigated production systems. Looking at the present low cropping intensity of the project command, it has been suggested to have cropping systems to provide high and sustainable yield. Accordingly, it has been further proposed to make use of improved, photo-insensitive, medium duration high quality varieties, particularly of cereals that have greater degree of water and nutrient-use efficiency and good marketability. The crop intensity of 195 percent are proposed to be taken upon improving with the further need, experience and population pressure in the area, they may be raised to the level 200 percent or more. It has been further proposed to integrate the crop production system with horticulture, forestry and other allied disciplines of production for sustainable yield with eco-friendly environment. The crop water requirement of each crop included in rotations has been calculated following the procedures recommended in FAO publications for calculation of reference evapotranspiration (ETo) by using Pennman Montieth Approach (FAO Irrigation & Drainage paper No.46). Suitable crop coefficients were selected for different stages of growth to calculate crop water requirements by considering the agricultural practices, climatic parameters, cropping pattern, crop calendar, cropping intensities etc. The crop production technologies of important field and horticultural crops have been given considering the irrigated production system with optimum inputs and production practices to achieve reasonable yield per hectare based on the information available from IAR, personal experience of the consultant and from other countries having similar growing conditions and agro- climate. The major crops included are rice, wheat, maize (cereals), (oilseeds), Field peas, chick peas, soybean, Faba bean (Pulses), potato, onion carrot, tomato, cabbage (vegetable), In the process of the cost of cultivation of important food crops under irrigated production systems involving improved production technologies have been worked out to project the expected income. Simultaneously the cost of cultivation of the crops under existing farm situation in rainfed production system has been also calculated to compare the benefits. Among all the crops, rice appears to be the most economical. The status of agricultural research in the region has been briefly discussed However HARC has done good work for rainfed agriculture involving crops, livestock allng with soils covering various aspects but the work on irrigated agriculture is not established Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise noBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Moreover, the HARC is only partly representing the conditions of project command for technology generation. There are a few sub-centers near or inside the command conducting research. Research strategies have also been suggested for the Becho plain project under irrigation. In view of the proposal to introduce the irrigation and irrigated production system in Becho plain and the command area, there is an urgent need to consider the possibility to establish a new Agricultural Research cum Demonstration sub center inside the command area which is currently thinly populated with only very low cropping intensity. The sub center may be established by on the pattern of HARC and it should be run under the administration and close supervision of HARC. The technologies generated by the sub center may be demonstrated at the center’s as well as at the holdings of selected fanners to get feed-back for their appropriateness and further refinement to meet the requirements of small holding size. The sub center should also emphasize on the creation of in-village seed production programs. The science and technology must address (for crops, livestock, horticulture/forestry), the following four interrelated areas in order to achieve higher productivity and sustainability and thereby help alleviate hunger and poverty: • Enhancing yields, bridging yield gaps, protecting yield gains, minimizing post-harvest losses, augmenting value addition and improving productivity and promoting, eco-technologies rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, equity and employment, • Exploiting gene revolution (biotechnology), benefiting from information and communication technology revolution, promoting knowledge based fanning systems, precision fanning (agriculture), intensification, diversification and value addition, • Protecting and improving natural resources (land, water and biodiversity), addressing environmental concern, and managing climate change and natural disasters, and • Seeking congruence of productivity, profitability, sustainability and equity, addressing gender issues and problems of poor and excluded, and managing liberalized trade in the globalized world by addressing issues related to global competitiveness in the context of WTO. These will involve both strategic and applied research. In this all the research partners have important roles to play. The extension will have to adopt problem solving approaches and develop methods of problem - solving approaches and methods for transferring more site-specific, information and technical knowledge. This requires the regular program of capacity building at all levels to undertake the activities effectively and efficiently. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 111Becho Plain Fenibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy 13. REFERENCES Kenneth H. Solomon, 1988. Irrigation Systems and Water Application Efficiency. California State University, USA. Bureau of Finance and Economic Development regional government of Oromiya, statistical Abstract fifth Edition, November 2005. FAO, 1975. Crop water Requirements. Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, FAO, 1992. Crop WAT, A computer program for irrigation planning and management. Irrigation and Drainage paper No. 46. Ethiopian Seed Enterprise: (1997) Improved crop varieties produced by Ethiopian seed Enterprise, Addis Ababa Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), 1994, Agriculture sector strategy, Study of land and water Resources of Blue Nile Basin, (1964), Addis Ababa, EthiopiaBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex I - Existing land use in Becho plain Woredas Becho Dawo Elu Total Details of land use Area (ha) % Area (ha) % Area (ha) % Area (ha) % Cultivable land 32712 73 38508 93 30464 92 101684 85 Cultivated land 32712 73 33280 80 30277 91 96269 r80 Annual crop 32712 73 31989 77 ' 30277 91 94978 79 Perennial crop 1291 3 - - 1291 1 Uncultivated land 12063 27 724 2 - - 12787 11 Natural pasture 2127 5 5228 13 1805 5 9160 8 Forest land 1055 2 1882 5 650 2 3587 3 Useless/waste land 8881 20 320 1 20 0.1 9221 8 Total area 44775 100 41434 100 32939 100 119148 100 N.B: Cultivable land= Cultivated land + Additional cultivable area Source: Becho Woreda Office of Agriculture and rural development, 2007. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 113Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex II - Estimated Maximum Tempeature at Bccho plain (in °C) Year 1 Jan Feb. Mar Apr May Jun Jul .Aufi Sep Oct Nov Dec. 1975 21.8 22.9 22.6 23.6 23.0 21.2 19.1 19.0 19.7 21.6 21.0 21.8 1976 22.4 23.2 24.7 23.7 23.8 21.2 19.2 18.5 19.6 21.4 21.1 21.4 1977 22.0 23.3 23.4 22.4 21.8 21.9 19.4 19.6 20.9 22.7 20.7 21.9 1978 21.4 22.3 23.4 24.4 23.2 21.7 20.1 20.3 20.2 21.0 21.1 21.8 1979 22.5 22.8 22.7 23.6 23.5 22.1 19.3 20.4 19.9 21.0 22.2 22.3 1980 20.9 23.2 23.6 24.3 24.3 23.6 21.0 21.1 21.5 22.7 22.9 23.0 1981 23.6 24.9 25.2 24.6 25.6 22.9 20.6 20.8 21.9 22.2 22.8 23.4 1982 24.4 24.7 22.4 22.7 25.3 25.3 20.4 20.9 20.8 22.3 22.9 23.0 1983 23.4 23.7 24.8 23.1 24.2 24.0 21.1 20.4 21.6 21.8 22.7 22.8 1984 23.0 24.3 25.3 24.1 23.9 23.4 22.3 20.3 21.2 22.0 22.8 22.5 1985 23.4 25.1 26.1 27.2 24.2 21.7 20.3 21.2 21.5 23.0 23.2 22.5 1986 23.8 24.3 24.9 22.9 23.4 23.4 20.0 20.1 20.9 22.0 22.8 22.6 1987 23.9 24.5 23.9 22.5 24.4 21.9 21.4 21.2 21.9 22.8 23.4 23.6 1988 23.4 24.2 23.2 23.5 23.7 22.8 21.9 22.1 23.0 24.0 24.1 24.1 1989 24.2 24.8 26.4 24.9 25.7 23.2 19.9 20.9 21.1 22.0 22.5 22.6 1990 23.0 22.9 24.5 22.4 24.8 23.5 20.4 21.3 21.1 22.3 22.9 22.3 1991 23.3 22.6 23.5 23.5 25.4 23.5 21.2 20.9 21.2 22.5 23.0 22.9 1992 24.7 24.5 24.3 25.0 25.9 23.8 20.5 20.9 22.0 22.9 22.8 22.3 1993 22.4 23.3 25.7 25.6 25.5 23.7 20.7 19.7 21.0 21.7 21.3 22.8 1994 23.2 22.7 25.8 23.1 23.6 22.2 20.9 20.9 20.7 22.4 22.8 23.2 1995 24.6 26.2 25.3 24.9 25.6 22.4 20.9 20.3 21.6 23.4 23.3 23 6 1996 24.7 25.5 25.5 23.4 25.1 24.4 20.4 21.0 22.1 23.8 24.6 24 0 1997 24.0 26.7 24.7 24,5 24.5 21.7 20.9 21.3 22.0 24.0 23.8 24.1 1998 24.2 25.5 26.4 24.4 26.8 24.6 21.8 21.2 23.6 23.3 22.5 24.1 1999 23.7 25.7 25.4 26.8 25.4 24.8 21.4 21.4 21.8 22.2 23.1 23.0 2000 24.4 26.5 25.2 27.9 26.2 24.7 19.9 21.5 22.5 21.9 22.9 23.4 2001 25.0 26.0 27.3 25.6 25.3 23.0 21.6 20.4 21.5 22.2 23.0 238 2002 24.4 25.9 23.7 25.3 24.5 22.5 21.6 21.2 22.6 23.8 24.0 243 2003 24.0 26.2 25.0 25.7 26.2 24.2 23.0 21.1 22.2 24.2 24.3 23.5 2004 24.4 1 26.3 25.3 24.6 26.7 24.0 21.0 21.0 21.6 23.5 23.4 22.8 Source; National meteorology station, 2007. Water Works Design ind Supervision Enterprise 114Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex IV - Estimated Relative Humidity at Becho plain (in percent) Witer Works Design end Supervision EnterpriseBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex IV - Continued... Year Jan Feb. Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec. 1995 36 41 50 65 47 58 77 80 70 44 44 47 1996 53 38 54 59 56 76 77 76 75 44 45 42 1997 48 30 36 49 36 55 71 70 56 54 59 49 1998 51 45 51 48 54 63 75 78 73 63 42 32 1999 34 20 41 31 39 51 75 75 63 66 39 42 2000 33 26 29 45 49 65 73 78 75 52 46 39 2001 39 30 51 45 64 69 70 74 59 41 34 33 2002 41 29 43 39 41 61 71 71 56 36 35 45 2003 36 32 36 50 33 56 77 76 68 34 34 39 2004 39 29 35 | 34 59 71 76 60 44 36 37 Source: National meteorology station (2007) Wafcr Worki Design and Supervision Enterprise 117 toBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex V - Estimated Mean Daily Sunshine Duration at Becho plain Project Area (in hrs/day) Year Jan Feb. Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec. 1975 10.4 8.6 8.1 6.0 6.8 4.2 2.9 2.2 4.1 6.1 10.7 10.3 1976 9.4 9.1 7.2 6.2 6.0 4.9 2.4 2.8 6.2 8.4 6.6 9.5 1977 6.1 7.3 7.6 7.0 5.6 4.5 3.3 3.2 4.9 5.3 9.0 10.1 1978 9.8 6.9 7.5 7.0 6.7 5.1 1.9 3.2 4.4 7.8 10.1 8.4 1979 6.1 7.5 6.2 7.7 7.5 5.9 3.3 4.5 4.9 8.2 10.2 9.0 1980 8.2 9.2 7.5 6.2 6.6 4.5 2.7 4.1 5.7 8.2 9.5 9.9 1981 9.7 9.1 4.0 5.1 8.2 6.9 2.6 3.7 3.8 9.1 9.9 9.3 1982 7.5 6.9 8.5 5.5 6.7 4.7 2.8 2.8 5.1 7.3 6.6 7.8 1983 7.6 7.6 6.0 5.5 4.6 6.8 4.8 2.7 4.4 7.2 9.6 9.0 1984 9.8 10.0 9.2 9.0 5.6 4.5 3.7 4.8 6.2 10.3 9.7 10.3 1985 9.4 9.0 7.9 5.2 6.6 5.5 3.0 3.6 5.9 8.6 10.2 9.6 1986 10.0 6.8 7.7 5.8 7.5 3.7 3.6 4.0 6.6 8.8 10.2 9.5 1987 9.1 8.1 5.4 7.6 6.2 5.7 4.2 9.1 9.7 9.8 1988 8.3 9.5 8.2 1.7 3.9 4.6 6.0 10.2 1989 8.6 7.0 5.4 3.3 5.1 4.9 8.1 10.0 1990 9.6 5.8 7.6 6.5 7.5 5.5 3.1 3.6 4.6 8.8 8.8 9.9 1991 8.9 7.4 6.7 8.1 7.8 4.7 2.1 2.9 5.3 8.5 9.3 7.7 1992 6.0 5.7 4.1 6.6 7.4 5.3 2.9 1.8 4.3 7.3 8.3 8.6 1993 7.7 6.7 9.3 5.6 6.6 4.3 3.2 3.7 3.6 7.5 10.1 9.6 1994 9.8 9.6 7.6 6.4 7.8 3.5 2.3 2.8 5.4 9.6 8.8 9.9 1995 9.7 8.6 7.9 5.3 7.5 6.7 3.1 3.5 4.9 8.5 9.4 8.7 1996 7.3 9.2 9.4 7.0 6.8 3.5 2.9 3.6 5.0 8.8 8.5 9.2 1997 7.1 10.4 8.1 6.5 8.5 6.2 3.3 3.9 7.7 7.5 7.4 9.1 1998 7.8 7.6 7.8 7.9 5.5 3.8 4.5 1999 iL— 2000 2.8 4.1 6.8 8.6 8.7 2001 7.7 9.0 5.0 8.8 5.6 3.7 2.4 2.0 5.5 7.7 9.3 8.9 2002 6.6 9.2 7.1 8.4 6.1 2.9 8.5 2.8 9.5 9.5 5.8 2003 7.9 9.0 8.2 6.1 8.4 4.7 1.6 4.1 9.7 9.0 8.3 2004 7.5 8.7 7.7 6.0 7.8 2.2 •• 2.4 4.9 7.4 8.7 8.2 Source: National meteorology station (2007)Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex VI - Estimated Mean Monthly Rainfall at Becho Plain Project Area (in mm) 1 Year Jan 1 Feb. Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec. 1975 0.0 3.0 31.5 Annual 81.0 21.5 166.2 302.1 263.3 157.9 17.0 0.0 0.0 1043.5 1976 13.0 0.0 72.0 30.6 104.5 119.0 206.8 261.5 88.9 0.0 35.0 28.2 959.5 1977 70.5 0.0 45.0 48.2 87.0 225.8 409.0 351.0 108.0 178.5 85.3 0.0 1608.3 1978 0.0 62.5 60.7 34.6 113.4 143.2 222.0 193.9 73.0 0.0 0.0 25.1 928.4 1979 93.9 39.0 117.5 5.9 136.8 151.3 351.4 256.2 99.4 79.5 0.0 36.9 1367.8 1980 39.5 29.8 62.0 57.2 14.7 175.9 409.0 340.0 86.0 22.5 0.0 0.0 1236.6 1981 20.0 25.0 112.0 35.0 0.0 61.0 367.0 283.5 119.1 43.0 0.0 2.2 1067.8 1982 20.5 20.0 39.0 39.5 42.5 178.7 420.8 498.9 205.0 58.6 8.5 12.3 1544.3 1983 5.0 21.4 102.1 59.3 70.5 114.4 116.0 274.2 1984 65.1 35.5 247.8 228.6 1985 27.8 12.2 7.2 58.5 87.5 149.6 320.4 268.7 63.0 19.8 0.0 4.5 1019.2 1986 10.6 43.3 71.6 99.7 86.7 214.2 175.0 146.2 144.6 4.4 0.0 4.2 1000.5 1987 ' 3.7 ' 31.6 137.0 71.8 140.4 137.4 177.7 173.9 52.3 11.3 0.0 0.0 937.1 I 1988 2.5 18.6 0.0 135.9 4.0 205.7 339.8 157.1 58.5 4.4 0.0 0.0 926.5 1989 6.0 68.8 87.3 95.8 0.0 345.2 229.0 298.6 91.4 20.3 0.0 9.2 1251.6 1 1990 0.0 27.6 25.0 29.0 150.1 238.3 199.8 36.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 | 1991 ’ 9.2 7.2 68.8 11.2 128.6 160.3 191.9 161.3 4.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 742.6 | 1992 7.1 62.2 37.3 42.8 336.9 441.7 575.0 65.7 8.2 4.7 2.8 1993 1 8.7 21.5 13.9 113.8 193.5 548.9 440.4 563.7 326.6 19.2 0.0 0.0 2250.2 1994 0.0 0.0 85.6 | 1995 ~T 0.0 I 8.3 T 43. i~ 1996 ~T 17.5 3.1 1997 ~T 0.0 1998 [i 3.0 0.0 39.8 36.3 23.3 r 0.0_____ 1999 T 15.7 [( 3.0 56.0 7000It L0 n ).o 1.8 46.9 49.7 65.5 60.7 90.4 0.0_____ 160.8 64.0 87.8 42.1 55.3 79.1 31.9 284.4 134.8 216.3 203.0 317.0 270.1 222.0 1 334.4 90.1 243.9 343.2 343.6 356.7 320.4 316.6 221.6 338.2 340.9 449.0 226.7 1 232.8 0.0 121.2 78.8 113.8 140.3 114.3 0.0 3.1____ 0.0 63.3 68.9 5.5____ 6.3 __ 0.0 4.3 37.1 0.0 0.0 26.4 0.0 14.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.6 1137.6 1372.4 1215.2 Wflter Works Design end Supervision EnterpriseRain Fe—ibiMty Study Oa frrtga(ton Agronomy Annex VT- Continued... Year Jan Feb. Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec. Annual 2001 0.5 3.2 98.1 36.4 68.6 186.5 224.0 160.1 35.3 6.9 0.0 0.0 819.6 2002 46.3 9.1 41.7 60.6 43.3 224.9 236.8 241.0 77.2 0.0 0.0 40.6 1021.5 2003 40.0 11.7 49,1 94.3 7.8 127.1 315.1 219.1 91.5 0.0 0.0 7.7 963.4 2004 52.5 0.0 10,8 92.9 44.7 270.9 330.6 f85.0 163.8 0.0 0.0 5.2 1156.4 average 17.6 17.5 54.4 63.3 72.2 202.5 291.5 282.5 105.3 22.9 7.5 7.3 1162.3 maximum 93.9 68.8 137.0 160.8 193.5 548.9 441.7 575.0 326.6 178.5 853 40.6 2250.2 MINIMUM 0.0 0.0 0,0 0.0 0.0 35.5 90.1 146.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 742.6 STDEV 23.6 18.7 37.0 37.6 50.8 98.7 93.6 1153 68.8 38.4 18.8 11.8 327.8 SKEWNESS 1.8 1.3 0.4 0.7 0.5 1.5 -0.3 1.3 1.3 2.8 3.2 1.9 1.9 Source; National meteorology station (2007) Wtifr wer»n«oti> ft mwrsBecho Plain Fallibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex VII - Results of the household agronomic survey in Becho Project Command Area 1) Land ownership Description Maximum Minimum Average Land owned (in ha) 8 0.5 3.3 Number of fields owned per household 12 2 4.5 2) Possession of irrigation land Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Have irrigation land 27 48.2 Have no irrigation land 28 50.0 Not responded 1 1.8 Total 56 100.0 3) Possession of irrigation land (in ha) Description Traditional irrigation Modern irrigation Maximum 2.5 2.0 Minimum 0.005 0.001 Average 0.27 0.067 4) Types of irrigation land Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Traditional 26 . 46.4 Modem 0 0 Both 0 0 Not responded 30 53.6 Total 56 100.0 5) Benefits obtained Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Better production 6 10.7 Better income 3 5.3 Sustainable food supply 9 16.1 Other benefits / Combined 8 14.3 Not responded 30 53.6 Total 56 100.0 Water Works Design tnd Supervision Enterprise 121Becbo Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 6) Existence of water users association rx------ --------------------------------------- 1 KI.. description Is there water users association? nf r^nnndeiit household?________ I Proportion (in -------- 14.3 Yes, there is 19 33.9 29 51.8 Total 56 100.0 7) Importance of the association DcRcrintinn Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Is the association imnortant? Yes 9 16.1 No 7 12.5 Not responded 40 71.4 Total 56 100.0 8) Crop rotation Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Do you practice crop rotation? Yes, crop rotation is practiced 37 66.1 No, crop rotation is not practiced 0 0 Not responded 19 33.9 Total 56 100.0 9) Time o farm practice Description Month selected by the majority of households Beginning of plowing March Proportion (in September 72 May 69 End of sowing End of plowing Beginning of sowing 10) Frequency of plowing September 51 69 121Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 11) Draught animal used Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Oxen 40 71.4 Horse 0 0 Mule 0 0 Donkey 0 0 Not responded 16 28.6 Total 56 100.0 12) Planting method used Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Row planting 4 7.1 Broadcasting 32 57.1 Not responded 20 35.7 Total 56 100.0 13) Furrow and ridges Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Use furrow and ridges 7 12.5 Do not use furrow and ridges 1 1.8 Not responded 48 85.7 Total 56 100.0 14) Size of bed, ridge & furrow Description Number of respondent households Maximum Minimum average Size of ridge 2 75.0 40.0 57.5 Size of bed 4 80.0 7.8 Size of furrow 3 34.5 8.0 7.0 8.3 15) Types of seed used Description Number of respondent households Improved 1 Proportion (in %) U 1 1---------------- - Local 5 ————------------------------- Both 26 Combination of the above 18 ~464 ‘ --------------------- "3Z1 ———---------------- - Not responded 6 Total So 10.8 loo.o - -------- - ----------- Waler Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 122^^hj^PlginjeMiblllty Study On Irrigitlon Agronomy 16) Types of fertilizers used Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Commercial 30 53.6 Manure 1 1.8 Compost 0 0 .Combination of the above 23 41.1 Not responded 2 3.5 Total 56 100.0 17) Rate fertilizer application (in kg/ha) Description Proportion of fertilizer users (in %) Maximum Minimum Average For cereals 96.4 250 50 165.3 For pulses 12.5 200 50 135.7 For oilseeds 0 0 0 0 18) Labour used for weeding Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Labour used for weeding 53 94.6 Don’t use labour for weeding 3 5.4 Total 56 100.0 19) Do you apply chemicals for weeding Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Yes 54 96.4 No 2 3.6 Total 156“ 100.0 20) Do you practice intercropping Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Yes 17 30.4 No 39 69.6 Total 56 100.0 21) Do you have insect pest problem Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Yes 53 94.6 No 3 5.4 Total 56 100.0 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 123Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 22) Do you borrow money for crop production Descrintinn Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Yes 54 96.4 No 2 3.6 Total 56 100.0 23) Purpose of borrowing Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) To purchase seed 0 0 To purchase fertilizer 4 7.1 To purchase chemical 0 0 To purchase other inputs 2 3.6 Combination of the above 20 35.7 Not responded 30 53.6 Total 56 100.0 24) Source of credit Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Government 9 16.1 Credit unions 13 23.2 NGO 2 3.6 Individuals 3 5.4 Not responded 29 51.7 Total 56 100.0 25) Credit interest rate Maximum 25.0 ---------------------------------------------------- Minimum Ts -------------------------------------------------- — Average T2 ------------------------------ 26) Durations of payment (in months) 124Becho Plain ^Mljty Study On Irrigation Agronomy 27) Rain fed crop production (The total area of cultivated land is greater than the household land holdings for there is double cropping per season). Minimum Average Number of households Proportion Crop type Crop Wheat Barley Maximum Average ield/ha Maize Sorghum F. millet H. bean Chickpea Lentil 23.19 18.88 5.07 27.68 21.85 0.004 91.1 37.5 94.6 83.9 30.4 Pulses Description Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (inQt)________ Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (inQt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) 0.54 17.96 9.90 0.02 83.9 42.9 Fababean Fenugreek Field Yield (in Qt)________ Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt)_________ 27.0 0.5 16.0 6.00 0.00 26.0 Area cultivated (in ha) Area cultivated (in ha) Groundnut 0.00 0.00jj»echo Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 27) Continued... Crop type Crop Description Minimum Average Average yield/ha Number of households producing the crop Linseed Noug Rapeseed Sesame Sunflower Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) _ Yield (in Qt)__________ Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Proportion (in %) Potato Yield (in Qt) 120.0 Area cultivated (in ha) ' 20.0 Tomato Cabbage Yield (in Qt) 169.0 20.0 300.0 30.0 20.0 Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Vegetables Area cultivated (in ha) 67.11 0.02 127.00 0.54 S. Potato Yield (in Qt)___________ Onion Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt)_________ 50.0 30.0 100.0 Area cultivated (in ha) _ 20.0 Yield (in Qt)________ ’ Area cultivated (in ha) Other veg. | Yield (in Qt) 40,0 12.0 40.0 40.00 0.07 59.48 0.02 25.00 0.00 40.0 Fruits Papaya Banana Avocado Guava Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) Area cultivated (in ha) Yield (in Qt) u/rtrh Dfifon and Supervision Enterprise 126Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 28) Major crop varieties produced Description Crop Number and proportion of the household respondents selecting the variety Crop Number and proportion of the household respondents selecting the variety -pt- Teff (Local) 32 (57%) Teff(DZ-196) 12 (21%) "2s3 Wheat 27 (48%) Wheat (HAR 1685) 12(21%) -ya- Chickpea 17(30%) Barley 7 (12.5%) Maize 11 (20%) Lentil 9(16%) 29) Do you produce crops under irrigation? Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Yes 23 41.1 No 27 48.2 Not responded 6 10.7 Total 56 100.0 30) Priority of crops production under irrigation Description Crops Hectare Yield/ha -pr—" Chickpea 0.43 17.5 -ya— Onion 0.36 39.3 ya- Cabbage 0.26 126.5 31) Are there any problems associated with irrigation? Description Number of respondent households ’ Proportion (in %) Yes 18 ’ 32.1 No 3 5.4 Not responded 35 62.5 Total 56 100.0 32) Types of problems associated with irrigation 1 problem st Shortage of water 2 problem nd Shortage of treadle pump Worfcf Md Svptrvbioa EaletpriKBccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 33) Implements used for land preparation 1“ Implement 2 Implement nd Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Local maresha 20 35.7 4 7.1 Shovel 8 14.3 Mofer & Kenber/ Drought animal 8 14.3 7 12.5 Yolk 8 14.3 Hoe 4 7.1 Others 3 5.4 0 0 Not responded 17 30.3 33 58.9 Total 56 100 56 100 34) Types of land preparation Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Traditional practice 47 96.0 Modem 1 2.0 Both 1 2.0 Not responded 0 0 Total 49 100.0 35) Time of major farm practices Description Month Proportion of households (in %) Beginning of land preparation March 0.58 End of land preparation September 0.86 Beginning of planting . March/April 0.65 End of planting September 0.87 36) Frequency of plowing Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Once 2 3.6 Twice 2 3.6 Thrice 13 23.2 Four times & above 38 67.9 Not responded 1 1.7 Total 56 100.0 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 128faghoPhln Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 37) Depth of plowing Description Depth (in cm) Maximum 36 Minimum 15 Average 22.5 38) Usage of improved seed Yield (Qt/ha) Description Crop type With fertilizer Without fertilizer Proportion of the household respondents selecting the improved seed (in %) Teff 16.4 9.5 68 Wheat 29.8 13.5 75 T3- Chickpea 22.8 15.6 75 39) Cost of fertilizer Description Cost (in Birr) Maximum 827.30 Minimum 400.00 Average 452.20 40) Major problematic weeds Description Weed type Crop affected Proportion of the household respondents selecting the improved seed (in %) 1 Major weed Commelina Teff 10.7 2 Major weed nd Rumex Wheat 5.3 3 Major weed Cynodon Chickpea 16.1 41) Frequency of weeding Crop type Frequency of weeding Proportion of the house - hold respondents (in %) Teff Once 51 Twice 49 Wheat Once 100 Chickpea Once 100 42) Crops used for intercropping Main Crop Intercrop Maize Haricotbean Sorghum Noug Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 129Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy 43) Are there any insect pest or disease problems? Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Yes, there are 55 982 No, there are not 1 1.8 Total 56 100.0 44) Crops affected by insect pest or disease problems Description Crop type Major insect pests Major diseases l Crop sl Teff Red teff worm Soil bom T^Crop Wheat Cutworm Soil bom 3 Crop ra Chickpea African boll worm Soil bom 45) Do you apply control measures for insect pest or disease problems? Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Yes, I do 48 85.7 No, I don’t 0 0 Not responded 8 14.3 Total 56 100.0 46) Types of control measures applied Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Chemicals 34 62.9 Resistant variety 0 0 Other 1 1.9 Combination of the above 19 352 Total 54 100.0 47) Types of harvesting methods used Description Number of respondent households Proportion (in %) Traditional 56 100 Mechanized 0 0 Not responded 0 0 Total 56 100.0 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 130Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex VIII - Crop Seeds requirement for Becho plain project command area, 2007 Crop type Becho area (ha) Dawo area (ha) EIu area (ha) Total area (ha) Seed rate (kg/ha) Average seed rate (kg/ha) Total seed require d(qt) Wheat 5836 8734 4834 19407 150 150 29110.5 Barley 1743 3060 120 4923 120 120 5907.6 Teff 17447 13080 18144 48671 20-30 25 12167.8 Maize 100 780 433 1313 20-25 22.5 295.5 Sorghum 175 515 728 1418 5-10 7.5 106.4 Finger millet - - - - 9-10 9.5 - Haricot bean - 21 - 21 100 100 21.0 Chickpea 5064 2520 4440 12024 160-200 180 21643.2 Lentil 45 510 625 1180 140-180 160 1888 Fababean 168 722 35 925 200-250 225 2081.3 Fenugreek - - 50 50 160-180 170 85 Field pea 142 618 25 785 80-120 100 785 Grasspea 1779 - - 1779 160-200 180 3202.2 Vetch - - 800 800 32 32 256 Groundnut - - - 100-120 110 - Linseed 104 45 149 20-30 25 37.3 Noug 109 60 50 219 20-25 22.5 49.3 Rapeseed - - - 4-6 5 - Sesame - - - 4-7 5.5 - Sunflower - - - - - - Potato 0.8 15 16 2500-3500 300 48 Tomato - - - 0.5-0.7 0.6 - Sweet potato - - - - - - Cabbage 0.1 0.5 0.6 0.5-0.7 0.6 0.0036 Onion 0.8 2 3 10-15 12.5 0.4 Pepper - - 0.5-0.7 0.6 - Garlic 4 4 10-15 12.5 0.5 Others 59 59 Citrus - - Papaya - - Banana - - Avocado - - Guava Total 32713.7 30745.5 30287 93746.6 • - Source : Source: Becho plain woredas Agriculture and rural development Offices, 2007. Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 132Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex IX - The Existing Operational Crop Calendar in Becho Plain, 2007. AA**. Becho worTTevl d i a c ;ua vi rop u cal p vai endcariiuai Crop types Land preparation Sowing Harvesting CEREALS Months Months Months ' Days required from sowing - harvesting Wheat April 1 - June 13 June 13 - July 5 Oct 25 - Nov. 25 166 Barley April 1 - June 5 June 5-25 Sep. 15 -Oct 25 143 Teff April 1 - July 12 July 12-August 5 Nov. 15 -Dec. 25 167 Maize March 1 - 30 April 15 - May 5 October 1-31 200 Sorghum March 1 - 30 April 15-25 December 1-31 261 PULSES Chickpea June 1 - July 31 August 25- Sep. 10 December 1 - 5 103 Lentil June 1 - July 31 August 25 - Sep. 5 October 25-31 68 Faba bean June 1 - 5 June 5-30 October 25-31 149 Field pea June 1 - 5 June 5-30 October 25-31 149 OIL SEED Linseed May 1-25 May 25 - June 10 Oct 25 - Nov. 15 175 Noug May 1-25 May 25 - June 5 Nov. 10-15 175 VEGETABLES Potato April 1 - 30 June 1 - 30 September 1-30 122 Cabbage April 1 - 30 June 1 - 30 September 1- 30 Onion 122 April 1 - 30 June 1 - 30 October 1-31 153 Water Work* Deilgn and Supcrviiion Enterprise 133Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy B. Dawo woreda crop calendar Crop types uand preparation Sowing Harvesting Days required from sowing - harvesting CEREALS Months Months Months Wheat March 1-May 31 June 1 - July 31 December 1-31 215 Barley March 1-May 31 June 1 - 30 October 1-31 154 Teff April 1-May 31 June 1-August 31 December 1- 31 215 Maize March 1-31 April 1 - May 31 November 1-30 244 Sorghum March 1-31 April 1 - 30 December 1-31 275 PULSES Haricot bean April 1-30 May 1-31 November 1 - 30 214 Chickpea August 1-31 September 1- 30 December 1-31 123 Lentil August 1-31 September 1-30 December 1-31 123 Faba bean May 1-31 June 1 - 30 October 1-31 154 Field pea May 1-31 June 1 - 30 October 1-31 154 OIL SEED Linseed April 1 - 30 May 1-31 December 1-31 246 Noug April 1 - 30 May 1-31 December 1-31 246 VEGETABLES Tomato February 1 - 28 March 1-31 September 1- 30 215 Potato February 1 - 28 March 1-31 September 1-30 215 Cabbage May 1-31 June 1 - 30 November 1-30 184 Onion May 1 -31 June 1 - 30 December 1-31 215 Garlic May 1-31 June 1-30 December 1-31 215 Pepper May 1-31 June 1-30 December 1-31 215 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 134Becho Plain Feasibility Study On lrrigition Agronomy C. Elu woreda crop calendar Crop types Land preparation Sowing Harvesting CEREALS Months Months Months Days required from sowing - harvesting Wheat April 1-30 June 1 - 30 October 1-15 137 Barley April 1 - 30 June 15-20 October 15-31 140 Teff May 1-31 July 1-31 November 1 - 30 153 Maize April 1 - 30 May 15 - 20 November 15-30 200 Sorghum April 1 - 30 May 15 - 20 Dec. 1 - Jan. 31 263 PULSES Chickpea May 1-31 September 1 -30 January 1-15 137 Lentil May 1-31 September 1-30 January 1 - 15 137 Faba bean April 1 - 30 June 1 - 30 September 1 - 30 122 Field pea April 1 - 30 June 1 - 30 September 1-30 122 Fenugreek May 1-31 September 1-30 January 1-31 154 Vetch May 1-31 September 1-30 January 15-31 154 OIL SEED Noug April 1 - 30 May 25-31 October 1-31 161 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 135jccho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex X - Crop Water Requirement (CWR) and Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) of Crops during the Rainy/AfeAer Cropping Season in Becho plain on 100 ha command area Season: Rainy/AfeAer Crop: Rice Area: 15 ha Duration: 126 days Date: 15 June - 20 October Cutoff date of last irrigation: 30 September Details of records unit June July August September October Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 114.70 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 3.70 No. of days no 15.00 31.00 31.00 29.00 0.00 Kc value 0.30 0.30 1.15 1.15 0.30 ETc mm 13.50 23.25 96.26 10339 0.00 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 22.10 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 15.79 0.00 15.79 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 0.70 Re of Period mm 69.00 155.00 151.90 84.10 0.00 PSI mm 50.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 19.29 0.00 19.29 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.00 0.19 NIR for 15ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.89 0.00 2.89 Season: Rainy/AfeAer Crop: Teff Area: lOba Duration: 143 days Date: 10 July - 30 November Cutoff date of last irrigation: 10 November Details of records unit July August September October November Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 77.50 83.70 93.00 114.70 108.00 Daily ETo mm 2.50 2.70 3.10 3.70 3.60 No. of days no 22.00 31.00 30.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.30 1.10 1.10 0.30 03.0 ETc mm 16.50 92.07 102.30 34.41 10.80 Re monthly mm 154.10 153.30 87.60 22.10 7.40 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 14.70 1231 3.40 30.41 Re/day mm 5.00 4.90 2.90 0.70 0.20 Re ofPeriod mm 110.00 151.90 87.00 21.70 2.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 15.30 12.71 8.80 36.81 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.15 0.13 0.09 037 NIR for lOba 000 m3 0.00 0.00 1.53 137 0.88 3.68 Water Works DeslE» nnd Supervision Enterprise 136Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Rainy/AfeAer Crop: Wheat Area: lOha Duration: 128 days Date: 25 June - 31 October Cutoff date of last irrigation: 11 October Details of records unit June July August September October Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 114.70 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 3.70 No. of days no 6.00 31.00 31.00 30.00 11.00 Kc value 0.30 1.15 1.15 0.30 0.30 ETc mm 5.40 89.13 96.26 27.90 12.21 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 22.10 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 0.70 Re of Period mm 27.60 155.00 151.90 87.00 7.70 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - .- - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 4.51 4.51 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 NIR for lOha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.45 Season: Rainy/A/eAer Crop: Barley Area: 10 ha Duration: 128 days Date: 25 June - 31 October Cutoff date of last irrigation: 11 October Details of records unit June July August September October Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 114.70 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 3.70 No. of days no 6.00 31.00 31.00 30.00 11.00 Revalue “ 0.30 1.15 1.15 0.25 0.25 ETc mm 5.40 89.13 96.26 23.25 10.18 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 22.10 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 0.70 Re of Period mm 27.60 155.00 151.90 87.00 7.70 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.48 2.48 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 NIR for lOha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.25 Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 137Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Rainy/Me/zer Crop: Chickpea Area: 5ha Duration: 127 days Date: 25 August - 25 November Cutoff date of last irrigation: 5 November Details of records unit August September October November Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 83.70 93.00 114.70 108.00 Daily ETo mm 2.70 3.10 3.70 3.60 No. of days no 7.00 30.00 31.00 5.00 Kc value 0.40 1.15 1.15 0.35 ETc mm 7.56 106.95 131.91 6.30 Re monthly mm 153.30 87.60 22.10 7.40 CWR mm 0.00 1935 109.81 0.00 129.16 Re/day mm 4.90 2.90 0.70 0.20 Re of Period mm 34.30 87.00 21.70 1.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 19.95 110.21 530 135.46 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.20 1.10 0.05 135 NIR for 5ha 000 m3 0.00 1.00 5.51 0.27 6.77 Season: Rainy/AfeAer Crop: Lentil Area: 5ha Duration: 127 days Date: 25 August - 25 November Cutoff date of last irrigation: 5 November Details of records unit August September October November Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 83.70 93.00 114.70 108.00 Daily ETo mm 2.70 3.10 3.70 3.60 No. of days no 7.00 30.00 31.00 5.00 Kc value 0.40 L15 1.15 0.35 ETc mm 7.56 106.95 131.91 630 * Re monthly mm 153.30 87.60 22.10 7.40 CWR mm 0.00 1935 109.81 0.00 129.16 Re/day mm 4.90 2.90 0.70 0.20 Re of Period mm 34.30 87.00 21.70 1.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 19.95 110.21 530 135.46 NIR/ha 000 mJ 0.00 0.20 1.10 0.05 135 NIR for 5ha 000 m3 0.00 1.00 5.51 0.27 6.77 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 138Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: RainyIMeher Crop: Fababean Area: 6ha Duration: 112 days Date: 10 June - 30 September Cutoff'date of last irrigation: 10 September Details of records unit June July August September Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 No. of days no 21.00 31.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.40 1.15 1.15 0.35 ETc mm 25.20 89.13 96.26 10.85 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 Re of Period mm 96.60 155.00 151.90 29.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR for 6ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Season: Rainy IMeher Crop: Fieldpea Area: 6ha Duration: 112 days Date: 10 June - 30 September Cutoff date of last irrigation: 10 September Details of records unit June July August September Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 No. of days no 21.00 31.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.40 .1.15 1.15 0.35 ETc mm 25.20 89.13 96.26 10.85 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 0.00 0.00 4.90 Re of Period mm 96.60 2.90 155.00 151.90 PSI mm 0.00 29.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - 0.00 - — NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 00 NIRfor6ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 . 0 00 0.00 0.00 Waler Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 139Becho Pliin Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy Season: Rainy/AfeZrer Crop: Maize Area: 5 ha Duration: 133 days Date: 20 June - 31 October Cutoff date of last irrigation: 11 October Details of records unit June July August September October Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 114.70 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 3.70 No. of days no 11.00 31.00 31.00 30.00 11.00 Kc value 0.30 0.30 1.20 1.20 0.50 ETc mm 9.90 23.25 100.44 111.60 20.35 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 22.10 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 24.00 0.00 24.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 0.70 Re of Period mm 50.60 155.00 151.90 87.00 7.70 PSI mm 50.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha mm 9.30 0.00 0.00 24.60 12.65 46.55 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.2S 0.13 0.47 NIR for 5ha 000 m3 0.47 0.00 0.00 1.23 0.63 233 Season: 'RamylMeher Crop: Sorghum Area: 5 ha Duration: 148 days Date: 20 June - IS November Cut off date of last irrigation: 27 October Waler Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 140Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Rainy/Afe/ier & Dry/Be/g Crop: Perennial fruit crops Area: 5 ha Duration: 365 days Date: 20 June - 31 May Cutoff date of last irrigation: 11 May details of records unit June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec. Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 114.70 108.00 105.40 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 3.70 3.60 3.40 No. of days no 11.00 31.00 31.00 30.00 31.00 30.00 31.00 Kc value 0.82 0.82 0.82 1.01 1.01 1.01 1.01 ETc mm 27.06 63.55 68.63 93.93 115.85 109.08 106.45 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 22.10 7.40 7.20 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.33 93.75 101.68 99.25 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 0.70 0.20 0.20 Re of Period mm 50.60 155.00 151.90 87.00 21.70 6.00 6.20 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 6.93 94.15 103.08 100.25 NIR/ha 000 Hl3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.94 1.03 1.00 NIR for 5ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 4.71 5.15 5.01 Continued... Details of records unit Jan. Feb. Mar. April May Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 108.50 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 Daily ETo mm 3.50 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 ^o. of days no 31.00 28.00 31.00 30.00 11.00 Kc value 1.01 1.01 0.9 0.9 0.9 ETc mm 109.59 107.46 111.60 102.60 38.61 Re monthly mm 17.10 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 CWR mm 92.49 90.46 61.90 45.70 0.00 Re/day mm 0.60 0.60 59136 1.60 1.90 Re of Period mm 18.60 2.10 16.80 49.60 57.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 23.10 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - 0.00 • - NIR/ha mm 90.99 90.66 62.00 NIR/ha 000 m 0.91 45.60 0.91 15.51 0.62 609.17 NIR for 5ha 000 nf 4.55 0.46 4.53 0.16 3.10 6 09 2.28 0.78 . 30.46Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Rainy/Meher Crop: Potato Area: 4 ha Duration: 107 days Date: 15 June - 30 September Cut off date of last irrigation: 10 September Details of records unit June July August September Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 No. of days no 16.00 31.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.7 ETc mm 33.60 81.38 79.52 21.70 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 Re of Period mm 73.60 155.00 151.90 29.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm • - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR for 4ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Season: Rainy/Afefter Crop: Onion Area: 4ha Duration: 107 days Date: 15 June - 30 September Cut off date of last irrigation: 10 September Details of records unit June July Aug Sep Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 ^o. of days no 16.00 31.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.7 ETc mm 33.60 8138 79.52 Re monthly mm 136.90 21.70 154.10 153.30 87.60 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 0.00 5.00 0.00 4.90 Re of Period mm 73.60 2.90 155.00 151.90 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 29.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - 0.00 - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR/ha 000 m3 o.oo 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 00 NIR for 4ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 . 0 00 0.00 . 0.00 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 142Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Rainy/Me/zer Crop: Garlic Area: 3 ha Duration: 107 days Date: 15 June - 30 September Cutoff date of last irrigation: 10 September Details of records unit June July August September Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 No. of days no 16.00 31.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.7 ETc mm 33.60 8138 79.52 21.70 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 Re ofPeriod mm 73.60 155.00 151.90 29.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR/ha 000 mJ 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR for 3ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Season: Rainy/Me/ier Crop: Pepper Area: 3 ha Duration: 107 days Date: 15 June - 30 September Cutoff date of last irrigation: 10 September Details of records unit June July August September Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 No. of days no 16.00 31.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value - - 0.7 1.05. 0.95 0.7 ETc mm 33.60 8138 79.52 Re monthly mm 136.90 21.70 154.10 15330 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 87.60 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 0.00 4.90 0.00 Re ofPeriod mm 73.60 155.00 2.90 mm 151.90 PSI Irrigation at T.P. 0.00 0.00 29.00 mm 0.00 • • 0.00 - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR/ha — 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 00 | NIRfor3ha 000 m 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 00 0.00 0.00 143Bee ho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Rainy/Melt er Crop: Vetch Area: 2ha Duration: 138 days Date: 15 July - 30 November Cutoff date of last irrigation: 10 November Details of records unit July August September Oct Nov. Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 77.50 83.70 93.00 114.70 108.00 Daily ETo mm 2.50 2.70 3.10 3.70 3.60 No. of days no 16.00 31.00 30.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.85 0.92 0.92 0.85 0.85 ETc mm 34.00 77.00 85.56 97.50 30.60 Re monthly mm 154.10 153.30 87.60 22.10 7.40 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.40 23.20 98.60 Re/day mm 5.00 4.90 2.90 0.70 0.20 Re of Period mm 80.00 151.90 87.00 21.70 2.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 • Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 75.80 28.60 104.40 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.76 0.29 1.04 NIR for 2ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.52 0.57 2.09 Season: Rainy/Meher Crop: Fenugreek Area: 1 ha Duration: 122 days Date: 25 August - 25 December Cut off date of last irrigation: 5 December Details of records unit Aug Sep Oct Nov. Dec. Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 83.70 .93.00 114.70 108.00 105.40 Daily ETo mm 2.70 3.10 3.70 3.60 3.40 No. of days no 7 30.00 31.00 30.00 25.00 Kc value 0.40 1.15 1.15 0.35 0.35 ETc mm 7.56 106.95 131.91 37.80 29.75 Re monthly mm 153.3 87.60 22.10 7.40 7.20 CWR mm 0.00 1935 109.81 30.40 22.55 182.11 Re/day mm 4.9 2.90 0.70 0.20 0.20 Re of Period mm 34.30 87.00 21.70 6.00 5.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm • - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 19.95 110.21 31.80 24.75 186.71 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.20 1.10 032 0.25 1.87 NIR for lha 000 m3 0.00 0.20 1.10 032 0.25 1.87 Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise 144Becho Pliln Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Rainy/JfeAer Crop: Other vegetables Area: lha Duration: 107 days Date: IS June - 30 September Cutoff date of last irrigation: 10 September Details, of records unit June July August September Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 90.00 77.50 83.70 93.00 Daily ETo mm 3.00 2.50 2.70 3.10 No. of days no 16.00 31.00 31.00 10.00 Kc value 0.7 1.05 0.95 0.7 ETc mm 33.60 8138 79.52 21.70 Re monthly mm 136.90 154.10 153.30 87.60 CWR mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Re/day mm 4.60 5.00 4.90 2.90 Re of Period mm 73.60 155.00 151.90 29.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 NIR for 3ha 000 m3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 145Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Annex XI - Crop Water Requirement (CWR) and Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) of Crops during the Dry/Be/g Cropping Season in Becho plain on 100 ha command area Season: Dry/Be/g Crop: Sorghum Area: 14ha Duration: 105 days Date: 15 February - 31 May Cutoff date of last irrigation: 11 May Details of records unit Feb March April May Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 11.00 Kc value 0.30 1.00 1.00 0.55 ETc mm 15.96 124.00 114.00 23.60 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 CWR mm 0.00 7430 57.10 0.00 131.40 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 Re of Period mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 23.10 PSI mm 50.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 57.56 74.40 57.00 0.50 189.46 NIR/ha 000 n? 0.58 0.74 0.57 0.00 1.89 NIRforl4ha 000 m3 8.06 10.42 7.98 0.07 26.52 Season: Dry/Be/g Crop: Maize Area: 14ha Duration: 105 days Date: 15 February - 31 May Cutoff date of last irrigation: 11 May Details of records unit ?eb March April May Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 Total 124.00 114.00 120.90 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 Kc value 0.30 11.00 1.20 1.20 0.50 ETc mm 15.96 148.80 136.80 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 21.45 56.90 CWR mm 0.00 63.90 99.10 mm 79.90 0.60 1.60 0.00 1.90 179.00 Re ofPeriod Re/day PSI Irrigation at T.P. mm 8.40 49.60 2.10 mm 57.00 50.00 0.00 23.10 0.00 mm w • 0.00 - NIR/ha mm 57.56 - 99.20 79.80 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.58 0.99 0.00 236 56 0.80 NIR for 14ha 000 m3 8.06 T 13.89 0.00 11.17 237 0.00 _ 33.12 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 146Becho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Dry/Be/g Crop: Haricotbean Area: lOha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February - 10 June Cut off date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.40 0.40 1.15 1.15 0.50 ETc mm 21.28 49.60 131.10 94.19 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 136.90 CWR------------------ mm 4.28 0.00 74.20 30.29 0.00 108.77 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 4.60 Re ofPeriod mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 44.10 0.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 12.88 0.00 74.10 50.09 0.00 137.07 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.13 0.00 0.74 0.50 0.00 137 NIR for 5ha 000 m3 1.29 0.00 7.41 5.01 0.00 13.71 Season: Dry/Be/g Crop: Linseed Area: lOha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February - 10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value;... ... 0.35 0.35 1.15 1.15 0.35 ETc mm 18.62 43.40 131.10 94.19 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 CWR mm 1.62 0.00 136.90 74.20 mm 3039 0.60 1.60 0.00 1.90 106.11 Re of Period Re/day PSI Irrigation at T.P. NIR/ha mm 8.40 2.10 49.60 4.60 57.00 mm 0.00 44.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 mm 0.00 - • 0.00 mm--- 5— - - 10.22 0.00 74.10 NIR/ha 000 m -------- — 0.10 50.09 0.00 0.00 0.74 134 41 NIR for lOha 000 m3 1.02 0.50 0.00 0 00 . 1 34 7.4i r^oi~ . o.oo 13.44 Water Works Design and Supervision EnterpriseBecho Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: DrylBelg Crop: Other pulse crops Area: lOha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February - 10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.40 0.40 1.15 1.15 0.35 ETc mm 21.28 49.60 131.10 94.19 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 136.90 CWR mm 4.28 0.00 74.20 30.29 0.00 108.77 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 4.60 Re ofPeriod mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 44.10 0.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 12.88 0.00 74.10 50.09 0.00 137.07 NIR/ha 000 mJ 0.13 0.00 0.74 0.50 0.00 137 NIR for lOha 000 m3 1.29 0.00 7.41 5.01 0.00 13.71 Season: Dry/Belg Crop: Other oil crops Area: 6ha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February - 10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Revalue 0.35 0.35 1.15 1.15 ETc mm 0.35 18.62 43.40 131.10 Re monthly mm 94.19 17.00 0.00 49.70 56.90 CWR 63.90 mm 1.62 0.00 136.90 7430 Re/day PSI Irrigation at T.P. mm 0.60 3039 1.60 0.00 1.90 106.11 Re of Period mm 2.10 8.40 49.60 4.60 57.00 mm 0.00 44.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 mm "■ 0.00 * 0.00 - NIR/ha mm 1032 0.00 7430 NIR/ha NlRfor6ha 000 in4 000 n? 0.10 0.6J 0.00. 0.00; 50.09 0.74 4k4$ 0.00 134 41 030 0.00’ O.QQt 134;Becho Pliln Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Dry/Be/g Crop: Grasspea Area: 6ha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February - 10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.40 0.40 1.15 1.15 0.50 Etc mm 21.28 49.60 131.10 94.19 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 136.90 CWR mm 4.28 0.00 74.20 30.29 0.00 108.77 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 4.60 Re ofPeriod mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 44.10 0.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 12.88 0.00 74.10 50.09 0.00 137.07 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.13 0.00 0.74 0.50 0.00 137 NIRfor6ha 000 m3 0.77 0.00 4.45 3.01 0.00 8.22 Season: Dry/Be/g Crop: Potato Area: 5 ha Duration: 130 days Date: 5 February - 15 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 26 May Details of records unit Feb March A Pril May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.7 1.05 1.05 0.95 0.7 Etc mm 37.24 130.20 119.70 77.81 Re monthly mm 17.00 o.oo 49.70 56.90 63.90 CWR mm 20.24 80.50 136.90 62.80 mm 0.60 13.91 1.60 0.00 1.90 177.45 Re ofPeriod Re/day PSI Irrigation at T.P. mm 2.10 8.40 49.60 4.60 57.00 mm 0.00 44.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 mm *■ 0.00 - - 0.00 - NIR/ha mm 28.84 80.60 62.70 NIR/ha 000 m3 “TTT-V 0.29 33.71 0 00 70S — 0.81 0.63 NIR for 5ha | 000 nT 1.44 | 4.03 0.34 3.14 . 0.00 1.69 2 06 0.00 . 10.29~ Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 149Becho Pliln Feasibility Study On Irrigition Agronomy Season: DrylBelg Crop: Chickpea Area: 4ha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February - 10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.40 0.40 1.15 1.15 0.35 Etc mm 21.28 49.60 131.10 94.19 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 136.90 CWR mm 4.28 0.00 74.20 30.29 0.00 108.77 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 4.60 Re of Period mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 44.10 0.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha mm 12.88 0.00 74.10 50.09 0.00 137.07 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.13 0.00 0.74 0.50 0.00 137 NIRfor4ha 000 m3 0.52 0.00 2.96 2.00 0.00 5.48 Season: DrylBelg Crop: Lentil Area: 4ha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February - 10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May 4 Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 150Becbo Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Dry I Belg Crop: Fodder crops Area: 4ha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 February -10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.85 0.92 0.92 0.85 0.85 Etc mm 45.22 114.08 104.88 69.62 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 136.90 CWR mm 28.22 64.38 47.98 5.72 0.00 14630 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 4.60 Re of Period mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 44.10 0.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha mm 36.82 64.48 47.88 25.52 0.00 174.70 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.37 0.64 0.48 0.26 0.00 1.75 NIR for 4ha 000 m3 1.47 2.58 1.92 1.02 0.00 6.99 Season: Dry/Belg Crop: Other vegetable crops Area: 4ha Duration: 130 days Date: 5 February - 15 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 26 May Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 151Becbo Plain Feasibility Study On Irrigation Agronomy Season: Dry/Belg Crop: Noug Area: 3ha Duration: 115 days Date: 15 Februaiy - 10 June Cutoff date of last irrigation: 21 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.35 0.35 1.15 1.15 0.35 ETc mm 18.62 43.40 131.10 94.19 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 136.90 CWR mm 1.62 0.00 74.20 30.29 0.00 106.11 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 4.60 Re of Period mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 44.10 0.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - NIR/ha mm 10.22 0.00 74.10 50.09 0.00 134.41 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.10 0.00 0.74 0.50 0.00 134 NIR for 31ia 000 m3 0.31 0.00 2.22 1.50 0.00 4.03 Season: lbrylBelg Crop: Tomato Area: lha Duration: 130 days Date: 5 February - 15 June Cut off date of last irrigation: 26 May Details of records unit Feb March April May June Total Mean Monthly ETo mm 106.40 124.00 114.00 120.90 90.00 Daily ETo mm 3.80 4.00 3.80 3.90 3.00 No. of days no 14.00 31.00 30.00 21.00 0.00 Kc value 0.7 1.05 1.05 0.95 0.7 ETc mm 37.24 130.20 119.70 77.81 0.00 Re monthly mm 17.00 49.70 56.90 63.90 136.90 CWR mm 20.24 80.50 62.80 13.91 0.00 157.21 Re/day mm 0.60 1.60 1.90 2.10 4.60 Re of Period mm 8.40 49.60 57.00 44.10 0.00 PSI mm 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 Irrigation at T.P. mm - - - - - NIR/ha —-------- - • mm 28.84 80.60 62.70 33.71 0.00 205.85 NIR/ha 000 m3 0.29 0.81 0.63 0.34 0.00 2.06 NIR for lha 000 m3 0.29 0.81 0.63 0.34 0.00 2.06 Waler Works Design and Supervision Enterprise 1S2—
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