Transitional Government of Ethiopia Ethiopian Valleys Development Studies Authority
RECONNAISSANCE MASTERPLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN Phase 1 - Final Report
Volume 5
Appendix H
Appendix I
Appendix J August 1992
: Fisheries
: Wildlife Tourism
: Wildlife Conservation and Environment
Sir William Halcrow & Partners Ltd
in association with
ULG Consultants
ETH/88/001
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsTransitional Government of Ethiopia Ethiopian Valleys Development Studies Authority
RECONNAISSANCE MASTERPLAN FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN Phase 1 - Anal Report
Volume 5
Appendix H
Appendix I
Appendix J
: Fisheries
: Wildlife Tourism
: Wildlife Conservation and Environment
August 1992
Sir William Halcrow & Partners Ltd
in association with
ULG Consultants
ETH/6e/001
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
S<r Wdiam M*crow A Panft&s Ltd rua prepared report
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FISHERIESRECONNAISSANCE MASTERPLAN
FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN
PHASE 1
FINAL REPORT
VOLUME 1.
MAIN REPORT
VQIUMEJ
APPENDIX A:       LAND RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
APPENDIX B;       LAND RESOURCES OPTIMISATION MODEL
VOLUME 3
APPENDIX C:        WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
APPENDIX Cl:       SURFACE WATER RESOURCES AND WATER BALANCE SIMULATION MODEL
APPENDIX C2i       GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
APPENDIX D;        GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
VOLUME <
APPENDIX E:        AGRICULTURE AND FARMING SYSTEMS
APPENDIX F:        FORESTRY
APPENDIX G:        LIVESTOCK
VOLUME $
APPENDIX H: FISHERIES
APPENDIX 1;         WfLDLIFE TOURISM
APPENDIX J          WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 6
APPENDIX K:
MINERALS
APPENDIX L:
ENERGY
APPENDIX Mi
SOCIO ECONOMIC SURVEY
VOLUME 7
APPENDIX N:
PROJECT PROFILES
APPENDIX 0:
DRAFT TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR PHASES 2 AND 3
VOLUME 8              LAND USE MAPSTABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF  SCHEDULES
LIST OF  TABLES
LIST OF  FIGURES
1               INTRODUCTION
1.1       Objective
1.2        Sources o< Date
2 GENERAL OVERVIEW OF FISHERIES IN ETHIOPIA
2.1        The Role of Fisheries In the Economy
2.1 1          Fish Production
v
v
V
1
1
1
2
-2
2
2.1.2
Domestic Consumption
2
2.1.3
Employment
2
2.1.4
Contribution to GDP
2
2.1.5
Contribution to Government Revenues
2
2.1.6
Government Expenditure
3
3                CAPTURE FISHERIES
3.1        Fishery Resources and Exploitation
3.1.1             Fishing Areas
3.1.2             State of Knowledge of the Resources
3.1.3             Existing Fisheries on Individual Resources 3 2      Fish Supplies
3.2.1             Landings and Values by Area and by
Species
3 22             Prices
3.3        Fishing Equipment
3.3.1             Vessels
3.3.2             Engines
3.3.3             Gear
3.4        Existing Management Measures
3.4.1             Gear Regulations. Nursery Areas 3.5        Socio-Economic Characteristics
3.5.1             Fishermen's Associations 3.5.2             Ownership Patterns
3.5.3             Other Sources of Income 3 5.4            Constraints on Fishing Time
4
4
4
4
8
0
0
0
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
11
11
11
3.5.5             Estimated Income of Rift Valley Fishermen                     11
3.5   6         Purchasing Power of Fishermen
12
3.5         7   Age of Fishermen and Family Participation                      13
3.6        Physical Infrastructure
3.6.1            Landing Facilities
3.6.2             Repair and Maintenance Facilities
3.6.3             Access by Various Means of Transport
13
13
13
13
3.6.4             Electricity, Water Supply at Landing Points                    13
I4
3 6.5             Preservation, Handling and Distribution Facilities at Landing Points
3,7        Ancillary Induatriea
AQUACULTURE
4.1        Physical Resource!
4.1 1            Climate
4.1.2             Raintail. Evaporation and Runoff
4.1.3             Soils
4.1.4             Fertilizers, Agricultural          Inputs     and By- Products Run-Off
4.2        Living Resources
4.2.1             Local Species
4.2 2            Non-Local Species
4.3        Existing Aquiculture
4.3 1           Inland Cold-Water Culture
4.3 2            Inland Warm-Water Culture
4.3.3             Culture-Based Stock Enhancement
4.4        Constraints and Potential lor Development
4            4 1 Fish Farming Zonation
4 4 2            Physical Constraints
4 4.3            Human Constraints
4 4.4            Human Potential
4.5        Meins and Practical Prospects lor Development 4 5 1             Prospects for Fish Farming
4 5.2 Need for Institutional Support
5                DOMESTIC AND EXPORT FISH MARKETING
5.1        Domestic Consumption and Demand
5.1 1             Demand
5.1.2             National and Regional per Consumption
5.1.3             Consumer Prices
5 14              Projected Demand to the Year 2000 5.1.5             Constraints on Consumption
5.2        Export Market*
5.21              Products, Value and Destination
5.2.2             Potential   lor   Further   Product   and Diversification
5.3        Fiih Handling, Proceaalng and Marketing 5.3.1             Traditional Methods
cap/ra
Market
5.3.2              Fish Production and Marketing Corporation 5.3.3             Post-Harvest Losses and Quality
5.3.4             Processing
6                 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
6.1         Government Policies
6            i i   Ministry of Agriculture7 FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND POLICIES
7.1        Government Services and Programmes
7.1.1             Fisheries Statistics
7.1.2             Fisheries Monitoring
7.2        Legislation
7.2.1             Fisheries Law
7.3        Sources ol Credit for Fisheries
7.3.1             Agricultural and industrial Development
Bank
7.3.2             International Agencies' Revolving Funds
7.4        External Assistance and Ftowa
36
36
36
36
37
37
36
36
39
39
7
4.1 EEC: Inland Fisheries Development
39
7 4.2
Bilateral Assistance
42
7.4.3
Other External Flows: NGO's
43
7.4.4
Universities and Training Institutes
'
44
8                IMPROVING FISHERIES MONITORING
8.1        Objectives of Monitoring Fisheries Resources
8.2        Constraints on Monitoring Fisheries Resources
8.2.1             Budgetary Constraints
8 2.2           Trained Manpower Constraints
8 2.3            Geographical and Time Constraints
8 2 4            Overall Effect of Constraints
8-3       Fishery Models
8.3  1           Dynamic Pool Model
8.3.2             Surplus Production Model
e.a       Surveys Comprising the Monitoring System
8.4 1           Baseline Survey
8 4 2            Frame Survey
8 4.3            Catch Assessment Survey
8.4.4             Sample Size lor Required Precision
s.5       Example of      an     Existing Lake Fishery Monitoring System
9                CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1        Pricing
9.2        Legislation
9.3        Development   Potential of the   Lakes
9.3J             Ziway and Awa&sa
45
45
46
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
48
48
48
49
49
50
51
51
51
52
52
9.3.2
Chamo
53
9.3.3
Abaya
53
9.3.4
Langano
53
9.3.5
Abiyata and  Shala
54
III9.4        Fisheries Menagement
9.5        Integrity of lhe Lake Habitat*
9.8       Credit
9.7        Infrastructure
9.8        Fish Processing and Marketing Corporation (FPMC) 9.9        Improved Technology
9.10  Training
9.11  Pro|ect Profiles
REFERENCES
54
55
55
56
56
56
56
57
58
hrLIST OF SCHEDULES
1         'COUNCIL OF STATE SPECIAL DECREE ON INVESTMENT 17/1990"
2.            'LICENCE    FOR    AGRICULTURAL    ACTIVITIES    COUNCIL    OF MINISTERS REGULATIONS 7/1990’
3   'FPMC   ESTABLISHMENT   COUNCIL   OF   STATE   SPECIAL   DECREE 13/1989’
LIST OF TABLES
1            ESTIMATED  FISH  PRODUCTION  AND  NUMBER  OF  FISHERMEN, 1989/90
2             EMPIRICALLY  PREDICTED  POTENTIAL  YIELDS  FOR  THE  MAIN INLAND WATER BODIES OF ETHIOPIA
3           FISH PRICES. 1990
4           COSTS AND EARNINGS OF INLAND FISHERMEN, 1990
5,         SELECTED FOOD PRICES IN ETHIOPIA
6   APPROXIMATE   FEED   COSTS;   PRODUCT   PRICE   TO   FEED   COST RATIO
7. IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF FISH AND FISH PRODUCTS
8             ORIGINAL   BUDGETS   FOR   EEC   INLAND   FISHERIES   PROJECT PHASE 2
9             EXAMPLE   OF   STRATIFIED   SAMPLING   V.   ORDINARY   RANDOM SAMPLING
10.       FPMC. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
11 MARGINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FPMC TILAPIA EXPORT
12. LIST OF FRDD PERSONNEL, WITH TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS
LIST OF FIGURES
1           MOA CAPITAL BUDGETS
2           MOA RECURRENT BUDGETS
3.          FPMC PURCHASES BY SOURCE
4.          ESTIMATED COSTS AND EARNINGS PER INLAND FISHERMAN
5.          MONTHS WITH NO WATER DEFICIENCY
B. ANNUAL RUNOFF FROM A ONE HECTARE WATERSHED
7.         POTENTIAL FISH FARMING ZONES
8 VOLUME OF FPMC PURCHASES AND SALES
9. PERFORMANCE OF FPMC OVER RECENT YEARS
10        SCHAEFER MODEL OF A FISHERY, SHOWING MSY
11.          MAXIMUM  SUSTAINABLE  REVENUE  AND  MAXIMUM  ECONOMIC YIELD
12.        LAKE MALAWI CATCH PER UNIT EFFORT WITH FITTED SCHAEFER AND FOX MODELS
13.         LAKE MALAWI TOTAL CATCH WITH FITTED SCHAEFER AND FOX MODELS
v1                INTRODUCTION
1.1             Objactlve
The objective of this Technical Appendix Is to cover the following items In the Terms of Reference.-
evaluate existing data on fish biology, stocks and catches:
assess  current  fishery  operations,  processing  and  marketing
facilities;
pro|ect local and national market demand lor fish;
make recommendations for monitoring fisheries resources,
draw up a sectoral development plan covering capture fisheries and aquaculture, as appropriate;
1.2             Sources of Data
The main documentary source of data is the most recent review of Ethiopian flsherlei forming lhe first part of the draft joint report of the FAO Technical Cooperation Programme project: "Assistance to Fisheries
Planning, Management end Development* (TCP/ETH/0052) of March 1991. The author has taken the opportunity of revising and updating and extending the FAO draft review, as well as Incorporating further material on aquaculture contributed to the same TCP project by the Joint (J NEC A/FAO Agriculture Division (JEFAD), Addis Ababa in their report 'Aquaculture Sector in Ethiopia: Review and Analysis’, March 1991.
Other Information came from brief visits to two fishing sites in the Rift Valley during a short Held trip from Dt March to 06 March 1992, and from discussions with FRDD and EEC staff in Addis Ababa.
The Aquatic Biology Unit of the Department of Biology, Addis Ababa University, has since 1983 carried out a substantial amount of research Into the biology of fish populations, ecology, water quality and limnology of Ethiopia's Inland waters, especially lhe Rift Valley Lakes. Unfortunately rhe Department declined either to discuss previous work or to release relevant documents to the consultants. Access to this Information will be Important for a fuller analysis of the lakes' fishery resources in the second phase of the Master Plan preparation.2                GENERAL OVERVIEW OF FISHERIES IN ETHIOPIA
2.1             The Rote of Fisheries in the Economy
2.1.1          Fish Production
Table  1  gives  estimated  fish  production  In  1989/90  for  the  iwo  main Ethiopian fisheries at thal lime, the Inland lakes/resarvoirs and the Red Sea Because of the Inadequacy of ihe present data collection system. (Section 7 1) the official figures from the Fish Production and Marketing Corporation (FPMC; Section 5.3.2) and the Fisheries Resource Development Department of the Ministry of Agriculture (FADO; Section 6.1.1.1) must be regarded as approximate   Estimates   of   the   significant   amount   of   Inland   producllon marketed   Informally   and   therefore   outside   the   present   data   collection system  must  be  used  with  more  caution  still  Bearing  In  mind  these caveats,  the  total  annual  fish  production  from  inland lakes and reservoirs was estimated at aboui 4.300 tonnes in 1990
2.1.2          Domestic Consumption
Almost all the Inland fish production Is consumed within Ethiopia, with only 57 tonnes exported In 1989/90 The Red Sea catch In Eritrea, on the other hand was almost all exported, with only 3% consumed within Ethiopia. This
leads to a total domestic consumption estimated at 4,400 tonnes in 1990,
2,1.3
Employment
Given the uncertainty of the estimate of national fish production. It is not
surprising that the total number of fishermen and olhers engaged in fishery
activities  is  also  difficult  to  estimate  precisely  Table  1  gives  an  estimate
of  the  numbers  of  commercial  fishermen  (registered  and  unregistered)  in
various  places  (1990),  but  the  total  could  be  considerably  more,  perhaps
between  2,000  and  2.500.  About  220  persons  are  employed  by  FPMC,
described   In   Section   5.3.2,   with   a   smaller   number   of   licenced   and
unlicenced  private  traders  making  up  the  total  of  those  directly  employed
In fisheries
2.1.4
Contribution to GDP
The contribution of fisheries to GDP Is very small, and would be likely to
remain   so   even   It   the   most   optimistic   estimated   values   of   maximum
economic   yields   were   actually   extracted   In   1989/90   the   value   of   fish
landed  In  Ethiopia  was  about  EthBirr  3.3  million  at  producers'  prices
(US$1  6  million),  whereas  the  total  contribution  of  forestry,  fishing  and
hunting was estimated at EthBirr 0.29 billion for 1988/89 (World Bank 1990).
2.1.5
Contribution to Government Revenues
There  is  a  sales  tax  o1  5%  on  purchases  of  fish.  At  the  retail  level  this
would have amounted to about EthBirr 150,000 on the turnover of FPMC in
1989/90 (Figure 9). However, during rhe period shown In FPMC's profit
2and loss account In Table 10. the total Government revenue Irom sales tax. profit tax and residual surplus would have amounted to about EthBirr 650.000, against total losses of over EthBirr 900,000 Since these losses were made good by funds transferred from the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA whose responsibilities Include fisheries), the Government suffered a net loss of about EthBirr 250,000 on the operations of FPMC during the period in question
There are contributions from fishermen s associations in the form of Income tax (eg EthBirr 0.10/kg of Nile perch fillets, which would be 8 5% ad va/oren?) but details were not clear for all locations Applying this rale to the total value of Inland fish at producers' prices would yield about EthBirr 250,000. However, much of the fish is beyond the reach of taxation, being produced and marketed Informally Fishermen’s associations also pay small royalties to the Government for the right to exploit their local fishery
2.1,6 Government Expenditure
One of the effects of the recent civil war was to deprive ministries of vital resources. For Instance, In 1989/90 MOA received only 66% of Its Initial total budget allocation of EthBirr 283 million, with consequent reduction in the financial resources originally allocated to the Fisheries Resource Development Department of MOA (FRDD). The amount eventually allocated to FRDD was EthBirr 288.000, of which EthBirr 125,000 was for capital expenditure and EthBirr 163,000 for recurrent expenditure. This represented about 0% of the value of fish landed in Ethiopia at producers’ prices Figures 1 and 2 show recent trends In capital and recurrent budgets for the four Departments Including FRDD, belonging then to the relevant Main Department of MOA II is clear that there has been an overall downward trend in money allocated to these budgets see also Section 6 1.1.
33                CAPTURE FISHERIES
3.1             Fishery Resources and Exploitation
3 1 1         Fishing Areas
Most of Ethiopia's Inland fishing areas are found in natural lakes, although river fisheries are important In remote parts such as the Omo In the south
near the border wilh Kenya. The Rift Valley south ot Addis Ababa contains
a system ot small to medium-sized lakes, some of which are highly saline (soda lakes), and most of which are fished. Also exploited for fishing are
the two largest reservoirs. Flncha-a and Koka Table 2 lists the main lakes
and reservoirs relevant to fishing, with their principal physical
characteristics Note the high conductivity of the more saline lakes. Short
term changes in water level can bo expected In reservoirs, but there have
been recent reports of significant changes in natural lake water levels However, information from official records does not always confirm such reports.
The levels of Lakes Chamo and Abaya were said to have fallen "dramatically* during five years prior to 1987, but records show that although the Lake Abaya level fell during the period 1981 to 1988, ft rose again during 1989/1990. Records reveal that the level of Lake Chamo showed a significant upward trend between 1969 and 1990, with a slight dip from 1981 to 1984.
Lake Awassa Is said to much reduced in surface area as its easiern swamps dried up, but records show a significant upward trend In level between 1969 and 1990.
Lake  Langano  was  reported  to  have  dropped  "appreciably",  but  again  the records show a significant upward trend from 1969 to 1990
A  lowering  in  Lake  Ziway  was  noticed  before  1986/87.  but  the  level  was subsequently  reported  to  have  risen  again.  The  Zkway  repons  are  borne out  by  official  records.  The  fall  In  the  Lake  Ziway  level  was  blamed  by fishermen on pumping for the Meki-Zlway State Farm irrigation scheme. For further information on changes in lake levels, refer to the Appendix C: Water Resources  Assessment  and  the  Water  Balance  Simulation  Model  lor  the Meki-Ziway-Abiyate system.
3.1.2          State of Knowledge of the Resources
3.1.2.1      Biology
A hundred or so species of fish have been Identified In Ethiopian Inland waters, but the bulk ot production consists of Oreochromis, Lates, CJar/as, Barbus, Bagrus and taboo species. By far ihe most Important to the economy of the Rift Valley are Ihe first two of those, commonly known as tilapia and Nile parch. The tilapia family Includes the genera Tilapia, Sarotherodon and Oreochrom/s, ihe main species found In Ethiopia being
4Oreochromis niloticus Tilapia are herbivores, mostly feeding on fine bottom detritus and phytoplankton On the other hand the Nile perch. Lares flttorrcus. is a voracious piscfvore.
Like many fish Nile perch take little or no care of their eggs, which must therefore be produced In vast numbers to ensure ultimate survival of sufficient younQ to sustain the population. The female Nile perch thus releases into the water several million planktonic eggs whose buoyancy Is assisted by Included oil globules. Tilapia on the other hand take groat care of their eggs, the female guarding them In a shallow nest scraped on the bottom of the river or lake When predators threaten, the female may even gather eggs into her mouth for brooding Under such highly protected conditions, the survival rate to hatching stage is greatly Increased Tilapia therefore need produce eggs in much less quantity than Nile perch it is thought that both species spawn during much of the year, -but more research Is needed to establish details.
In Lake Zlway studies have shown that tilapia find October and November too cold for spawning, possibly because food supplies for the fry are Insufficient at that time, but recommence spawning activity In December, building up to a peak in February. Of vital importance to both species is the availability of shallow weeded areas at the margin of the lake. Tilapia of all ages and sizes are the prey of many predator fish species and generally spend much ol their life hiding amonQst water plants near the lake shore. Nile perch fry, because of their small size, are also vulnerable to predators, and therefore need similar protection
Rift Valley tilapia leed on algae throughout their life, sucking In food with the respiratory current. Algae are held by mucus secreted by glands in the mouth, before being passed on to the pharynx Oreochromis spp are particularly well adapted to conditions found in shallow soda lakes, where the algae are dominated by the blue green type, Indigestible to the vast majority of fish Oreochromis niloticus can break down the blue-green algae because its gut has the extremely low pH-value of 2 Thus, when there is sufficient water In Lake Ablyata, conditions are suitable to support an enormous population of tilapia No predator fish can share Lake Ablyata with the tilapia, but even If marginal vegetation were present it would offer no protection from the swarms of avian predators.
Nile perch fry start their carnivorous Illa in protected shallow areas by eating small invertebrates such as cladocera Once they reach about 20cm in length they can take larger Invertebrates such as snails, together with small fish. As they grow towards their maximum length of 2 metres, they naturally eat bigger and bigger fish. The Nile perch Is very well adapted to the Hie of a predator Thanks to the rearward location of Its dorsal and anal fins It Is capable of high speed bursts to catch up with fast lteelng prey. The large head, gaping mouth and formidable ranks of backward facing teeth give prey no chance of escape.
It is thus clear that the two very different main species of economic Interest to the Rih Valley fisheries both require the protection of shallow lake areas
5In which water plants grow This habitat Is extremely vulnerable to sudden changes In lake water level, either up or down, as both types ol change impair the viability of emergent water plants, on which all young fish depend for protection For tilapia the effect is more serious still, as adult fish of this much-predated species need the protection all their Ilves Marginal vegetation can adapt to the gradual changes in water level which occur naturally as the result of the Rift Valley's highly variable ralnlall.
3.1.2.2      Potential Yield
Even the best estimates of the potential yield of a fishery can rarely be regarded as very accurate, but In the case of Ethiopian tlsh resources, there are no reliable estimates al all, as no systematic or regular stock assessment has yet been done For the Inland lakes, Table 2 draws on the limlled comparative Information available, giving empirical "Indicative estimates of potential yield. These have been calculated for individual lakes from a) surface area, b) mean depth; c) a combination of conductivity and mean depth.
The  total  estimated  Indicative  potential  yield  (excluding  Lakes  Shala  and Abiyata) calculated In three ways are as follows-
from area; 26,500 tonnes;
from mean depth; 22,800 tonnes;
from morpho-edaphlc Index (MEI); at least 58.000 tonnes.
The Individual lake Indicative potential yields calculated from mean deplh are at least similar to those derived from area, but the MEI estimates are generally much higher. It must be emphasised that estimates based on simple physical characteristics such as these take no account of other Important factors that determine the marked differences In ecology and fertility found In the Rift Valley lakes For Instance, although Lake Shala's size and conductivity lead to a high indicative potential yield, the actual biological production Is extremely low More reliable estimates of potential yield can be obtained only from sampling the actual fisheries. However, even the most efficient sampling survey Is subject to residual inaccuracy caused by unpredictable natural variation In the fishery itself. Figures 12 and 13 show the large extern of unavoidable variation present in the practicable, affordable monitoring system used In the tilapia fishery of Lake Malawi.
In this example the best estimate suggests that MSY is achieved at about
1.3         million units of effort, but the lower 95% confidence limit puts the effort required  for  MSY  at  only  0  8  million  units,  almost  40%  less.  Section  8 describes In detail how to estimate potential yield by monitoring a fishery directly.
Meanwhile  in  Ethiopia  there  will  remain  great  uncertainty  as  to  potential yields, pending results from future sampling surveys In this situation one
6must adopt a conservative Indicative potential yield between 10 000 tonnes and 20.000 tonnes per year (or the main Rift Valley lakes excluding Lakes Shala and Ablyata
As noted above, these overall estimates take no account of the marked differences between the various lakes In the Rih Valley. Lakes Ziway and Awassa are eutrophic and therefore very productive, with lush marginal vegetation; beds of reed and water-lily (Urban. 1970). Lake Langano has little or no aquatic vegetation except near the Horakelo river outlet
There is very little phytoplankton production so that this lake will suppod only a small fish population Ablyata and Shale are both terminal lakes of the Galla system, but very different from each other Lake Shala is a steep sided deep soda lake with very little aquatic production Lake Ablyata is a shallow soda lake subject to a marked variability In depth and area through natural variation in rainfall In the catchment area.
Although there Is no marginal vegetation, the hlQh rate of photosynthesis in favourable years, when there is enough water in the lake, produces copious amounts of algae which support a prolific tilapia population.
Lakes Shala and Ablyata are Internationally Important as a wetlands habitat for aquatic birds, and have been set aside for that purpose as a National Park (Appendix J Wildlife Conservation and the Environment) Commercial fishing is therefore forbidden on them. Lakes Abaya and Chemo are mainly shallow, with rich marginal vegetation. Lake Abaya is continually turbid with a brown colour attributed to colloidal ferric salts Lake Chamo has been subject to periodic toxic algal blooms, which have not yet been fully explained Nevertheless, both Abaya and Chamo are productive, and especially Important since Nile perch Is found in both. The reason for the presence of Nile perch Is the former connection of these lakes with Chew Bahlr and Lake Turkana during the pluvial periods.
It Is clear that Rift Valley fisheries production Is most sensitive to the status of Lakes Ziway. Awassa. Abaya and Chamo. In particular, any sudden change In water level of these lakes will Inevitably reduce fish production. The abstraction of water by various Irrigation projects Is already alleged to have affected fisheries. Abstraction from Mekl-Zlway stUI removes fish fry from Lake Ziway (WROA, pars comm ).
Production In most of the Rift Valley lakes up to 1991 wa6 so far below estimated potential yields (not more than 10% to 20% of the total Indicative potential) that the large uncertainty of estimated potential yield did not seriously affect the fisheries as a whois However, It did seem possible that Lake Awassa was nearer to being fully exploited than the rest. Tilapia landed there were observed to be smaller than elsewhere, whilst fishermen and FRDD regional staff reported declining landings year by year With the large and uncontrolled expansion In fishing effort since May 1991, the situation is by no means as secure now. FRDD think that stock levels In lakes Awassa, Ziway and even Chamo may now be threatened.
73 13 Existing Fisheries on Individual Resources
Ethiopian inland fisheries are entirely artisanal Subsistence fishing is permitted for all, but fishing for trade Is authorised only lor recognised fishermen's associations. All Inland lakes on which fishing Is permitted are fished, with a total commercial catch estimated for 1969/90 at over 4,000 tonnes/year, The main species caught is tilapia, but In the two southern Rift Valley lakes, Chamo and Abaya. Nile parch is caught in significant quantities Catches from lakes and rivers also include cattish and Barbers, with small quantities of other species
3.2             Fish Supplies
3.2 1 Landings and Values by Area and by Species
Table 1 gives estimated fish landings In Ethiopia by area for 1989/90. 01 the total inland commercial production estimated at about 4.300 tonnes, over half (2,400 tonnes) came from three lakes; Ziway. Abaya and Chamo The total Rift Valley commercial production was esilmated at 3,400 tonnes Approximately 60% of the Inland catch is tilapia, with Nile perch forming about 15% of the production from Lakes Chamo and Abaya. Most of the remainder of the inland lake catch consists of catfish and Barbus. A more precise breakdown Is not available, as no unbiased comprehensive data
collection   has   been   carried   out   on   Inland   fish   landings.   Until   1991
production continued at about the same level, but since May 1991 the situation has changed dramatically, with a huge reported Increase in unauthorised fishing. Total present production Is therefore unknown, but the commercial component in the Rift Valley must now be much In excess of 3,400 tonnes/year.
Some  Idea  of  recent  trends  in  exploitation  of  Individual  lakes  can  be
obtained from Figure 3  which shows the changes
r
In origin of FPMC's raw
material supplies for six recent years.
3.2.2          Prices
The first part of Table 3 gives prices paid to fishermen In 1989/90; fixed prices paid by FPMC (unchanged for the previous 7 years), and approximate prices in the Informal parallel market for inland production. The total value to the producers of the 1989/90 inland catch from takes and reservoirs was estimated at EthBirr 3.1 million (using quantities In Table 1). Of this, the commercial catch of the Rift Valley was worth EthBIrr 2.6 million at producers prices.
Apert from a recent Increase In prices paid for marine fish. FPMC’s purchase prices changed only once between 1979 and 1989. in 1982 the price of whole tilapia was increased by 28% (e.g.from EthBIrr 0.35 to EthBirr 0.45/kg), Nile perch fillets by 17% from EthBirr 1,50 to EthBirr 1.75/kg and whole snapper/grouper by 62% from ElhBIrr 1.10 io EthBirr 1.78/kg. The policy of FPMC to adopt fixed prices over long periods provided much incentive for the development of the flourishing parallel market at much
8higher producer prices. Not only individual fishermen, but even one fishermen's association have chosen to support the Informal market rather than FPMC.
3.3             Fishing Equipment
3 3.1          Vessels
Although canoes have been superseded by wooden punts with oars ('traditional"; 4m x 17m x 0,55m) In most of the takes, the technical level of these boats remains very low. with rudimentary form and construction On two lakes the fishermen still use one-man rafts made ol papyrus (Zlway) or agave (Chamo), whose carrying capacity Is extremely limited These crah give fishermen access to the entire surface of the Rih Valley lakes, at minimum cost, a punt costing EthBirr 450 with a life of 3 to 5 years while a raft costs only EthBirr 5.00 and lasts 3 months.
The EEC Phase 1 project (Section 7.4.1) tested a new punt design (3 5m x 1.55m x 0.4m). To date. 47 of these boats have been sold to fishermen's associations at a price of EthBirr 600 They are constructed at Zlway (Section 3,6-2). However the fishermen’s association at Arba Minch considers the EEC boats Inadequate for the wind and wave conditions found on Lakes Chamo end Abaya, the largest in the Rift Valley. With the help ol a Dutch NGO. trials are In progress of larger boats on Lake Chamo.
3.3.2          Engines
Up to 1991. engined boats have not been used for fishing in the Rift Valley
3 3.3          Gear
Glllnets are by far the most popular gear used by Inland fishermen. Various sizes are used, with the largest mesh sizes on Lakes Abaya and Chamo, where the fish are bigger (tilapia up to 4kg). Beach seines are used In Lakes Langano and Zlway (In Zlway during fasting periods only). Long lines are also used by most Inland fishermen. The estimated costs of fishing gear used by Inland fishermen in 1989/90 are given In Table 4
There Is now a critical shortage of fishing gear in the country, especially gill nets, through lack of foreign exchange
3.4              Existing Management Measures
3 4.1          Gear Regulations, Nursery Areas
In the absence of fisheries legislation (Section 7.2) existing management measures are under de facto control of local fishermen s associations, although FRDD has tried to maintain a good influence on local practice. Local management measures include rules on mesh size, nursery areas, eic., but judging from the reported annual decline in catches from Lake Awassa, the system has not always proved adequate. The increase Indemand for fish since May 1991, with the resulting uncontrolled expansion of fishing has led to the use of completely unsuitable gill nets (under-size mesh) throughoul the Rift Valley fisheries
During visits to two landing sites at Awassa In March 1992. the team saw not a single net with the 100mm mesh size informally agreed between FRDD and the local fishermen's association. In one case this was not surprising, as the she (al Kulu Kota) Is used exclusively by Informal fishermen who do not belong to the fishermen’s association. It was reported that the 70mm (approximately) monofilament gill nets in use were bought In Addis Ababa at EthBirr 99 for a panel roughly 80m x 1m. The maximum length of tilapia seen in catches at Kulu Kota was about 20cm. with many below 14cm, the length corresponding to sexual maturity The catch of lhe Kulu Kola fishermen undoubtedly contained a significant proportion of tilapia which had had no opportunity to spawn. This represents one of the quickest ways of destroying the fishery. The price of tilapia was quoted at EthBirr 2.00 lor 5 fish.
At the "official* landing site near the town of Awassa on the following day. the president of the fishermen s association confirmed that It Is at present impossible to obtain 100mm mesh size gill nets, so that his organisation was obliged to use the only available 70mm nets. Nets seen looked similar to those at Kulu Kola, but It Is known that fishermen are desperate enough to make some nets themselves out of twine extracted from old tyres, for which they pay 5 cents a metre.
FRDD report that such home-made nets, whether produced by authorised or informal fishermen, never incorporate the required mesh size for the lake In question. Despite the under-sized mesh in use, catches from the association s boats appeared to comprise much bigger tilapia than seen at Kulu Kota, approximately 20cm In length on average, with no dangerously small fish. About 30 boats were active. The price of tilapia was quoted at EthBirr 1.00 for 2 fish.
3.5             Socio-Economic Characteristics
3.5,1 Fishermen s Associations
In practice it was Impossible for fishermen under the 1974 to 1991 Government to form a Producers* Cooperative, since their means of production werB never in common ownership. The highest option open to them was to join or form a Service Cooperative. None of the 25 fishermen's associations formed (14 Inland, 8 marine, 3 river) ever achieved the legal status of a Cooperative, although some tried, for Instance In order to qualify as borrowers from the Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank (AIDS, Section 7.3,1}+
The MOA grants commercial fishing rights only to fishermen’s associations, each of which pays a royalty in return for the privilege of exploiting a given water body. MOA guidelines oblige all fishermen to join an association. Those who fall to join have been called "Illegal' fishermen, who risk
10confiscation of their gear. This Is a curious term In the absence of fisheries legislation In this report such fishermen are described as "Informal* fishermen Under the former Government MOA guidelines also required that the whole of (he production from an association should be sold to the state- owned Fish Production and Marketing Corporation (FPMC), but this requirement was not always observed, being flouted, for example, by (he Awassa fishermen’s association (Section 5.3.2.2).
Each association sets the regulations governing Its particular fishery (gear type, mesh size, seasonal constraints), and sets the system of charges payable by members (registration fee, annual subscription, ad valorem charge on sales of fish). In the Inland fisheries, there are large differences between scale ol charges levied by different associations, both in absolute terms and relative to fishermen’s earnings (Section 3.5.5) Also there are significant differences In the services provided to members
Following the events of May 1991. popular resentment of anything perceived to be associated with the former Government led to widespread destruction and looting The property ot most of the fishermen s associations fell victim to this destruction The Awassa association for Instance lost property, Including their lakeside landing facilities and store, to a value reported at EthBirr 20,000. By contrast it was reported by FRDD that the Arba Minch association, by far the most wealthy because of their Nile perch fishery, escaped with no serious loss
3 5 2           Ownership Patterns
The short-lived rafts of agave or papyrus which are still used on certain lakes belong to Individual fishermen On other lakes, boats may belong to a fishermen's association rather than to individuals
3.5 3           Other Sources of Income
Even though Inland fishermen spend most ol their working time engaged In
fishing activities, their ties with the rural economy remain strong As noted
In  Section  3.5  5,  they  tend  to  remain  in  their  local  area,  despite  the
possibility  of  more  lucrative  fishing  elsewhere.  In  this  situation  inland
fishermen,  with  the  exception ol  those  fishing  Lake  Chemo  (who  have  to
camp on the lake shore some distance from their homes), generally carry
out subsistence level agricultural activities in addition to fishing.
3.5 4
Consiraints on Fishing Time
The  limited  collecting  and  storage  capacities  of  FPMC  are  constraints  on
fishing time when lishermen either have no alternative market or through
their association choose not to use it.
3.5.5
Estimated income of Rltt Valley Fishermen
Through Interviews with members of fishermen s associations in 1990, an
attempt was made to esiimate the Income of fishermen. Details given In
11Table 4 show very large apparent differences in estimated costs and earnings between the sample lakes. This variation is caused by differences In fertility, level of exploitation, value of predominant species, operating costs and charges made by the fishermen's association The highest annual net Income per fisherman, EthBirr 2.800 (US$1,350) was found at Arba Minch (Lake Chamo). followed by Lake Langano with EthBIrr 2,050 (US$1,000). then Lake Awassa with EthBIrr 900 (US$430) and finally Lake Ziway with EthBIrr 800 (US$390) Figure 4 graphically illustrates these differences in costs and earnings Note lhat the ratio between the largest and smallest net Income is almost fourfold. This suggests that inland fishermen are reluctant or unable to migrate horn lheir native area
Fishermen s associations at Lakes Chamo and Awassa charge very high fees (30% or more of gross Income), without providing services sufficient to justify them. The very low net Income of association members at Lake Ziway was caused not by high costs, but by lheir being forced al the lime to sell all lheir catch to FPMC al a fixed low price. In contrast. Lake Awassa association members caught a similar amount per man. selling 90% of their catch on the free market at a much higher price. Yet their net income was almost as low as their counterparts In Lake Ziway mainly because of the Awassa association's high charges.
The estimate of average size of family for the Inland fishermen Interviewed was 6 3 persons. With GNP per cap/ra at US$125 (EthBirr 259) In 1989/90 (World Bank, 1990). the national average net Income of such a 1amIly would be EthBirr 1.630. Taking into account the approximate totals of association members at each of the four lakes, the average net income per member from fishing can be estimated at EthBirr 1,515. After allowing for subsistence fish consumption and small revenues from farming, it is probable that the average association member provided his family with the national average Income. However, such Is the spread that some fishermen were much better off, and some much poorer.
3.5.6 Purchasing Power of Fishermen
Most fishermen belonging to Inland associations were generally obliged to sell lheir catch to FPMC, whose purchase prices changed little since 1979, and not at ail since 1982. Section 3.2.1 shows that the average Increase in the FPMC price for inland fish between 1979 and 1990 years was approximately 2% p,a. This compares with the average Addis Ababa rate of price Inflation of around 5% for the same period. Therefore the real
income  of  inland  fishermen  selling  to  FPMC  decreased  during  those  11
years
Of particular interest to fishermen Is the price of their Inputs, of which the most Important Is twine In i960 the price of a reel of twine (210. weight 80g) was EthBirr 8.00 In 1985 It was EthBirr 35 00 and by 1990 It had risen to EthBirr 45.00, an annual average increase of 19%. It has therefore become even more difficult for fishermen to purchase twine than beef. The price they received from FPMC did not keep pace with rises in price of their basic cereal commodity, teff. Inland fishermen selling to FPMC have
12therefore lost a great deal of their purchasing power during the last ten years or so II l$ possible that Informal Inland fishermen have fared better in preserving their purchasing power; for example, an Informal fisherman selling tilapia ten years ago for 45 cents/kg and selling at EthBIrr 1,20/kg In 1990 (Table 3) would have maintained an average price Increase of 10%
p.a
3.5.7          Age of Fishermen and Family Participation
Members of Inland fishermen's families generally participate in activities related to fishing, excepting cases where the fishermen are obliged to camp some distance from home, as on Lake Chamo. A young man of eighteen years 1$ considered to be a professional fisherman, but he would have begun his apprenticeship as a child of three to twelve years The great majority ol the Inland fishery workforce consists of young men. -
3.6              Physical Infrastructure
3.6.1           Landing Facilities
Apart from Lakes Zlway and Abaya. where FPMC have simple fettles, ihere are no landing facilities for the Inland fishery Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project includes plans lor rectifying this Inadequate situation by constructing jetties at Atba Minch, Awassa and Langano.
3-6 2          Repair and Maintenance Facilities
The only Rift Valley workshop (provided under Phase 1 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project) is at Ziway, where the installation Includes a boat building yard. It is at Ziway that the newly designed punt Is built (Section 3.3.1). Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project Includes plans for Improvements to the boatbuilding laclltly al Ziway,
3.6.3          Access by Various Means of Transport
On some of the lakes, the only way to reach many landing points is by boat. For Instance, FPMC collects fish from islands In Lake Ziway and from fishermen's camps around Lake Chamo by boat. There is no practicable road access to the shore of Lake Chamo, although the other lakes all have at least one adequate access road to the shore. For future inland fisheries development, more access roads wilt be needed Suitable access roads cost about EthBIrr 50,000 per kilometre to construct (1990).
3.6.4           Electricity, Water Supply at Landing Points
The only landing points In the inland fishery benefiting from eleclrlcily and fresh water supplies are those with receiving stations provided for FPMC under Phase 1 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Pro|ect. These are at Ziway and Arba Minch (Lake Abaya) Places scheduled for
13new repair and maintenance facilities under Phase 2 of the EEC inland Fisheries Resource Development Project will be provided with electricity and water supplies
3 6.5 Preservation, Handling and Distribution Facilities at Landing Points
Equipment for handling and preservation at landing points is all under the control of FPMC Details of facilities, with capacities, are given In Table 10 The main installations are al Ziway (chill store, ice} and Arba Minch (freezing, cold store)
3.7             Ancillary Industries
Al the preseni slate of development of the Ethiopian fisheries, there is very little in the form of ancillary Industry, apart from the boat building acllvity at Ziway. Those supplying Informally Imported fishing gear might be considered as ancillary In view of their positive support to fisheries.
140
_ T4                AQUACULTURE
4.1             Physical Resources
4.1.1          Climate
There are two types of climate, with rainy months either contiguous or separated by a short dry season. The hottest months fall in mid-year, December and January being the coolest Low pressure in January leads to dry winds Around March high pressure brings moist easterly winds, which ascend the highlands to produce the "small rains', the northern region remaining dry At the start of summer in June and July the south east remains dry, while the rest of Elhlopia falls under the Influence of moist Atlantic equatorial westerlies which bring the "big rains' to the highlands By August, Indian Ocean easterlies bring the second rainy season to the south east of the country, with the south west still under the influence of the Atlantic weaierlles.
Ethiopia has tremendous variation in temperature, due to Its wide range of altitude. Air temperature Is a function of altitude, falling on average by itC for every 180m rise, but there are wide fluctuations from mean values Surface water temperature also varies with altitude. The smaller the water body, the cooler its surface temperature. On average surface water lemperatures of the major lakes lie between 22 C and 26 C
cG
4.1.2          Rainfall, Evaporation and Runoff
In the east and south east there Is a two-month and a monsoonal 3-4 month rainy season, separated by a short dry season. In the west the two rainy seasons tend to merge In the central and south east regions rains are tropical and often thundery, leading to severe erosion, with the highest rainfall (over 220Omm/year) on the lltubabor highlands and 1400 to 2200mm on the surrounding south western highlands. Rainfall decreases from this region In all directions, with plateaux over 2500m receiving 1400 to ISDOmm and mid-altitude areas between 600 and 2500m receiving 1000 to I400mm/year. However there Is a large variation in annual rainfall and In its monthty distribution. Moreover, the variability Is highest where rainfall is low, so that parts of Ethiopia are extremely vulnerable to drought
Evaporation varies with air temperature and rainfall. A measure more suitable for fish farmers. Independent of rainfall, Is potential evaporation, defined as the amount of water that would theoretically be lost to the atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration were humidity not a limiting factor. Potential evaporation is closely correlated with altitude and agro- cllmatlc zone. As a result, a water budget can be sei up by comparing evapotranspiration to rainfall (Figure 5). in months with water deficiency a water supply would be needed to top-up fish ponds.
Figure 6, showing the average annual runoff volume per hectare, helps to Indicate sites suitable for filling fish ponds. The central, south western and southern highlands, including much of the Rift Valley, show a high waler
15excess  while  the  lowlands  suffer  a  severe  paucity  Evan  so  reservoirs  In the lowlands could regulate runoff to provide a seasonal water supply
4.1.3          Soils
For Hsh farming It is best not to choose a site with acid soil, as liming would then be needed to provide conditions suitable for the fish. As the Rift Valley has no acid soils, It provides a potentially suitable area for the development of aquaculture.
4 14 Fertilizers Agricultural Inputs and By-Products Run-Off
Many agricultural residues can be used as composting material (or lish pond fertilization Whilst most crop residues are fed to livestock, there are some areas without livestock where crop residues are burned; such as National Farms in the Aral region. Residues useful for fish pond fertilization include those from cereals and pulses, sweet potato, fodder beet tops and banana waste. On Stale farms without livestock such residues are at present burned
According to JEFAD (1991), up to 250,000 tonnes of raw material from other sources (oil seed cake* sugar cane waste, mill and abattoir by products) are accessible nationally for commercial feed production, with only a small proportion al present being processed. The Animal and Fisheries Development Corporation (AFDC) operates several leed mills with a total capacity of 30,000 tonnes/year They currently produce mainly poultry, dairy and cattle concentrates, but could produce fish feed if required. There are no artificial pellet producing plants at the moment
Balarin (1986) evaluated comparative production costs, shown as product price to feed cost ratio (Table 6), but note that relative prices and costs have changed since then
4.2            Living Resources
4.2.1           Local Species
Fish species known to have good potential for breeding in Ethiopia are Oreochromte n/foticus. Sarorherodon ga/Meus. Hereford n/tot/Gus, C/ar/as / az era and C/anas mossamb/cus.
4.2.2           Non Local Species
Non Indigenous fish have been introduced Into Ethiopia since 1936, tor various reasons including sport fishing. Improvement of local stocks and control of weeds and disease vectors. First In the 1940 s came Gambusia hotbrookii for mosquito control and common carp Cyprlnus c&rpio for stock improvement. Both rainbow and brown trout (Onchoryncbus myArss and Sa/mo frufMJ* from Italy and Kenya respectively, were introduced into rivers in the Bale region for sport fishing
164.3              Existing Aquaculture
Aquaculture in Ethiopia is virtually non-existent. Apart from a lew small ponds, ths only aquaculture activities lake place at the FRDD's Sebeta Fish Culture Station near Addis Ababa
4 3 1 Inland Cold-Water Culture
No cold waler fish culture has been attempted in Ethiopia. The (rout populations introduced Into Bale rivers reached equilibrium and have sustained themselves without further Intervention. When in National Park areas fish populations like these, Introduced for sport fishing, are the responsibility of EWCO, not FRDQ.
4 3.2 Inland Warm-Water Culture
Warm water culture, scarcely developed, is represented nationally by about 24 fish ponds owned by NGO's. the Army or peasant associations, None of lhese Is in the Rift Valley None Is operated tor commercial purposes, and none Is big enough to do so. The ponds are ail stocked on request by the Sebeta Fish Culture Station.
The  small  ponds  In  this  category  are  often  constructed  tar  other  purposes
such as tor farm Irrigation or livestock watering, As a consequence the fish
suffer  from  harsh  variations  in  water
level,  careless  fertilization  and  casual
management.
4,3,3
Culture-Based Stock Enhancement
Despite  the  original  objectives  of  the  Sebeta  Fish  Culture  Station,  It  has
never  been  able  to  carry  out  any  research.  It  1$  now  primarily  concerned
with fish production and transfer, with the following functions: -
propagation of fish;
collection of wild fingerlings;
survey   of   new   water   bodies,   assessing   suitability   for   fish
breeding;
Introduction of fish;
follow-up  (experimental  fishing,  calculating  yields,  advising  on
optimal fishing effort);
studies of Indigenous and exotic species In Ethiopia;
training farmers and extension workers.
17Species currently held in the station s ponds include -
cyprinids (common carp, Cypnnus carpio crucian carp, Carassms caraaa/ua; goldfish. Carass/us aurafus; grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon ^de//a; silver carp, Hypophtelmichthys
moiitrix);
clchlkte (Htepte zflW, Oreochromis n/Zoficus).
4.4              Constraints and Potential for Development
Many of the constraints to aquaculture development are shared with lisheries (lack ot tradition of processing and preservation, sparse cold
storage facilities, and until recently very low national demand and consumption) Tho development of aquaculture also requires a high level
□1 control and management tor it to be commercially viable
4 4,1 Fish Farming Zonation
Fish terming zonation derives from waler temperature, which Is related to altitude and local climate conditions. Figure 7 shows an overall fish terming zonation, based on annual temperature Isotherms. The Rih Valley Includes central highland areas suitable for carp and trout, and highland perimeter areas suitable for carp and tilapia
Particularly suitable for pond building are black soil areas which could be stream ted. Temperature variation during the year could lead to climatic conditions critical to both cold- and warm-water species. Precise site selection would be important to lake advantage oi local climatic conditions Even so, temperatures are tar more stable than In European temperate climates The lowlands offer Ideal temperature condhlons for warm water species, but are unfortunately water-deficient, with a long dry season and suscepilble to drought Soils are sandy and not good for pond construction
4 4.2 Physical Constraints
J  EFAD  staled  In  March  1991  that  any  Increase  in  demand  lor  fish,  or improvement  in  marketing  channels  would  lead  to  a  rapid  Increase  in production  from  the  then  under-exploited  Rift  Valley  fisheries.  In  such  a competitive climate, it would be particularly difficult to market aquaculture products  This  prediction  has  Indeed  come  irue.  following  the  massive reported rise In demand for fish since then.
4 4 3 Human Constraints
Ethiopia still has adequate livestock resources for consumers that generally prefer meat to fish, although the increasing population may eventually put pressure on the livestock demand-supply situation The historically low national demand for fish, whh most of lhe population distant from fisheries
10and religious fasting encouraging a strongly seasonal demand In Addis Ababa has formed a serious limitation to aquaculture development As a result there Is hardly any experience in fish processing and preservation, nor any background in fish farming Despite the objectives of FRDD. training remains practically non existent
4.4.4          Human Potential
JEFAD staled In March 1991 that Ethiopia s dramatic population growth with the consequent future reduction in the supply of meal and dairy products would lead to an Increasing deficit In animal proteins This could be expected to generate a growing demand for fish, which In the long term could lead to over-exploltailon of Rift Valley fishery resources Aquaculture would then become a realistic alternative to capture fisheries Once more, the prediction has been amply vindicated (March 1992), with the Addis Ababa consumer beet price rising to EthBIrr 12.00/kg for •ordinary'' quality and ElhBIrr 13.50/kg for best quality, with a maximum of EthBIrr 15 00/kg With such meat prices, many more people are resorting io fish as a substitute FRDD report that the demand In the capital for fish has Indeed outstripped the supply (March 1992).
In the sbort/medlum term there could be some scope for aquaculture Io satisfy two particular markets, particularly If the price of caught fish and meat continues to rise One is in remote rural areas where lish Is rarely available, the other is in urban areas where aquaculture could offer fresher products. During fasting periods, farmed fish could help satisfy peak demand beyond the capacity of capture fisheries.
In Addis Ababa there is In addition a population of around 20.000 expatriates In embassies and international organisations, whose demand lor flah Is far from sallsfled. This market segment Is ready to pay a high price for fish of good quality. Aquaculture could supply this market with fresh, smoked and dried products
4.5 Means and Practical Prospects tor Development
4.5.1         Prospects for Fish Farming
In spite of considerable physical potential, prospects for short and medium term aquaculture development In Ethiopia were, until early 1991. very restricted by the under-exploitation of the natural resources the lack of training and extension support, and the limited markets
In 1991 JEFAD thought that for the next 10 years there would be no room for large scale commercial fish farming (units of over 100 tonnes/year), but that a few artisanal units (2 to 100 tonnes/yaar) aimed at quickly producing first quality fresh fish, could ba set up near large towns. This seemed the most promising opportunity in early 1991. but prospects have undoubtedly Improved since then, through iha rapidly Increasing urban demand for lish.
19Family scale fish farming might take place In some remote rural areas normally deprived ol fish, but this type of development always requires background Institutional support (regular fingerling supply, demonstration and extension centres). Everywhere in Africa that this approach has been tried there has been a need for close and constant support for the farmers lor several years In most cases, the only achievements have been Insignificant yields and disappointing commitment Irom the farmers
Ethiopia has considerable tourist potential, which includes sport fishing There may be river sites In (he Rift Valley which could benefit from slock enhancement and development of sport fishing, side by side with wildlife protected areas
4.5.2          Need for Institutional Support
4 5.2.1 Training
The greatest need for training would arise from family fish farm development, which would require permanent training and extension centres To set up larger-scale aquaculture such as artisanal fish farms would require some well-trained entrepreneurs. They could be trained at Sebeta if funds were made available, or they could be sent to Zimbabwe, Egypt or Israel tor practical training. As there would be few opportunities for artisanal fish farm development It would be cheaper to send rigorously selected candidates abroad than to sei up special (raining centres
4 5 2.2 Fish Seed Production
Sebeta's production capacity Is hi present underutilised, the main bollleneck being the lack of transport facilities. Starling up the station's hatchery would boost its capacity to two or three million fingerlings per year, depending on the number of breeding cycles undertaken For all foreseeable needs. Sebeta's capacity is sufficient
4 5.2 3 Research
Given the capacity of Sebeia. It would be better for the proposed EEC Phase II research centre at Awhssb to concentrate on more pressing needs, such as monitoring of fisheries and water quality, limnology, biology etc.
4.5.2 4       Credit
Access io credit Is of utmost Importance to aquaculture enterprises. Two types of credit must be available: loans for investment; and credit for recurrent expenditure (working capital) The second of these must not be neglected, as aquaculture accumulates huge fixed assets before obtaining marketable production. As a rule, the amount of working capital needed is at least as much as investment capital There should be a professional approach to enterprises, with some minimum paid-in capital.
204 5.2 5 Marketing
Fish farmers must be able lo recover their costs of production, which Is possible only In a liberal market with Ire© pricing It is of prime Importance to base Inveslment decisions on Identified demand in existing markets. Precise and detailed market research Is fundamental and must address at least market segmentation (rural and urban, foreign residents, exports etc ) and inside each segment qualitative and quantitative demand, purchasing power and price elasticity.5                DOMESTIC AND EXPORT FISH MARKETING
5.1             Domestic Consumption and Oemand
5 11 Demand
By tradition Ethiopians are meal-eaters (about 10kg per capita in 1990). Nevertheless. Christians ol the Ethiopian Orthodox Church who form over 50% of lhe highlands population, are encouraged to eat lish during lasting seasons Although Wednesdays and Fridays are supposed to be lasting days throughout the year, the main observance of fasting practice occurs during the two main periods: two months between February and April and two weeks in August Thus, a total of 90 days of fasting serve to concentrate domestic demand for fish within two shod periods of the year However* extreme regional variation in fish consumption (see below) suggests that the seasonal peaks and troughs in demand ascribed to lhe fasting habit need not dominate domestic fish marketing to the extern found In 1990
The most popular species Is tilapia due to Its predominance In the Inland catch and relatively low price. Nile perch Is also much In demand, and preferred by Ethiopians because Its texture is more like that of meat, but In 1990 It was obtainable only by those living near appropriate fisheries, or by those in Addle Ababa who could afford io go and purchase it directly from FPMC's ceniral store.
One result of repeated drought In recent years is a reduction In the supply of meat, and consequent price Increases shown In the first part of Table 5. In urban areas beef prices rose to EthBIrr 10.00/kg In 1990, compared to fresh tilapia at up to EthBIrr 2.50/kg (Table 3). Under these circumstances It seemed that some consumers might wish to substitute more fish for meat, In which case demand would rise faster than the rate of population Increase (2.9%/year; see Section 5.1 4) This forecast proved to be accurate. By March 1992 the beef price to consumers In Addis Ababa had risen to an average of EthBIrr 13.50/kg, representing a rate of Increase well over 15%/year. FRDD report that the demand for fish In March 1992 far exceeds the supply regardless of the previous association with fasting seasons
There Is a limited demand for smoked fish amongst the expatriate community In Addis Ababa, served by specially smoked tilapia from FPMC at Zbway.
Dried fish does not appear to be In great demand In the highlands, where lhe price Is high (Table 3). However in other areas too far from fisheries to benefit from fresh lish supplies, there is a significant demand for sun- dried fish,
Another source of demand Is the crocodile Industry, which began in 1932 under the control of lhe Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation (EWCO) Growing crocodiles thrive on a diet consisting of 60% fish, 20% red meat. 10% blood meal and 10% bones. In 1989 lhe crocodile farm al
22Arba Minch consumed 67 tonnes of fish for r stock of 6,300 hatchlings/ yearlings and 2,400 second year animals However, plans to produce 4,000 skins in 1992 from Arba Minch and eventually another 5,000 sklns/year from a proposed new farm to be started al Debre Zell In 1995 must have been radically revised following a slump in world demand for crocodile skin
5.1.2          National and Regional per capita Consumption
The Central Statistical Authority's (CSA) estimate ot national population was 47.3 million In May 1988 Al an average growth rata of 2 9%. the population would have been 49.6 million at the beginning ol 1990. and 51.1 million by January 1991. Taking 49 6 million as the estimated average population for 1989/90, and 4,400 tonnes as the total domestic fish consumption for that year, the estimated average national per capita consumption emounted to a meagre 0.089 kg/year.
In 1989/90 the population of Addis Ababa was about 1.70 million FPMC distributed 793 tonnes of fish products to Addis Ababa that year, corresponding to about 1.380 tonnes fresh equivalent (Table 10). The estimated per capita consumption In Addis Ababa for FPMC fish alone was therefore 0.81 kg/year. or nine times the national average. Extra fish from Langano, Ziway and Koka sold by private traders In Addis Ababa could easily add ten per cent to the consumption attributable to FPMC (Table t). The total per capita consumption of fresh fish in Addis Ababa in 1989/90 was probably about 0.9 kg/year, or ten times the national average.
However, local populations near to Individual fisheries consume much more llsh than the national average For examples, consider Arba Minch and Soddo. both towns near Lakes Chamo and A ba ya From Table 1, It was estimated that 400 tonnes of fresh fish was sold In this area via the Informal market in addition to the 67 tonnes sold there by FPMC In 1989/90 (Table 10). From CSA statistics the combined population of Arba Minch and Soddo In 1989/90 was estimated at 54,000 Thia led to a local per capita consumption of 8.5 kg/year, or about one hundred times the national average Most of this fish was probably sold In Arba Minch at the dally informal markets, with supplies to Soddo concentrated during fasting periods This suggests that per capita consumption In Arba Minch was probably In excess of 10 kg/year
Consider also the case of Awassa, where FPMC sells virtually no fish al all Here the total production sold fresh on the informal market was estimated at 575 tonnes in 1989/90. a significant portion of which was distributed to towns up to 100 kilometres away. The population of Awassa In 1989/90 was estimated at 44,000 Assuming that 400 tonnes of fish was consumed locally that year, the estimated per capita consumption would be 8 fl kg/year. once more, a hundred times the national average.
National consumption of dried fish was estimated at around 400 tonnes fresh equivalent from the Inland fishery, plus a small amount of dried shark from the Red Sea The dispersion of dried products can be so distant from the points ot origin that it is impossible to estimate regional consumption
235.1.3          Consumer Prices
In 1990 prices of fish sold by FPMC were fixed al the levels given in Table 3 regardless of seasonal demand and fluctuation in supply (compare FPMC producer prices. Section 3 2.1). As prices on the Informal market were Invariably higher for a more steady demand throughout the year, with less pronounced seasonal peaks, there was thought to be scope lor FPMC to adopt a more flexible pricing policy. This would enable the Corporation to have more control throughout its marketing operation, for Instance to encourage more fish consumption out of peak seasons and to obtain a more realistic return on capital tied up in stocks held In anticipation of fasting periods.
The Transitional Government has set in motion a programme of market liberalisation, with discussions already In progress on how FPMC's pricing policy should relate to market forces. Meanwhile over 20 authorised traders plus many more informal traders are now active In the private fish marketing sector. This market liberalisation and the removal of FPMC's buying monopoly Is almost certain to lead to an upward adjustment in prices as demand/supply balance la reached.
5.1.4 Projected Demand to lhe Year 2000
The estimated national population at the beginning of 1992 was thought to be around 53.3 million. Forecasts suggest that lhe population In the year 2000 will have risen by some 40%. Other things remaining constant, one could therefore expect a 40% Increase in the demand for fish, merely to keep pace whh rising population. A 40% increase In domestic consumption at the per capita rates current in 1990 would amount to about 1,800 tonnes fresh equivalent, bringing total consumption to about 6.200 tonnes.
However, there are reasons to expect demand io grow faster than the population. One is the proven trend to substitute fish for meat, already noted. Another Is the much easier access to fresh fish for certain towns, as a result of both completed and planned road Improvements. Ol particular Interest are Nekemte and Jlma, with a combined urban population of 104.000. Whan the proposed Soddo to Chicle road comes Into operation, Nekemte and Jlma will have very easy access to the southern Rift Valley lakes. If It should prove possible to Increase fresh fish per capita consumption In these towns by 5 kg/year, an extra 520 tonnes/year would need to be produced and distributed, or 730 tonnes/year by the year 2000. Thia alone would represent 12% of 1990 domestic consumption
There is already a large Increase In demand for fish In Addis Ababa A doubling of consumption In Addis Ababa to 1.8 kg/year per capita would require some 1,500 tonnes/year extra fresh fish, or 2,100 tonnes/year by the year 2000. As an Indication of the maximum conceivable demand In Addis Ababa, It Is reasonable to take the estimated per capita consumption level near the lakes, l.e. 8.5 kg/year. At the 1990 Addis Ababa population of 1.7 million, this would suggest a maximum demand of about 14,000 lonnes/year, rising to 20,000 tonnes by lhe year 2000, It Is unlikely that
24urban  demand  on  that  scale  could  be  satisfied  from  Ethiopia's  capture fisheries, even If they were managed In lhe best sustainable way
5 1.5          Constraints on Consumption
In 1990 there was ample evidence that the demand for fish in Ethiopia was higher than the supply Comparatively very high per capita consumption near sources of fish strongly suggested that more vigorous and steadier markets could be developed in lhe large urban centres more remote from the fisheries (Section 5.1.2). The informal market had already demonstrated what could be done with very limited Investment, Fish consumption could clearly be increased by more efficient and extensive marketing and distribution, under a system of competitive prices both to producers and consumers At that time the Rllt Valley fisheries were thought to be generally under-exploited. In 1992 this may no longer be the case, so that the fishery stocks themselves may have become constraints on production, and therefore consumption
The main factors holding back such development before rhe change of government in 1991 were the low level of business conlldence amongst potential private Investors, the difficulty 0! obtaining foreign exchange, and in Addis Ababa the continuing monopoly position ol FPMC (investment licences were available only for harvesting fish, not lor marketing. Section 6 1 1.2). Shortage of foreign exchange also had a serious effect on imports ol fish products Table 7 shows lhe decline In imports of canned sardines during the ten years to 19B5
5.2             Export Markets
5.2 1          Products. Value and Destination
Very little fish has been exported from Ethiopia In recent years (the level of former exports can be seen from Table 7). In 1989/90 FPMC exported 56 tonnes ol illapla (mostly fresh, whole) to Saudi Arabia Whole fresh tilapia was packed with ice In loam boxes at Zrway and taken by road to Addis Ababa, whence 11 travelled <0 Jeddah by Ethiopian Airlines, the entire journey being completed within 48 hours. The Saudi import agency paid US$1 25/kg for Iresh tilapia end US$1.17/kg for frozen A marginal economic analysis (Table 11) suggests that, given the poor financial performance of FPMC‘s domestic marketing activities the tilapia export operation should have been beneficial, despite the unfavourable exchange rate ol lhe Birr (Sections 2.1,3 and 2,1.5).
A financial analysis would probably show that the earnings at the existing exchange rate would not cover all purchasing, marketing and distribution costs, but even so the urgent need lor foreign exchange would have made Ihls export operation economically justifiable. In the economic situation obtaining In 1990. all foreign earnings were compulsorily exchanged. In order to obtain foreign exchange. FPMC had to apply to the Office of the National Committee for Central Planning (ONCCP) for permission, before a line Of credit could be opened at lhe National Bank of Ethiopia.
255.2.2 Potential for Further Product and Market Diversification
The recent marked Increase in domestic consumption, II coniintjed, wilt leave lew opportunities for Increased exports of fish and fish products Irom the Rift Valley fisheries. Under present conditions of the national economy, any mapr investment and know-how required would need to come from foreign joint venture partners, but there would remain serious problems arising from the over-valued exchange rate for the Birr.
Ethiopian producers' prices are at present too high in comparison with FOB prices In neighbouring countries To rake an example from lhe marine fishery o< Ethiopia as It was In 1990. fresh whole kingfish was purchased from fishermen by FPMC at US$t.00/kg (EthBIrr 2 OO/kg) In Somalia, the FOB price of frozen kingfish was US$1 20/kg (fnfoflsh. June 1990). in order for the Ethiopia of 1990 to compete with this product, the producers' price would need to be about US$0.72/kg {60% of FOB price), which is equivalent to only EthBIrr 1.50/kg at the present exchange rale
5.2.2.1 Nile perch
There may be possibilities for exporting Nile perch to markets such as EEC, Israel and Australia, but this would best be carried out in the contexi of a |olnl venture. However, the present ovar-valuallon of the Birr precludes any Immediate developments. For Instance, lhe present CIF price for frozen Nile perch fillets In the EEC Is about USS 1,350/tonne, which suggests an FOB Assab price of USS 1,100/tonne {assuming sea freight In 10-tonne refrigerated containers). At the present exchange rale this corresponds io EthBIrr 2.250/tonne FOB. fess than the 1990 producer price for fresh fillets on lhe informal market at Arba Minch (EthBIrr 3,200/tonne. Table 3). At a more realistic value of e g. EthBIrr 7 per US dollar, lhe FOB price would convert to about EthBIrr 7.700/tonne, giving practical possibilities for export, There could be opportunities In the same markets for smoked producls as well as filleted fish.
Dried Nile perch swim bladders could be exported to the Far Eaet for use in making sutures. Finally, the skin of the Nile perch has great strength and can be tanned to majce a moat attractive leather like product. The potential lor thia type of product seamed good In 1990, but the Idea has yet to find sufficient support In the existing leather markets. Note also that lhe market for crocodile skin has collapsed (1992).
5.3           Fleh Handling, Processing and Marketing
5 31 Traditional Methods
From the estimated size of the Informal market In Ethiopia (Table 1). It will be seen that traditional methods of handling, processing and marketing continue to flourish. Where the flab are landed near to a town as in the case of Awassa, consumers and traders alike buy fish direct from fishermen at the landing place. Groups of traders who have licences from FRDD to sell fish In their retail premises carry whole fresh fish without Ice by rented
26open truck to major towns such as Addis Ababa, Dabre Zell or Nazerel This used to take place especially during lasting periods, but with the present Increased demand for fish in urban centres there Is now continuous activity both by licensed and unlicensed traders Smaller traders regularly and Increasingly use horses or donkeys to roach less accessible destinations. Such Is lhe present demand that llsh Is now landed by Informal fishermen on the remote eastern shore of Lake Ziway, whence II Is taken by donkey to be sold In Asalia This Is one small part ol lhe uncontrolled Increase In fisheries activity since May 1991
Informal fishermen on Lake Chamo have to walk daily 10km to Arba Minch carrying fish in sacks, In order to get their catch to the traditional market, as there Is no road access to the lake shore
Dried llsh, known as ’kuanta’, was produced by fishermen-In 1990, especially In the Arba Minch region Fish was 1llletedk cut Into large strips and hung up to dry on strings for two to three days Kuanta was packed into sacks tor storage on the ground for several weeks if necessary, and provided storage in this way did not exceed a month, spoilage was only slight. Although there is no similar long tradition in eating kuanta further north around Lake Ziway. there was seasonal processing during fasting periods In view of the Increase in demand for fish since May 1991. It Is doubtful whether Rih Valley fisherman need io preserve any of their catch In the present circumstances. Smoking has never been a traditional method of llsh preservation.
5 3 2 Fish Production and Marketing Corporation
5.3 2 1 Objectives and Status
FPMC was established as a seml-autonomous body in February 197a by the MOA. with the following objectives:
to  set  up  a  marketing  network  between  production  centres  and urban consumption areas;
to   maintain   a   pricing   policy   securing   increased   incomes   to producers and attractive consumer prices;
to assist fishermens associations through admlnlslralive support and provision ol credit lor acquiring fishing equipment;
to  carry  out  a  research  programme  for  stock  assessment  and fishing technologies
From Its Inception. FPMC tried to supply Addis Ababa with fish from the Rift Valley lakes, with the help of a loan ol EthBIrr 0 6 million (US$0.3 million) from AIDB. and subsequently a gram of EthBIrr 2 million (US$1 million) from EEC. whose Phase 1 Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project started In 1981 (Section 7,4.1). Most of FPMC* assets listed In Table 10 were financed by the EEC Phase t project Processing, storage and transport
27faculties were fits! set up at the headquarters In Addis Ababa and In Alft Valley branches al Zlway and Arba Minch The Corporation later established similar facilities on the Red Sea coast at Massawa and Assab, and on Lake Tana al Bahir Dar Over 95% of FPMC’s throughput in 1989/90 came from Inland, FPMC purchasing a total of 1695 tonnes of fllleled. gutted and whole fish This represented aboul halt the nailnnal commercial fish production in 1989/90 (Tables 1 and 10),
In Augusl 1989 FPMC obtained legal status Ihrough the 'FPMC Establishment Council of State Special Decree 13/1989', details of which are summarised In Schedule 3.
53.2.2 Policy
As a State corporation. FPMC benefltted from having monopoly rights of purchase, at fixed prices. Fishermen's associations were required to sell all their production to FPMC. In practice. FPMC's intended monopoly never emerged, for several reasons;
because of very strong local demand around the lakes, together with fixed low prices paid by FPMC. a thriving parallel markei developed, which account ed In 1990 for about haff the national marketed fish production. It was supplied by Informal fishermen who did nol belong Io fishermen's associations. and was supported by much higher producer prices;
a  'strong*  fishermen's  association  such  as  ihe  one  at  Awassa, could defy FPMC and sell most of its fish on the more lucrative local  informal  market  (this  option  was  not  possible  at  all  fish landing sites);
FPMC may be unable to collect fish on certain days;
FPMC may be unable to accept bulk landings. If Its storage facilities are full. In such a case, FPMC has been powerful enough to restrict landings by Instructing a fishermen's association to resort to using lines rather than nets, until rhe problem should ease. It Is particularly easy lor FPMC to exert unilateral control such as this where the local presence of FRDD Is weak.
In 1989 FPMC tried to diversify Its operations, wllh successful trial exports of tilapia to Saudi Arabia, and by encouragement at fish canning, In association with the Ethiopian Nutritional Institute (ENI) and Ethiopian Meat Concentrates (Sections 5.3.2 and 5.3.4. l). There was also a controversial arrangement with the Marine Transport Authority (MTA). In return for access to certain facilities (cold stores. Ice machines, foreign exchange, manpower}, FPMC allowed MTA to fish in the Red Sea and in Lake Chama, a policy much opposed by FRDD, who rightly regarded themselves as the sole fisheries regulating agency (see Section 7.2.1).
28FPMC's domestic marketing policy was always to try to satisfy the Increased demand for fish during the extended fasting periods laid down by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church (Section 5.1,1). The strategy was to fill the central cold store at Addis Abeba so that the stock could be released to increase the supply to consumers al the time of maximum demand Thus for months belore tasting began, FPMC would fillet tilapia so as to maximize the value ol its finished stock In cold store The tendency to Increase the proportion of high-valued products in the marketing mix was also evident in the priority given to Nile perch. This policy was misguided, as It adopted the most expensive possible way of marketing fish, whilst taking insufficient note of the possibility of promoting a more steady demand throughout the year. Rising meal prices were much in evidence by 1990. when the Corporation could have belatedly promoted the substitution of the much cheaper fish for meat
5 3 2 3 Operations
Full details Of FPMC’s storage, processing, transport and retailing facilities can be found in Table 10 FPMC purchases fish only from fishermen s associations, collecting by boat or tiuck as appropriate.
Fish Irom the northern Rift Valley is processed (mostly gulled) at the Zlway receiving station under good sanitary conditions for distribution In chilled fresh form to the central store In Addis Ababa or to FPMC's reiail shops in Zlway and Awassa In general, stowage and handling conditions before reaching the Zlway receiving station are unsatisfactory, with fish on the ground without ice awaiting collection
Inadequate provision of Ice (icing ratio about 1:10) in the collecting boats loaves some fish lying in warm water at the bottom cl an open boat, or exposed to the sun at the top ol the heap Some of the fish Is therefore in poor condition on arrival al the Zlway receiving station
Fish from Lakes Chamo and A ba ya r mainly fueled at the lakeside by lishermen, is transported 35km by pickup to the FPMC receiving station, where it is unloaded on to the ground, weighed, packed Into plastic bags and frozen. Arter at least six hours in unhygienic conditions in the fishing camps, aboard the collecting boat/plck-up and on the ground, fillets were not seen to be washed at all before being frozen (FAO field visit, 199€). The average lime In cold storage is lour to five days, followed by a |ourney to Addis Ababa by Insulated truck which can lake up to 30 hours lo complete IFPMC's vehicles are too old to be able to reach Addis Ababa from Arba Minch wllhin a day The presenl condition of the road from Arba Minch to Alaba Kolrto and the fixed daytime working hours of FPMC in Addis Ababa provide additional constraints on journey time.
At the FPMC headquarters In Addis Ababa, fish Is received from Ziway and Arba Minch. In 1990 further processing was carried out on about 40% of the Input In order to build up stocks of frozen fillets for sale during the main fasting seasons Nile perch fillets Irom Arba Minch are sold almost as soon as they arrive with no further processing, such Is the demand lor this
29product Other fish is distributed to FPMC's 13 retail shops In the capital, in a manner according to the purchasing power ol consumers In the neighbourhood (Table 10). Most of the FPMC shops are recently built and well equipped However, because of extremes In seasonal demand in 1990, these shops sold 55% of the annual throughput during the 80 days of fasting This meant that out of the lasting periods, sales at that time Irom FPMC shops were extremely low On Wednesdays and Fridays In June 1990. sales of only 20kg to 50kg per shop per day were observed
5.3.2.4      Performance
The six years to 1990 saw a growth of volume In fish purchased by FPMC, which reflects th® Corporation s share in the development of Inland fisheries. Despite this, sales volume stabilised al around t ,000 lonnes/year, a fact which must Indicate an Increase In the proportion of fistrsold In a processed form (Tabla 10 and Figure 8) There have been changes in the source of supplies io FPMC. partly from opening up the fisheries in the southern RIM Valley lakes (Tabla 10 and Figure 3).
The financial performance of FPMC from 1985/86 can be seen from the profit and loss statements and the balance sheets in Table 10, and from Figure 9 During this period (except for 1988/89), lhe Corporation was unprofitable, as wee also the case In earlier years (FAO, 1985) FPMC remained In business with the help of additional funds regularly transferred from MOA Ona of the main reasons for continuing financial losses was the very high component of wages in the Corporation's expenses. FAO (1985) estimated a productivity of 9.23 tonnes/year per employee (1200 tonnes purchased In 1980/B4, 130 employees). There were 217 employees in August 1990. for a total purchase In 1989/90 of 1946 lonnes estimated fresh equivalent weight (Table 1). The 1989/90 figures give a productivity per employee of 8 96 tonnes/year, somewhat worse than in 1983/84
The great majority of FPMC's headquarters employees are administrators, whereas a higher proportion of technical staff would be advantageous. Repairs and maintenance for vehicles Is the other major source of high operating costs, as the road fleet is now growing old, From its Inception In 1978 to the end of the period described, FPMC was a continuing financial loss maker and it Is unlikely that It produced any net economic benefits for Ethiopia.
5 3 2.5 Development Plans
In 1990 the Corporation's main development plans centred around Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project. The proposed Investments submitted by FPMC for funding by EEC under this project corresponded to the ECU 3.7 million originally scheduled by EEC for assistance to FPMC. The proposals Included major expansion of existing fish collecting, handling, processing and storage capacity, plus fishing boats with outboard motors, and civil works comprising naw office buildings and jetties. In the new economic climate since the advent of the Transitional Government, the EEC plans are undergoing radical revision
30(March 1992). so that FPMC will not receive this grant from EEC itIs
proposed Instead that FPMC will have the same opportun y '
investors to borrow from a fund created from part or a o e
mtnion,
FPMC also gave thought to rationalising Its activities to Improve profitability, for example by selling off its retail operation, It planned to Increase lorolgn exchange earnings through expanded exports end by selling through the State shops reserved for foreigners (presumably Nile perch) in the transitional phase of the former Government’s Economic Reform Programme, the Corporation was not permlned to make such a change as rapidly as It might have wished nor other changes such as reorganisation of personnel
5 3.3
Post-Harvest Losses and Quality
~
As noted in Section 5.3 2 3. much remains to be done to Improve the condition of fish In handling (eg storage/fllleting/sorilng on the ground with no washing), and in transit, whether by boat or truck. Post-harvest losses In this area must be significant, but no statistics have been collected to help in estimating the economic consequences As a guide to the possible order of oconomic loss, one per cent of the t990 estimated inland catch was worth about EthBirr 30,000 to producers.
Similar arguments apply to the quality ot fish actually marketed
5-3.4 Processing
5.3 4 1 Canning. Ethiopian Meat Concentrates (EMC)
EMC is a small subsidiary of the state-run Ethiopian Meal Corporation. With a seasonal market for meat production, and consequent under-utilisation of canning and workforce capacity, it was decided to diversify Into pork and pork products, fresh meat tor supermarkets and hotels and most recently, canned fish. Trials began in 1969 in collaboration with FPMC, producing various canned recipes with different species The variants using potatoes, tomatoes and other seasonal ingredienls were abandoned In favour ot fish with beans, but problems remained in using a recipe containing a sauce, in which case the fish tended to disintegrate during cooking. Production ol canned fish with boans in oil started In October 1990. A 240g can contains at least iSOg fish, about 50g beans with oil as filler.
The agreement with FPMC stipulated a supply ol 20 tonnes/week of raw material (Meis of Barbus, synodontus, and other species of relatively low demand), but EMC actually collected from 3 tonnes to 8 tonnes/week Irom Arba  Minch  The  purchase  price  was  EthBirr  3.80/kg  tor  normal  fillets, EthBirr  4  80/kg  tor  bone-1roe  fttleta  (compare  FPMC  consumer  price  of EthBirr  4  75/kg  tor  Barbus  lliiets,  Table  3)  The  target  retail  selling  price in   supermarkets   was   EthBirr   2.50/can   Imported   cans   ol   fish   with comparable weight fetaHed in 1990 al EthBirr 5.00 to EthBirr 6 00, but there had  been  Increasing  dffliculUei  in  Importing  because  ol  the  shortage  of
31foreign exchange With the recent targe Increase in demand for fresh lish in arban centres, which Is expected to continue, further pursuit and promotion of the canned market would appear uncommercial
32
I(March 1992), so that FPMC will not receive this grant from EEC- Il Is proposed Instead that FPMC will have the same opportunity as private Investors to borrow from a fund created from part or all of the ECU 3 7 million.
FPMC also gave thought to rationalising Ils a cl iv Hies to Improve profitability, for example by selling oh Its retail operation II planned to Increase foreign exchange earnings ihrough expanded exports and by selling through the State shops reserved lor foreigners (presumably Nile perch) In the transitional phase of the former Government's Economic Reform Programme, the Corporation was not permitted to make such a change as rapidly as it might have wished, nor other changes such as reorganisation of personnel.
5.3.3          Posl-Harvest Losses and Quality
As noted In Section 53,2.3, much remains to be done to improve the condition of fish in handling (o.g. storage/fill eting/sorting on the ground with no washing), and in transit, whether by boat or truck. Post-harvesl losses In this area must be significant, but no statistics have been collected to help in estimating the economic consequences. As a guide to the possible order of economic loss, one per cent of the 1990 estimated inland catch was worth about EthBirr 30.000 to producers.
Similar arguments apply to the quality of fish actually marketed.
5 3.4 Processing
5 3 4 1 Canning Ethiopian Meat Concentrates (EMC)
EMC is a small subsidiary of the state-run Ethiopian Meat Corporation With a seasonal market for meat production, and consequent under-utilisation of canning and workforce capacity, it was decided to diversify Into pork and pork products, fresh meat for supermarkets and hotels and most recently, canned fish. Trials began In 1989 in collaboration with FPMC, producing various canned recipes with different species. The variants using potatoes, tomatoes and other seasonal ingredienls were abandoned in favour of fish with beans, but problems remained in using a recipe containing a sauce, In which case the fish tended to disintegrate during cooking. Production of canned lish with beans in oil started in October 1990. A 240g can contains al least i50g fish, about 50g beans with oil as filler.
The  agreement  with  FPMC  stipulated  a  supply  of  20  tonnes/week  of  raw
material  (fillets  oi  Barbus,  synodontus,  and  other  species  of  relatively  low demand), but EMC actually collected from 3 tonnes to 8 tonnes/week from Arba  Minch.  The  purchase  price  was  EthBirr  3  80/kg  for  normal  fillets, EthBIrr  4  80/kg  for  bone-free  fillets  (compare  FPMC  consumer  price  of EthBirr  4  75/kg  for  Barbus  fillets.  Table  3}  The  target  retail  selling  price In    supermarkets    was    EthBirr    2.50/can    imported    cans    of    fish    wllh comparable weigh! retailed In 1990 at EthBirr 5 00 to EthBirr 6.00, but there had been Increasing difficulties in importing because of the shortage of
31foreign exchange. With the recent large Increase in demand for fresh fish in urban centres, which Is expected to continue, further pursuit and promotion of the canned market would appear uncommercial
32X* W6                 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
6,1              Government Policies
6.1.1           Ministry of Agriculture
Fisheries fall under the responsibilities of MOA. In 1990 MOA had four Main Departments, now reduced to two. under the control of two Vice Ministers. Amongst the various bodies controlled by the Vice Minister responsible for the Animal and Fishery Resources Main Department is lhe Fisheries Resource Development Department (FRDO), described in the next section
611 1          Fisheries Resource Development Department
There are three Divisions within the FRDD,-
Flsh Resource Utilisation, Conservation and Control Division,
whose functions include: extension services to fishermen and consumers to Improve fish utilisation conservation of fish resources (not yet In hand); measures to control fishing gear, seasons, areas; fish quality at producer and consumer level;
Fish Culture and Research Division; responsible for producing fingerlings at the Sebeta site for stocking man-made Inland water bodies, together with applied research in national
fisheries;
Fishing Gear Improvement and Development Division; charged with Implementing improvements to fishing boats and gear In the inland fisheries, providing practical training In using such equipment, and instruction on avoidance of forbidden fishing
methods.
At Its Head Office In Addis Ababa and the Sebeta st al ion nearby, FRDD has a total of 25 personnel, of whom 17 are technical staff. Spread throughout the country at the Administrative or Autonomous Regional Offices of MOA in 1990 were 80 more FRDD staff, of whom 74 were extension workers responsible for carrying out the regional programme of FRDD, Table 12
gives the qualifications of all technical staff by region in 1990. However, regional personnel were then under the direct control of the Animal and Fisheries Resources Department of the Regional Offices, which could re assign their duties when necessary (e.g. in an outbreak of disease amongst cattle). Furthermore, the Regional Offices have their own separate budgets This situation can be expected to continue under the present policy towards further decentralisation
For many years FRDD has suffered from The effects of its very limited budget. As described in Section 2.1.6, the total budget allocated to FRDD in 1989/90 was only 0.1% of the total MOA allocation. The result of severe budgetary constraints has been a widespread Incapacity for FRDD to carry out all o1 Its declared functions. There are very few vehicles al the disposal
33ol staff hence it is Impossible for extension workers to visit fishing sites
It has not been possible to train extension workers and construction of two demonstration centres at Ziway and Arba Minch was abandoned for lack of
funds to complete them.
The Head Office staff have tried In these straitened circumstances to perform such routine functions as are possible: collecting reports from the regions; reporting to the Vice Minister; submitting and juslilying annual budgets; preparing directives for regional offices to try to control fishing (eg restrictions during fish breeding seasons): preparing posters, pamphlets and manuals for extension workers; participating in radio broadcasts to exhort consumers to eat more fish,
One of the most important functions carried out by FRDD Is its role In coordinating major fisheries development projects Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project, like other similar projects, requires a major Input from the National Project Coordinator nominated by FRDD. In the case cl the EEC project the original Coordinating Committee was to consist of the Vice Minister, two members from FPMC (General Manager, Head of Planning) and two members from FRDD. Until completion of the project FRDD was to be responsible for supervising the national contribution FRDD's links would continue after project completion, lor Instance In purchasing and distributing fishing gear for sale to fishermen A fisherman s association will submit a request for gear to the regional office of MOA, which will pass the application to FRDD headquarters Gear provided under the Phase 1 EEC project was distributed through FRDD and FPMC
6.1  1 2 Office for Agricultural Investment
This new office was set up In 1990 to receive and consider applications from intending agricultural and fisheries investors. Fisheries applications are dealt wilh by the Animal and Fishery Desk, Successful applicants obtain a licence enabling them to obtain Government land on lease, duty- free imports at project start-up and a tax holiday of duration dependent on the amount Invested, under the "Council of State Special Decree on Investment No 17/1990"; see Schedule 1 for a summary of the key elements of this decree
The M0A/0AI must be satisfied that the investment proposal conforms to the requirements laid down for agricultural Investors (minimum land holding, minimum annual production), and that the business described conforms to relevant Codes of Practice and time limits for cyclic procedures Table 2 of Appendix J summarises the Information required of an intending agricultural Investor The M0A/0AI examines the proposal lor obvious overstatements of revenue, or understatements of costs, but does not scrutinise in depth Detailed financial assessment Is left to the lending agency, normally the AIDE, which prefers MOA to have issued the licence before embarking on its own Investment appraisal
34There are sufficient agricultural rules and regulations to provide a basis for the MOA Investment licence appraisal system to be capable of Implementation This Is not the case for fisheries. There is no fisheries law, and so no defined criteria by which an investment proposal can be judged For example, the Decree on Investment requires an investor to lease land from the Government, but there Is not yet an Interpretation of how this rule can be applied for the right of access to a waler body as Implied In the ’Licence for Agricultural Activities Council of Ministers Regulations 7/1990"; see Schedule 2 for a summary of relevant issues
The policy of the M0A/0AI is to consider the issue of licences tor proposals which Include harvesting including fisheries By mid November 1990 the M0A/0AI had received over 400 applications for Investment, only two of which were for fisheries. Other ventures In agriculture, such as fattening cattle, promise very high returns at minimum risk.
35
i7                FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND POLICIES
7.1             Government Services end Programmes
7.1.1          Fisheries Statistics
There is considerable difficulty in estimating fisheries production because of the inadequacy of the present facilities for gathering essential information. Summary statistics are collected at three-monthly Intervals by regional teams of FRDD for the regular report to headquarters However, these statistics are supplied by fishermen's associations and by FPMC. In other words only by organisations officially involved in commercial liahlng The very significant production from Informal fishermen, (who do not belong to fishermen's associations) Is not taken into account by the present system
7.1.2          Fisheries Monitoring
A  UNDP/FAO  Workshop  on  Fishery  Statistics  and  Information  Systems, organised   by   FRDD   and   the   UNDP/FAO   Regional   Projecl   for   Inland Fisheries   Planning,   Development   and   Management   in   Eastern/Centrai /Southern  Africa  based  in  Bujumbura  (IFIP).  was  held  In  Addis  Ababa  in October  1990.  The  workshop  examined  the  use  of  survey  techniques  in different statistical sampling scenarios, using catch data especially collected from Lake Awaasa
The workshop concluded that:*
since almost no information Is available on the socio-economic situation of small-scale fishermen, there Is a need to start collecting it as pari of a fisheries information system for use in fisheries development, planning and management;
the implementation al a survey programme would require logistical support, at present not available (vehicles, computer equipment and software, office equipment), plus technical assistance to build a long-term, sell-sustaining statistical programme (training and upgrading national skills in statistical and computing applications).
With Its extremely limited resources, FRDD conducted a frame survey of Lake Ztway in 1991, collecting data on landing sites, fishing vessels and gear, fishermen, size of family, tribe, etc. Although the survey was partly carried out by Regional Office staff, the cost was met from central funds Under present conditions It is Impossible for FRDD to set up and operate the kind of monitoring system now urgently needed to save the fisheries from over-fishing and the resultant slock depletion. FRDD has sufficient qualified and enthusiastic staff, both centrally and regionally. They lack two vital components; (I) enabling legislation (see below); (II) the means of visiting fishing sites on a regular basis for sampling surveys.
36Technical details of a monitoring system which would be appropriate io the Rift Valley Lakes are given below In Section B.
7*2             Legislation
7.2.1          Fisheries Law
Apart from one Decree (13/1989; see below), Ethiopia has no legislation solely dedicated to fisheries. Legislation then ihought suitable for Ethiopia was dratted by FAO In 1983 (Khan. 1983). This document included Draft Decrees for:-
maritime zones (now redundant);
fisheries management and development;
fisheries regulations;
establishment  of  FPMC  (at  the  time  the  only  permitted option lor developing the fisheries).
In 1989 FPMC was finally officially established by "FPMC Establishment Council of State Special Decree 13/1989’. This differs notably from the draft in FAO (1983) by not requiring FPMC Io assist in the development of fishermen s cooperatives’ The main points are summarised in Schedule 3
It Is ironic that a Slate corporation such as FPMC should gain legal status so shortly before the change In economic policy which the former Government began io adopt in 1990. As the revised schedule for Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project will treat FPMC as a potential borrower rather than a recipient of grant aid. it would be appropriate to review the Corporation b legal status, to enable II to compete with the existing private sector on a fairer tooting.
Concerning fisheries regulation, the main problem is the complete absence of proposals for any management system that would be endorsed by appropriate legislation The present evolved system of fisheries authorisation and control is not altogether clear Often it is the strongest bodies that prevail, regardless of supposed rules and authority. When a fishermen s association Inslsis on beach-seining despite probable damage to fish stocks, or when a fisherman or fishermen's association uses too small a mesh size, FRDD has no legal sanction to prevent them There is no law empowering FRDD to make rules. Fishermen's associations have de facto control over local fishing regulations and charges, although FRDD tries io Influence them when possible, under MOA guidelines. The admission of local entrepreneurs and other private investors into the economy from 1990 onwards changed lhe scenario in which approved fisheries development could lake place (Section 6.1.1.2).
The need for fisheries legislation has become much more urgent following the recent unregulated expansion ol inland fisheries. Without enabling
37legislation FRDD has no basis even to formulate fishing regulations
legislation alone Is not enough to redress the situation and exercise
control as FRDD have no physical means of carrying out their duty to
regulate the fisheries
7.3             Sources of Credit for Fisheries
7.3 1 Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank (AIDB)
In Ethiopia each of the banks was formed to specialise in a particular area of business, rather lhan being in competition with the others The Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank concentrated on medium to long-term loans i.e. over 7 yrs. the Commercial Bank of Ethiopia (CBE) operated for short term business and the Housing and Savings 8ank specialised in property loans.
The AIDB at present has no direct involvement in financing investment in the fisheries sector, although in 1978 It made a loan of ElhBIrr 0.6 million to the newly-established FPMC. More recently the AIDB has made efforts to offer credit facilities to the inland and former marine artisanal fisheries. In 1985. the Bank explored lhe possibility of supporting inland fisheries In the Rift Valley, but at the time the fishermen, resisting pressure to form production brigades within Production Cooperatives, were not sufficiently organised for the Bank to be able to do business with them
Because of the strict rules under which the Bank was obliged to handle business with Individuals (eg 35% deposit; collateral of 125% of loan value), the only practicable way of funding small scale fishermen, who generally could not offer collateral, was to deal with fishermen's associations having a legal identity. From the Bank's point of view, this Is likely to continue as it reduces appraisal and other administrative costs (which are not passed on to the customer), but former Government rules were sufficiently lenient to fishermen's associations that the Bank was forced to take more risk in the transaction than h would with an individual. In such a case, the Bank would require only 10% deposit, plus an endorsement from the Ministry relevant to the project. Another serious constraint on the Bank has been the requirement for International Competitive Bidding procedures to be Invoked for all purchases over US$10,000 In value.
Apart from IFAD, lines of credit for agricultural and Industrial development have been arranged through ADF, IDA (small scale Industries in the southern region), OPEC (agricultural machinery) and EC (peasants and cooperatives, of which USS5-6 million In the Shoa region). A proposed line of credit worth US$2 million through the National Westminster Bank (UK) was suspended in 1990 following withdrawal of support by the Export Credit Guarantee Department of the British Government.
Under the former Government's new economic policy the Bank felt it would be still more constrained In the way it could support agriculture and fisheries, because of additional rules governing the Issue of Investment
38licences.  It  seemed  extremely  unlikely  that  loans  for  fisheries  investment would be offered to individuals In the foreseeable future.
In July 1990 the interest rate for an AIDS loan to a fishermen’s association could be as low as 5%, with up to 10 years to repay the capital, depending on the cash flow forecast tor the project Against a savings rate of 6% and price Inflation generally estimated then at over 10%. these terms were very favourable indeed to the borrower. It was clear that Ethiopian Interest rates were somewhat distorted, and thought likely that they would rise in the future, possibly up to 12% In March 1992, large AIDB loans tor investment capital carried an interest rate of 7% with up to 7 years' grace. For working capital the rate Is now 12% for a 6 month term
7.3.2         International Agencies' Revolving Funds
Phase i of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project included a provision ol ECU 47,000 lor use in a revolving fund for importing lishlng gear, to be sold on credit to inland fishermen Loans were free of Interest with one year for repayment, inland fishermen reimbursed the total amount of their loans from the EEC revolving fund, except In the case of Zlway, where 15% remained outstanding In 1990 Unfortunately, this fund was turned over only once during a period of five years
Under Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project a further ECU 350.000 is to be provided (Table 8), but the original plan will be changed so that possibly the major part of the ECU 3.7 million allocated to FPMC will be lodged al AIDB as a fisheries development fund 10 provide credit for Investors In fisheries FPMC will be entitled like any other legal entity to apply for loans, it Is possible that the full ECU 3.7 million Is too much to be absorbed in this way during the Projecl period, in which case some of it may be made available to FRDD to augment their original allocation.
7.4            External Assistance and Flows
7 4 1 EEC; inland Fisheries Development
7.4 1.1 Background
Phase i ol the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project concentrated on the main lakes in the Rift Valley, starting In 19B1 The main objectives were:
to increase fish production in Lakes Ziway and Abaya by approximately 1,000 tonnes/year through Improved fishing practices, boat building facilities and a maintenance workshop;
to facilitate marketing by providing an ice plant, cold storage and retail facilities at Arba Minch. Zlway and Addis Ababa;
39lo  establish  and  strengthen  the  institutional  and  organisational base far long-term employment;
to Initiate and continue studies relating to resource potential on Lakes Ziway and Abaya
The total contribution from EEC was ECU 1.74 million, of which 76% was
spent on equipment, buildings and fishing gear, the remainder on training
Most of the installations constructed under Phase 1 became assets of
FPMC, and are described in Table 10.
In the evaluation report (Alllx/AMFISH 1987), it was concluded that
analysis of fish production statistics and the profit and loss accounts of FPMC before, during and after Implementation of the project showed no significant Increase In production, revenue or profitability;
the research undertaken was too limited and made no provision for a continuing programme; training of counterpart staff was Inadequate; the justification for continuous surveillance remains
unaltered;
introduction of improved fishing techniques could have been more successful if a wider spectrum of fishermen and potential Instructors had been fully trained in their use No extension service exists to help towards this goal;
value added by the project represented 0.015% of GDP, 0.037% of agricultural output and 23% of hunting and fishing output in
1984/85.
The   evaluation   report   found   that   the   results   of   Phase   1   justified   the following programme for further development:
development of Lake Tana fisheries, further support to Rift Valley by providing gear, boats and training facilities to fishermen; further development of the proven marketing and distribution system not only to Addis Ababa but to other urban centres; a permanent monitoring end research service,
Introduction  of  commercial  aquaculture  by  establishing  a  pilot fish farm upon which to base a national programme;
appraisal of the marine fisheries and a programme towards their rehabilitation and continuing development.
74.1.2 Objectives and Strategy
The  main  objectives  of  Phase  2  of  the  EEC  Inland  Fisheries  Resource Development Project were originally listed as follows;
40Establishment of two research stations (FRDD):
hullding laboratory, library, office and necessary facilities at Awassa and Bahir Dar; al both stations one experimental aquaculture unit to Initiate fish farming and seedling production; laboratory and office equipment;
equipment   for   investigatory   and   exploratory   fishing   trials, including boats and fishing gear;
linking   with   a   European   Institute   to   organise   and   conduct research on lake stock assessment.
Development of fishermen's cooperatives
train staff in appropriate gear technology and fishing practices.
pass  on  this  knowledge  to  fishing  cooperatives  and  constantly assess results.
Provision of inputs to fishermen:
provide boats and fishing gear;
make arrangements with AIDB to create a revolving fund for continued provision ol inputs, and improvement of facilities under the private marketing system.
Improved boat building techniques:
Improve the unit at Ziway;
establish a new unit at Bahir Dar
Create a fishing section within FPMC;
construct   landing,   sheds,   workshops   and   net   maklng/repair facilities al the existing site at Bahir Dar;
expand the facilities on the Rift Valley lakes to Include fettles at Langano and Awassa and a landing facility at Arba Minch.
Improve marketing facilities for fish products:
provide and operate a fish receiving complex with processing and cold storage facilities at the existing site at Bahir Dar to handle FPMC caiches;
expand  existing  FPMC  central  cold  storage  facilities  and  office complex in Addis Ababa to Include associated services;
41establish 15 new FPMC retail shops at urban centres both near the producing centres and addls Ababa and environs
expand  and  Improve  FPMC  fish  receiving  complex  at  Arba Minch with new offices for branch headquarters,
Improve existing FPMC fish receiving station at Ziway;
study   FPMC’s   processing,   handling,   market   research   and
publicity;
provide   FPMC   with   necessary   transport   and   cold   storage
vehicles
Technical assistance and training to support FRDD and FPMC: ~
120  man-months  including  Fisheries  Planner/Coordinator  (36 m/m); Fresh Water Biologist supported by a European Institute (40m/m);   Master   Fisherman   (6m/m);   Boat   Builder   (32m/m); Refrigeration Mechanic
training abroad and locally for about 14 people In freshwater biology, gear technology, boat building, refrigeration ate; local training lor fishermen.
The total costs were estimated al ECU 7.3 million from EEG plus a Government contribution of EthBIrr 10.5 million (US$5.1 million). Table 8 gives details of components of capital and recurrent budgets, with a five year plan From the EEC contribution. ECU 1.4 million were scheduled for FRDD. ECU 3.7 million lor FPMC (see above), with the rest (ECU 1.5 million) for technical assistance, training and the revolving fund.
7.4.1.3 Progress
Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Project started early in 1990, but there has been a temporary delay pending re-definition of strategy appropriate to the Transitional Government, and the consequent re-allocation of project funds. In particular It is now proposed to re-allocate the whole of the funds originally destined as a further grant to FPMC. Instead, these ECU 3.7 million are to be split between a fund to provide credit to fisheries Investors (Including FPMC). and Increased spending on fisheries management/infrastructure. However, the technical assistance component Is already under way, with 4 members of FRDD staff overseas for training In biology, statistics and fishing gear technology
7.4.2         Bilateral Assistance
74.2.1       Germany
GTZ  has  provided  funding  to  establish  a  Research  Centre  at  the  Water Technology Institute at Arba Minch, which will Include limnology studies in
42Ils programme for Lakes Chamo and Abaya In 1990 there was one German expert at the Agricultural College at Awassa. where the curriculum includes a small fisheries component
7.4,2.2       Italy
The current three-year cooperation plan has been agreed until the end of 1992. It Includes an annual arrangement for two or three FRDD personnel from Regional Administrations to spend 7 months In Italy training In lish technology, but has no capital component.
7.4 2.3       Other
From Table 12 It will be seen thal a large number of FRDD staff have benefitted from training In fish technology In the former USSR This was a seven year course leading io an MSc degree There are agreements with Egypt for one person per year, and with Yugoslavia for one or two persons per year to attend short courses in fish technology. Candidates are selected from Regional Administrations in cooperation with the training Department of MOA In 1984, Danida supported a series ol workshops to train FRDD extension workers In fish drying, smoking and salting
7-4.3          Other External Flows: NGO’s
The other main external assistance to Ethiopian fisheries comes through projects of Non-Government Organisations. NGO’s concerned with fisheries are particularly active around Lake Tana and the Rift Valley
7 4 3 1       Ethiopian Orthodox Church/lnter Kirk Urk
In 1986. under an annually renewable agreement with MOA. EOC/DICAD with assistance from a similar church organisation In the fishing town of Urk In the Netherlands, started a fishing project on Lake Tana, based at Bahir Dar The pro|ect. which receives further technical support from FRDD, has as Its objectives;
to enable MOA to assess fish stocks In Lake Tana and to obtain information on the bottom profile;
to train fishermen and extension workers;
to  improve  the  diet  of  the  local  population  by  Increasing  its protein content.
The cost of all imponed materials and expatriate staff Is borne by the Dutch The local contribution from EOC includes offices, management inland transport, a guest house and 5 committee members at the Addis Ababa headquarters The research arm of the project comprises 8 persons, including the Team Leader, who Is a staff member of FRDD.
437,4 4
The project has now extended to Lake Chamo to assist development o* the fishery  there  Because  of  rough  conditions  on  Lakes  Abaya  and  Chamo during windy periods it has been Impossible for fishermen to retrieve their nets  using  the  traditional  agave  rah  Nels  were  sometimes  leh  1or  3  days before  they  could  be  collected,  by  which  lime  lhe catch was al little  use The NGO is now carrying out trials with fishing boats on Lake Chamo Universities and Training Institutes
In the Science Faculiy of the University ol Addis Ababa (UAA) Is the Department of Biology, which includes the Aquatic Biology Unit. Since its establishment in 1933 the Unit has steadily built a capability In Ethiopia for training and research in aquatic biology. The Unit’s ma)or work, completed In 1939. has been the Freshwater Fisheries Limnology Project (FFLP), financed by Cl DA through the collaborative Institute, Waterloo University, With a staff of three, the Unit had by 1990 produced lour Ph D’s and a further ten M.Sc graduates, all of whom became academic staff in various Ethiopian institutions of higher education such as the Awassa College of Agriculture, and the Arba Minch Water Technology Instftule
Resulting from the work of the FFLP. there Is now good published Information on the limnology, primary and secondary production of Rift Valley lakes. In particular Lakes Awassa, Zlway, Langano and Shala. There Is an Informal link with the research project on Lake Tana (Section 7.4.3,1). There was also collaborative field work with fisheries biologists from the former USSR, to study the taxonomy of various lakes.
Despite the Aquatic Biology Unit's accumulated experience it has no institutional relationship with FRDD None of the Unit's graduates has Joined FROD, nor has any student come from FRDD. In 1985, when Waterloo staff were resident at AAU, the Unit ran a special short course for FRDD but this has been the only formal link between lhe two. The connection which does exist Is Informal During field work in the Rift Valley the Unit's staff enjoy good relationships with FRDD staff
448                 IMPROVING FISHERIES MONITORING
0.1              Objectives of Monllorlng Fisheries Resources
If  the  Government  is  to  take  waiMnformed  decisions  on  regulation  and development of capture fisheries. it musi first have reliable Inlormalion on;-
ihe state of the fishery resources;
the economic performance of the primary sector;
the contribution of llsherles to the national food supply;
net earnings of foreign exchange from fisheries
The state of the fishery resources Is fundamental, as It determines the way In which the fishery itself reacts to changes Imposed upon It. The crucial question is always the same Will increased fishing pressure produce more fish, or will the total weight yield decline? In the case of the Rih Valley fisheries there is ■ danger, for at least Lake Awassa and possibly Lakes Ziway and Chamo, that Increased fishing effort during the last few years may already have led to a reduction in total catch.
Without knowledge of the economic performance of the fisheries sector, It is Impossible for a government to judge the effects of its actions relating to the sector. Information is required on fish prices at appropriate stages in the marketing chain and how prices respond to changes in supply, in the past there have been no systematically cotlecled fish price/suppiy data in Ethiopia, partly because the Informal market In fish was not officially recognised Official statistics included only supplies of fish bought and sold by the FPMC at fixed prices. Now that the Government is embarking on a free market policy, the need for price/suppiy Information is important. It is equally important tor the Government to have estimates of the capital and operating costs of fishermen
Although Ethiopia's fisheries will never make a major contribution to the national diet, knowledge of the volume of fish supplies provides at least a rough estimate of that contribution. More detailed information on consumption by region is the responsibility of the CSA,
Apart from some trial exports of tilapia to Saudi Arabia, there has been no international trade In Rift Valley fish Some of the Inputs required by Rift Valley fishermen can only be satisfied by Imports, especially of fishing gear. If the Government wishes the fishery resources to be exploited so as to balance foreign exchange requirements. Il is Important to collect Information on both Imports of Inputs and exports of produce related to fisheries.
45B.2             Constraints on Monitoring Fisheries Resources
8.2.1          Budgetary Constraints
The very limited budget of FRDD has already been noted (Section 2.1 6), covering activities that do not Include rigorous monitoring of the fisheries. There is no set rule as to the optimal level for spending on a monitoring programme, eg as a proportion of the contribution of fisheries to the national economy. However, in the development stage of a Rift Valley lakes monitoring programme It will be necessary to spend much more than FRDD’s present budget will allow
8.2,2         Trained Manpower Constraints
Amongst FRDD’s technical staff In 1990 were:-
11  at  Addis  Ababa,  one  of  whom  took  a  second  degree  In Fisheries Management;
8 at Ziway (Lakes Zlway and Langano);
4 at Awassa (Lake Awassa),
2 at Arba Minch (Lakes Abaya and Chamo).
The Workshop on Fishery Statistics and Information Systems run by FAO/1FIP In Addis Ababa (22-26 Oct 1990) was attended by 21 of FRDD’s technical staff 19 of whom came from regional offices From the high degree of motivation evident on the course, it appears that FRDD already has enough stall suitable to begin setting up and running a fisheries monitoring system, although some further training will be necessary This has already started under Phase 2 of the EEC Inland Fisheries Resource Development Protect, with 4 members of staff training overseas, one In mathematical statistics.
B.2.3         Geographical and Time Constraints
A fisheries monitoring system requires frequent access to various fishing sites on the lakes for collecting data Whilst some sites in (he Rift Valley
can be visited by road vehicle, others can only be reached by boat Part
of the monitoring system requires that sites be visited monthly, so that seasonal changes in the fisheries can be followed consistently.
8.2.4          Overall Effect of Constraints
The combination of factors outlined above force the design of a monitoring system which will produce results of acceptable accuracy within tight limits of budget, personnel, space and time The outcome for fish stock assessment is inevitably a sampling scheme tailored to make the maximum use of each Item of data, and to collect no more data than the minimum
+6required  for  the  precision  of  estimate  needed  ar  accepted  as  lhe  best affordable
8.3             Fishery Models
At  a  very  low  effort  fishing  on  a  virgin  stock,  the  catch  per  unit  effort (CPUE) Is high, as older and larger fish are present at their maximum level As  fishing  pressure  increases,  fish  have  less  chance  to  grow  old.  so  the average  age  and  size  of  fish  available  for  capture  Is  reduced  The  CPUE therefore goes down but the total catch From the fishery rises towards lhe maximum  sustainable  yield  (MSY).  Further  increases  In  effort  produce  a decline   In   total   catch   from   the   Increasingly   sparse   population   of   ever younger  fish  Further  overfishing  captures  fish  before  they  have  grown  old enough lo reproduce, eventually annihilating the fishery.
In order to predict the way in which a fishery will respond to changes in fishing effort imposed upon II, results from data collected by the monitoring system must be used to calibrate a model of the fishery The objective of the model is to estimate the optimal level of fishing effort Broadly speaking, there are two types of model, one of which requires much less data and specialised knowledge than the other
8.3.1          Dynamic Pool Model
In this type of model which is based on consideration of the characteristics of individual fish of Individual species, mortality and growth are separately modelled for the various year-classes In a fishery. Amongst the parameters Is the age at first capture, which by Inclusion means that dynamic pool models can predict the effect of changes in the mesh size of nets used In lhe fishery. Models of this type are very Informative, but unnecessarily complex for the purpose of representing the behaviour of the Rift Valley fisheries.
8.3.2          Surplus Production Model
A surplus production model can be regarded as an overview of a fishery. Rather than attempt to model individual fish characteristics such as age or length, the approach is to consider the whole slock of fish as a single biomass entity. There are two forms of surplus production model In common use, named after their Inventors, Schaefer and Fox.
In the Schaefer model the catch per unit effort declines linearly with increasing effort, until a point of annihilation is reached. The Fox model, using an exponential decay, does not predict elimination of the slock as effort is Increased. The only Information needed In either case is a set of points giving total catch and total effort for the fishery in question. The data points can be obtained from historical records or direct observation, but when used for fish stock management they are normally derived from routine sampling of the fishery In a monitoring system.
47Figure  10  shows  total  catch  versus  fishing  effort  predicted  by a Schaefer model, Indicating MSY
Another important parameter for fisheries management Is the maximum economic yield (MEY), the total catch corresponding to the effort which maximises the economic yield (or net benefit l.e. total benefits minus total costs) This point Is indicated In Figure 11 Any Increase In effort beyond MEY will lead to b diminished net benefit, eventually reaching zero at the point where total costs equal total benefits (Figure 11).
Figures 12 and 13 give an example of each model applied to historical data
□n  the  chambo  (Oreochromis  spp.  I  e  tilapia)  fishery  of  Lake  Malawi (Alimoso 1991), Note the decline In actual CPUE with increasing effort and the  large  variation  of  actual  yield  about  the  predicted  yield  curves.  It  Is clear  that  there  are  factors  other  than  eflori  determining  CPUEr  amongst which Is lhe extreme annual variation in success of reproduction typical of fish populations
8 4             Surveys Comprising the Monitoring System
8.4.1          Baseline Survey
In order to fully appreciate and follow the economic performance of the primary sector, It Is necessary to collect a much wider range of Information than is needed purely for fish stock assessment. A baseline survey is designed to gather a set of indicators related to demography, social welfare, economy and environment of lhe fishing community. It is based on a structured questionnaire devised specifically for the fishery in question, and must be carried out in as short a time as possible, to avoid Including temporal changes in the background scenario.
Il will be noted that baseline surveys require Intensive resources in both enquiry and analysis. Furthermore they must be repeated every 3 to 5
years so as to discover how changes In the fishery have affected the fishing community No such survey has over been conducted In the Ethiopian fisheries.
0.4 2          Frame Survey
Before a sampling survey can be designed, a frame survey must be carried out, the object of which is to define the framework within which sampling will be set. The frame survey consists of a complete census of fishermen and fishing craft, classified by area, landing site, fishing gear used and any other relevant hierarchical division.
It Is usual to divide a lake into parts, either arbitrarily, or for each part to have an equal length of shore, or If possible to recognise special features of the lake known from previous work on e g limnology or biology.
Within  a  specified  part  of  a  lake  a  number  of  fishing  sites  are  located These must be classified as permanent fishing sites where fishermen and
46their families live with no Intention ol moving, or as fishing camps such as those found around Lake Chamo, which are occupied lor short periods by groups of fishermen who return periodically to their families in Arba Minch
The Fishery Economic Unit (FEU) is defined, which mighl consist ol a boat
its owner and his assistant, but in the present slate of the Rih Valley
fisheries would be usually one man and bis rah. It is important to classify each fisherman as full time, part-time or occasional. Different kinds of boats and gear, and the amount of gear owned by a FEU must be recorded
Once the classification has been determined, a structured and coded questionnaire Is designed The team of enumerators must then visit all fishing sites in as short a period as possible. Benefits horn the results of a frame survey Include firstly a rapid appreciation ol the spatial, temporal and technical structure of the fishery, and secondly an opportunity to design and operate a much more efficient catch sampling scheme than would otherwise be possible,
fl.4 3         Catch Assessment Survey
Because of seasonal variations in fish abundance and the mobility of fishermen around lakes. It Is impossible to obtain good estimates of either catch or llshlng effort without a regular monthly survey. To minimise operating costs, the catch assessment survey must gather no more data than absolutely necessary to obtain the required or acceptable accuracy. This Is best done by stratified sampling within the strata defined by the frame survey (e.g. areas, sites, gear type). Table 9 shows the benefit ol stratified sampling against purely random sampling. The example given in Table 9 shows a stratified sample of 15 catches during a fixed period (5 using lines, 7 using glllnets, 3 using beach seine). The object is to estimate the total catch from the 70 users of lines. 120 users of gillnets and 10 users of beach seine In the dlslrlcl. Using all the Information Inherent In the stratified sample and the population from which it came, the total catch Is estimated at 1,710 ± 214. I.e. between 1,496 and 1,924 (95% confidence limits).
If the same data had been collected purely as a random sample, with no knowledge of the numbers in the different strata, the estimate of the total catch would have been 2.120 ± 720, I.e. between 1,400 and 2,640 at the same confidence level. This would have been a serious overestimate, In this case above the upper confidence limit of the estimate from stratified daia. Note also the greatly superior precision of estimate from the stratified sample, over three times better than random sampling In this case.
8.4.4        Sample Size for Required Precision
Calculating the traction of the total population of FEU’s to sample is an important factor in the survey process. The optimum size of sample will depend on:-
the way In which FEU's are disposed between strata;
49the differing varialion in catch (or effort) between strata;
the precision o( estimate of catch (or effort) required,
the average value of the catch (or effort) per FEU per sampling
visit
Il is beyond the scope of this report To discuss the mathematics of sample size calculation. Further Information will be found in FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 306/1.
6.5             Example of an Existing Lake Fishery Monitoring System
A monitoring system for the artisanal fishery of Lake Malawi, set up with help from FAO. has been in operation since 1976 (Alimoso 1991). For survey purposes the lake is split into major and minor strata according to differences between areas in Fishing intensity, fishing method and physical characteristics. A frame survey is carried out annually by field staff, on foot or bicycle Following the frame survey. 4 fishing sites are selected Irom each minor stratum for catch assessment survey during the following 12 months. Sites are classified as large or small, and 2 sires are selected from each size group with a probability proportional to the number of FEU’s belonging to the site
Every month the 4 srtes are visited for sampling catch and effort, with the order of vishing chosen at random al the beginning of the month.
Each site is visited on 4 consecutive days, collecting data as follows:- day 1: count all FEU'S present (boats, fishermen, gear);
days 2, 3 and 4: record operational FEU’S in order of leaving she select FEU's for sampling according to how many went fishing (max sample is 5 FEU's when more than 8 go fishing), record catch weight by species, record effort (number of gill nets used, or number of hauls of seine net).
It thus takes the first 16 days of each month to survey lhe 4 sampling sites. Although the source document does not say, this operation is best carried out by a team ol 2 field staff who would be available for other duties during the other half of the month.
Knowing the total number of FEU’s In a minor stratum, it is a simple matter to calculate its total estimated monthly catch and effort. In this way annual
statistics of catch and effort are built up for the whole lake, until It is time for a new annual frame survey, when the entire process is repeated, and 4
different sties visited for catch assessment survey during the following year.
509
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9,1              Pricing
Fish prices should be sei tree so that they can reach stable realistic levels In the short term this would be hkely to lead Io appreciable price rises,
assuming  that  present  demand  In  urban  centres  exceeds  supply  So  lar  11
has not been possible to estimate the present total catch from the Rift Valley lakes, nor to obtain useful estimates of potential yield. The only certainty is a large uncontrolled increase in fishing effort since May 1992
Bearing in mind present tears that this unqualified increase In fishing effort may already have caused over-fishing In some lakes (Ziway, Awassa and Chamo), an immediate rise in consumer prices could have some short term advantages, as It would at least lessen the rate of Increase In demand, thereby reducing pressure on the Rih Valley llsheries unlll a monitoring programme could be Instituted to determine the MSY lor each of the lakes, (Sections 9.3 & 9.4). In the absence of any other control over the fisheries, there is no other immediate beneficial action available to the Government.
9.2              Legislation
It is nine years since FAO dratted fisheries legislation then appropriate to Ethiopia. The need (or fisheries legislation has never been more urgent than H Is now. For the purposes of subsistence fishing there Is open access io the Rift Valley lakes, Before 1991 lhase llsheries were thought to be exploited at levels below MSY, so that open access was not a problem. However, an open access fishery left to itself will expand to the point welt beyond MSY. at which total earnings are no greater than total costs. Whilst ihis condition proves acceptable io subsistence fishermen, It cannot sustain those fishing for trade, as their financial yield Is reduced to zero (Figure 11).
The uncontrolled expansion of the fisheries since May 1991. with much of the extra effort directed towards subsistence, will inexorably lead to the undesirable consequence of below-maxlmum total yield with zero nel economic benefit. The former Government’s rule that only members of approved fishermen's associations could trade their catch, was a form of limited access, if the commercial fisheries are to continue, it wilt eventually ba necessary to restrict access to the lakes by limiting fishing effort on a wider scale.
New fisheries legislation should take account of this difficult problem, as there is no point in monitoring fisheries without the ability to limit fishing
effort.
In general terms, new fisheries law should:*
designate FRDD as the sole fisheries regulating body;
51require FRDD to monitor the fisheries so as to obtain annual statistics on total catch and fishing effort, acceptable for use in fisheries regulation and fish stock management.
require FRDD to manage the fisheries with the objective of maximising their sustainable yield, and eventually their sustainable economic yield:
empower FRDD to set fisheries regulations (mesh sizes, nursery
areas etc );
empower FRDD to limit total fishing effort;
require all commercial fishermen to be registered, and empower FRDD to register all other fishermen:
set   rules   for   the   constitution   and   running   of   fishermen’s associations;
change the status of FPMC (Section 9.8)
Under more general legislation, the minimum scale of operation required lor an Intending fishery Investor to qualify for tax incentives should be reduced to a level compatible with a sate Increment in fishing effort in the fishery concerned.
9.3            Development Potential of the Lakes
9 3.1          Ziway and Awassa
These are the only eutrophic and therefore highly productive lakes supporting commercial fisheries in the Rift Valley. In 1990 they produced an estimated 50% of the total marketed catch from Rift Valley lakes, mainly tilapia Both are near Addis Ababa and consequently under pressure from growing demand for fish in the capital. With the recent escalation of fishing effort it is feared that both may now be subject to over fishing.
To safeguard future fish supplies it is Important to investigate the status of the stocks In these two lakes before considering further development;
research facilities in the form of buildings and equipment should be provided as soon as possible at Awassa so that the FRDD team there can begin work on monitoring all relevant aspects of Lakes Ziway and Awassa;
boat building facilities at Ziway should be Improved as planned, and in consultation with the NGO project on Lake Chamo, as the original boat design produced at Ziway proved unsuitable for the southern lakes Abaya and Chamo.
52initial emphasis on the commercial fisheries should be towards rehabilitation and Improvement of Infrastructure such as Jetties and stores for fish and gear
9.3.2           Chamo
The furthest of the Rih Valley lakes from Addis Ababa, Chamo is also the least researched, but the presence of Nile perch is bound to attract continued commercial pressure. Allhough In 1990 there was no Impression of excessive fishing effort on Chamo, it is now feared that even this lake may be in danger of over-fishing If developments are allowed to continue unregulated and un-monltored As elsewhere there are no quantitative data to confirm this. It Is therefore important:
to extend monitoring and research to Lake Chamo as soon as possible so as to establish the status ol the IIsh slocks before considering further development
Pending results from monitoring, It would be reasonable to:
provide  Infrastructure  In  the  form  of  one  or  more  jetties  to accommodate boats suitable for operation on the lake;
construct  all-weather  access  tracks  from  the  main  road  to  the lake shore to facilitate access for the fishermen;
provide   secure   storage   facilities   for   Itsh   and   gear   at   the principal landing places.
9.3.3          Abaya
Lake Abaya may be the only lake In the Rift Valley suitable for short term fisheries development, (if only because there are no reported fears of over fishing at present), however no quantitative data are presently available to support this statement. It Is therefore necessary to:
set  up  a  pilot  project  to  assess  the  fisheries  potential  of  Lake Abaya before embarking on any major development.
If prospects are good, more access roads will be needed together with other Infrastructure, especially io open up the northern portion of the lake to potential markets at Soddo and towns to the north-west.
9.3.4          Langano
There Is very little primary production in Lake Langano so that the lake supports only a small fish population. Despite its proximity to Addis Ababa, Lake Langano will never provide the resources needed for a significant commercial fishery. Beyond providing a jetty and shore Infrastructure for limited and possibly seasonal use, there are no opportunities for fisheries
53development,  Since  the  lake  Is  not  attractive  to  wildlife.  Its  main  potential lias In recreational use, especially as it Is so near to Addis Ababa
9 3 5 Ablyala and Shala
Lake Shala has no potential Interest to fisheries, having very little biological production Lake Ablyata under favourable conditions (sufficient water) can support a huge population ot tilapia, but this highly variable stock Is reserved as food lor wiid aquatic birds.
Even under entirely natural conditions (no Interference Irom irrigation or mineral, soda ash. extraction), Lake Ablyata's fish supply would be so unpredictable that any attempted commercial fishery could not guarantee sustainability irom one year to the next For more details refer to the Appendices on Wildlife Tourism and Wildlife. Conservation and the Environment
9,4            Fisheries Management
Even if fisheries legislation existed, It would be Impossible for FRDD personnel to carry out its duties of regulation and management for lack ol physical means. Vehicles, boats and equipment will be provided by EEC Phase 2, whilsl It may be more appropriate for UNDP/FAO to provide any technical assistance that may be needed in setting up an unbiased monitoring system This will probably be required In the Initial stage of statistical design (determination of sample sizes, sampling and analysis procedures).
The most urgent task facing FRDD is to perform a survey of the Rift Valley fisheries In as short a time as possible, with the object of finding out approximately:
how many Fishermen are active;
how much fish they are catching;
how the marketed catch is being distributed;
al what prices il is sold,
the constraints Imposed by limited infrastructure.
Although the authorities are well aware of the nature of problems affecting fisheries, they need more quantitative Information before being able to take well planned action to allocate resources
Ail fishermen who market part or all of their catch must be registered, and should be free to join fishermen s associations If they wish, Under appropriate legislation, fishermen s associations would generally offer more benefits to their members than hitherto.
54An unbiased fisheries monitoring system should be set up. with the help of technical assistance from FAO or other expert agency After the set-up phase. In order to ensure the necessary continuity, the monitoring system should be run under the central control, and using the central resources of FRDD Sources of recurrent funding should be determined
Under enabling legislation, FRDD should publish and when necessary modify fisheries regulations. FRDD should enforce fisheries regulations, resorting to such legal sanctions that may be required against offending parties
FRDD should undertake certain research activities and cooperate with other institutions such as Addis Ababa University. Research studies could Include limnology, biology, market potential by segments, technical, financial and economic feasibility of possible future developments such as aquaculture or new product development.
Integrity of the Lake Habitats
The Government should recognise the special sensitivity of fisheries to changes in lake water level and quality Under EEC Phase 2, FRDD will have the resources necessary to check water quality and level on a regular basis. Where irrigation schemes are likely to affect lake levels, the trade-off between the potential loss of fisheries output needs to be weighed against the potential net gain from the Irrigation.
9.6             Credit
The artisanal fisheries of the Rift Valley cannot develop in properly regulated manner without the appropriate Inputs. Fishermen and fishermen's associations need fishing gear approved for use under prevailing regulations. Fish traders need more suitable vehicles and fish storage facilities.
All  those  currently  active  in  the  artisanal  fisheries  have  urgent  need  of credit, without which few of their Inputs can be obtained.
EEC Phase 2 will provide such credit through AIDB. which should set up a fund to provide a line of credit to registered fisherfolk, fish processors and traders to assist them In purchasing necessary Inputs. The fund should be administered by AIDB. which would probably prefer to deal with fishermen’s associations  rather  than  Individual  fishermen.  In  order  to  minimise  costs All  registered  organisations.  Including  FPMC  should  be  able  to  apply  for loans.
EEC/AIDB should set up a separate fund to provide credit to new Ethiopian Investment In fisheries, after approval by FRDD and AIDB after technical, financial, economic and environmental appraisal.
559.7             Infrastructure
Although post-harvest losses are not known, they could certainly be reduced by Improved stowage of fish. There Is b need for more Ice making and fish storage facilities In the RIH Valley, particularly now that Ethiopians are eating more fish.
Shore Infrastructure and services should be provided to selected fishermen's associations or groups of fishermen's associations, such as gear stores, fish washing facilities, Insulated or chilled fish stores and Ice making equipment. It would be preferable to site installations on land belonging to the associations, so that after a period of leasing from the Government, the facilities would become the property of 'he associations.
Fishermen’s associations should be required to make some contribution themselves at the outset, such as labour to assist In construction of jetties and buildings.
Access to some of the lakes Is very poor, and new fishing sites have appeared In remote parts of other lakes. There is a need for new access tracks to places where the approved fish landings provide sufficient justification Vehicular access to all shore facilities should be assured throughout the year.
9.a             Fish Processing and Marketing Corporation (FPMC)
Production and marketing of Rift Valley fish is a task best accomplished through the motivation and resources of private enterprise, a fact consistently and ably demonstrated by the growth of the flourishing informal network of catching, distribution and marketing. It is better to improve the informal system under free market conditions than to prolong Government support for FPMC, which remains an organ of the State (under existing legislation the General Manager off FPMC Is appointed by the Minister of Agriculture)
Therefore II is recommended that FPMC should be privatised so that It can compete on equal terms with the private sector.
9.9 Improved Technology
Research and development should be continued to find fishing boats and gear besi suited technically and economically to the various lakes Studies should be conducted to establish standards for, eg. fish storage and transport, in order to Improve quality and reduce losses at all stages in the productlon/distrlbution chain.
9.10 Training
Expertise will bB required in financial economic and environmental appraisal of fisheries investment proposals, both in FRDD and AIDES.
56Effective   extension   services   must   be   provided   by   FRDD   for   fishermen processors and traders
9J1 Project Profiles
The preceding conclusions and recommendations for the development of the lisheries resources of the Rift Valley are reflected in the five project profiles for the sector Included in Appendix 0. The live projects/programmes identified for further study/lmplementation are:
1.            Inland   Fisheries   Resource   Development   Programme,   this   covers much   the   same   activities   as   are   already   scheduled   In  the  EEC Fisheries Development Programme.
2.           FPMC Privatisation Study; this proposal would assist In relaxing the current  marketing  restrictions  Hnd  would  lead  lo  a  more  efficient
system.
3.          Fisheries Legislation.
4   Fisheries   Resource   Monitoring   System;   a   sound   monitoring   system coupled   with   legislation   to   enable   proper   management   of   lhe resources should ensure the long term sustainability of the fisheries in the Rift Valley.
5.   Aquaculture   Study,   this   study   and   any   subsequent   implementable project    would    help    to    diversify    the    potential    for    fisheries development In the lakes
57i
iREFERENCES
AHmoso S B, (1991) Catch Effort data and their use in the management of fisheries  In Malawi Catch Effort Sempffng S/rafeg/es; th err appficafron in freshwater fisheries  management. (Ed. by  I G Cowx) pp 393 403 Fishing News Books.
Elliott J M (1971)
r
of Benthic Association. 25
Soma Methods for the Statistical Analysis of samples Invertebrates, Sch Pub. of Freshwater 9/oiogicaf
Sparrs P. Ursin E and Venema S C. (1989) Introduction to tropical fish
stock assessment. Part 1 -
Man
ual, FAO Fish. Tech. Paper 306/1.
Vanden
Bossche
J
P   and   Bemacsek   G
M,
(1991)   Source   Book   lor   the
inland   fishery   resources   of   Africa,   Vol.   3.   FAO   CIFA   Tech.   Paper 18/3.
Bazigos   G   P,   (1983)   Design   of   fisheries   technical   surveys   *   Inland   waters. FAO Fish. Tech. Paper 133.
Caddy  J  F and Dazlgos  G P, (1985) Practical guidelines  for statistical monitoring of fisheries  in manpower limited situations. FAO Fish. Tech. Paper 257
Hynas   HB   N   (1960)   The   Biology   of   Polluted   Waters.   Liverpool   University Press.
Ricker   W   E   (1971)   Melhods   for   assessment   of   fish   production   in   fresh waters. /fiP handbook No 3 Blackwell Scientific Publications.
FAO/DANIDA    Introduction    to    tropical    fish    stock    assessment.    FAO    Fish. Tech. Paper 306/1.
Payne   A   I   (1986)   The   Ecology   of   Tropical   Lakes   and   Rivers.   John   Wiley & Sons.
Moss   B   (1988)   Ecology   of   Fresh   Waters;   Man   and   Medium.   Blackwell Scientific Publications.
UNECA/FAO   (1991)   Aquaculture   Sector   In   Ethiopia:   Review   and   Analysis. J EFAD/FM RS/91/20
FAO (1991) Ethiopia. Assistance to Fisheries  Planning, Management and
Development - Part 1, Sector Review (draft, TCP/ETH/0052)
Balarin
J  D  (1986)  National  Reviews  lor  Aquaculture  Development  In  Africa:
Ng. 9. Ethiopia. FAO Fisheries Circular No. 770.9
58TABLE 1: ESTIMATED FISH PRODUCTION AND NUMBER OF FISHERMEN: 1909/90
1.  Inland: lakes end reaervoire
lake or reservoir purchased byFPMC
Iresh tonnes *
Rrft Valley;
informal markets 
fresh
tonnes*
informal markets 
dried
loial production
total number
ol lishermen”
lorries*          lonnes*
Abaya and Chamo
600
400                  350              1350
Awassa
B6
Langan©
273
Shala and Atxyala **"
0
575 50
0
661 323
0
Zrway 
957
155                    55              1067
Koka
0
Olher areas:
Tana 130 other lakes/reservoirs  0
100
350
350
100
480
350
190 170
47 0
350 30
250 170
Totals                                                    1946                 1980                  405             4331                    1207
•     fresh equivalent weight
“  Including  some  informal  fishermen National Park; fishing banned
2.   Inland; riven
Bare River
Omo River
73
117
79 384
Source: FRDD, FPMC and FAO mission s estimates in 1990TABLE 2; EMPIRICALLY PREDICTED POTENTIAL YIELDS FOR THE
MAIN INLAND WATER BODIES OF ETHIOPIA
altitude
m
area length wtdltl mean
depth
max depth
peri meter
km
potential annual yield, based on:
cond- area mean MEI
kmMm2            km             km              m              m
uci'y 
mS/cm
t
depth t
1
Rih Valley:
Chamo
1282
551
36
23
130
12.7
118
927
5500
3500
na
9800
18200
Abaya
1285
1162
28
70
71
13
225
718
10100
Aw ass a
1708
89
17
11
116
21 6
52
949
1200
600
1200
Shala
1567
409
27
17
860
226
110
21000
4300
1100
12200
Langano
1585
23
16
170
46.2
78
1600
2700
1300
3400
230
AWyala
1573
205
21
12
78
142
62
14000
2500
1700
26500
Ziway 
1848
434
32
20
2.5
7
102
350
4500
5900
2400
•
8600
na
Koka reservoir
255
20
15
9.0
na
na
na
Other areas
Tana
1830
3500
76
62
80
na
na
na
24900
28000
na
1700
*
Finch a-a reservoir
2160
170
30
16
90
na
na
na
na
EEqquuaattiioonn** uusesedd ttoo pprreeddiict ct ppootteennttiiaall yi yieelldd**::
Lake area: c= 31.955a0,016 Lake mean depth: y = 204.56d’0'4^1 Lake MEI y-5.425(MEI) Reservoir area; c = 23.367a  where c = total annual catch, tonnes, y = lolal annual yield, kgfria;
00 77228822
0
2
a = area, km ; d = mean depth, m; MEI = conductivity/mean depth
AH relationships are statistically significant al p<0 1; lhere is no statistically significant relationship between reservoir mean depth and yield ( )
Sources: FAO (1991), Allix (1987) and UNDP/FAO (1982). ETH/78/0O3 (entries in itahcs)TABLE 3: FISH PRICES, 1990
1. Prices paid to fishermen
Inland Fishery
lake or reservoir
FPMC
informal
informal
approx total
Iresh
fresh
dnRd '*
value "
Rih Valley:
EthBirr/kg
ElhBirr/kg
ElhB»rr/kg
ElhBirr million
Abay a and Chama
1.13
tilapia
055
1.50
0.14
Nile perch fillets
1 75
3.20
Olher fillels
too
Awas&a
035
1 20
0,61
Langano
045
0 60
0.15
Shala and Abiyala ***
Ziway
0 50
070
0.90
059
Koka
1.00
040
0.10
Olhor areas:
Tana
050
0.75
0.33
ol her lakes/reservoirs
0.60
021
* fresh equivalent weight
“ production Irum Table 1
**T National Park; fishing banned
2. Consumer prices Inland Fishery
Total
3.11
informal informal market market
FPMC            hotels
retail
tilapia
EthBirr/kg      EthBirr/kg     ElhBirr/kg whole                                                                                          200              250
fillels
gutted
whole. Arba Minch smoked
Nile perch fillets gutted
cattish
fillels whole
barbus tilleis dried fish mixed fillets
4 75
2 00
4 50
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.50
1 25
4.75
7.00
4 50
Sources FRDO, FPMC and FAO mission s estimates 1990TABLE 4: COSTS AND EARNINGS OF INLAND FISHERMEN. 1990
1. Eatimaw of annual earnings of a Lake Chamo fisherman
Earnings
whole lish production, tonnes: production
subsistence nel production
740
0.20
720
fillets produced, tonnes assumed yieki Nile perch
other species total
gross income. EthBirr. Nile perch
other specie* lol al
70%
33% of catch 67% of catch
1.66
338
5.04
1.75 fcg                                                         2911
1.00 /kg
3377
6267
Costs, EthBirr
equipment:
est life
boat, agave raft
5
3 months
gillnet. lOOm. mesh 35-40 cm
400
3 fishermen share one nel
6 months
30 long lines, with 15 hooks each
1
6 monlhs
total equipment
other costs
subscription lo association
0.35   /kg lilials
income tax 
0 10   /kg fillets
20
267
900
1187 1764
504
total other costs
lol al costs
Nel income, EthBirr
2. Estimate of annual earning! of a Lake Awassa fisherman
Earnings
whole lish production, tonnes production
subsistence net production
2268
3455
2833
allocation pl production sold to FPMC
sold lo informal market gross income, EthBirr:
FPMC informal market total
13% ol calch 87% of calch
0 35 /kg 1.20 /kg
400
020
3.80 0.49 3.31
390
173
3967
4140
Source FAO Mission's estimates. 1990TABLE 4: COSTS AND EARNINGS OF INLAND FISHERMEN, 1990
2. Estimate of annual earnings of a Lake Awassa fisherman (continued) Costs. EthBirr
equipment
esL lite
boat; provided by association
0
5 gillnels; 75m
200
/net
6 months
2000
total equipment
2000
other costs
subscription to association:
sales io FPMC
25%
ad valorem
43
other sales
30%
ad vatorem
1190
total other costs
total costs
Nel income, EthBirr
3. Estimate of annual earnings of a Lake Langano fisherman
Earnings
whole fish production, tonnes: production
subsistence net production
species mix:
1233
3233
907
tilapia
dan as
gross income, EthBirr: tilapia
daiias total
Costs, EthBrr
65% ol calch
35% ol calch
680
030
6.50
423
228
650
equipment (provided by association]
0.45 /kg                                                           1901 0.30 Ag                                                             603
2584
est kfe
boat: traditional wooden
450
1000
5  years
5 beach seine; 200m
6  months
total equipment
other costs;
subscription to association
20% ad valorem
0
0
0 517
total other costs total costs
Net income, EihBlrr
517
517
2067
Source; FAO Mission's estimates. 1990TABLE 4: COSTS AND EARNINGS OF INLAND FISHERMEN, 1990
4.  Estimate of annual earnings of a Lake Zrway fisherman Earnings
whole fish production tonnes:
production
400
subsistence
0 20
net production
a.eo
sold to FPMC
100%
ol catch
3.00
sotd 10- informal market
0%
□1 catch
allocation ol production, tonnes:
gross Income. ElhBIrr;
total
Costs, ElhBirr
equipment:                                                                                     esl.   life
000
FPMC
0.50
*g
1900
informal market
0
1900
boat papyrus raft, labour only
0
1 gillnet purchased from FPMC
170
Jo&t
12
months
170
2 gillnets made by fishermen
210
/hst
6
months
total equipment
1010
other costs:
subscription to association
5%
ad valorem
95
total other costs
total costs
Nel income
5. Comparison of estimates of a fiabermsn’s income between four associations
95
1105
795
Ar ba Minch      Awassa       Langano          Ziway
Earnings
Costs, EltiBirr/year:
whole fish equivalent sold tonnestyear
7.2
3.8
65
3.8
gross income EthBin/year
6207
4140
2584
1900
boat and gear
1187
2000
0
1010
other charges
2268
1233
517
95
lol al costs
3455
3233
517
1105
Nel income, Birr/year
2833
907
2067
795
USS/year
2 07 rate
$1368
$438
$999
$334
Costs as percentage ot gross income
boat and gear
19%
46%
0%
53%
other charges
36%
30%
20%
5%
totai costs
55%
70%
20%
58%
Estimation of total number ol fishermen from above data;
estimated tolal production (whole fish) 1350 661 323 1067 number of association members 190 40 47 350 mean net income of association members 1515 EthBin/year
Source: FAO Mission’s estimates. 1990TABLE 6: SELECTED FOOD PRICES IN ETHIOPIA, ETH8IRA
1975
1976
1977
1973
1979
I960
1981
1982
1983
19B4
198S
1966
1967
Iriltotlon
*1990
flourjolt mixed
kg
0 40
0.68
085
120
1.00
0.96
1.02
1.24
1.20
1 46
2 25
1 36
1.30
103%
I 50
peas, split
-
0.82
0 99
1 27
1 35
1 42
1.65
1 71
1.64
2.65
3 89
273
2 09
8 8%
tomaioes
0.79
0.85
1.00
1 59
1.31
1.38
1.60
1.61
1.79
1 62
1.57
1 59
1 69
6.5%
bananas
kg
0-50
055
0.69
0 79
0.75
0.60
0,84
0.03
0.85
0.86
093
097
1 01
6 0%
beef, tain
kg
1 02
226
3.20
3 49
4 33
4.76
4 62
402
5 00
5 00
5.00
5 00
500
8 6%
9.00
sheep, live
each
20 46
24.71
27 90
34.57
35 85
38 02
3782
38 47
37.99
45.72
39.15
41 53
44 37
6 7%
chicken, live
each
2.05
2.65
322
3.73
3 96
4 29
4 24
439
4 53
4 87
5 63
6 15
6 73
10.4%
eggs
dozen
0.78
0.94
1 24
1 58
1.58
1.69
1.81
1.76
1 80
1.93
2.15
2.32
237
9.7%
fish, fresh
hg
1.04
1.04
1 40
135
1.30
1.43
1 50
■
1.75
2 00
2.13
-
-
7.4%
Hi
sardines
125g
0 73
062
0 03
099
1.15
-
205
202
2.27
2 37
2 60
229
1 64
7.0%
mackerel
200g
«
1 40
1 47
1 70
1 79
2 07
1 75
2 50
-
-
-
*
-
10 1%
neug oil, relined
the
198
2.14
2.64
30?
4 17
5 11
5.35
4.97
4 33
5.05
601
5 03
4.90
7.8%
coflee* green
hg
2.57
5 47
541
5.15
7 54
13.00
13.50
1329
8 75
9.92
15.30
14 39
11.91
13 6%
FAO mission's eslimatas, 1990
Source: Genual Statistical AuihorltyTABLE 5: SELECTED FOOD PRICES IN ETHIOPIA. ETHBIRR
2. Regional variation for 1987 In towns near fisheries Arba Minch
Assab                Awaasa               Bahlr Dar
flour: toff, mixed
kg
OBI
1.57
0.75
0.65
peas, split
kg
0.99
1 38
1.29
0.96
tomatoes
kg
0.66
164
1.19
0.70
bananas
kg
0-44
1.60
086
091
beef, loin
kg
4.11
550
4.50
”3 26
sheep, live
each
-
42.33
35 83
30.75
chicken, live
each
3 98
6 61
4.71
348
eggs
dozen
1 68
2 89
181
162
fish, fresh
kg
2.80
1.89
054
050
fish, dried
kg
763
200
-
*
sardines
125fl
2.50
200
1.40
-
mackerel
200g
-
2.25
-
-
neug oil. refined
litre
5.32
5.72
5.59
3.85
coflee, green
kg
298
15.41
4.46
11.28
" estimated from previous year's figure
Source: Central Statistical Authoritya? y 
w w ‘d; U> U> tt, 'Z
TABLE 5: SELECTED FOOD PRICES IN ETHIOPIA, ETHBIRR 3. Regional variation near fiaheriet for Aug u at to October1982 and September 1988
Arba Minch
Aisab
Awassa
Bahir Dar
1982
1988
%p.a.
1982      1988
1962
1988
%p.a»
1982
1988
% p.a.
left, while
068
0.97
6.1%
1.40
0.74
1 14
7.5%
0.44
0.79
10.2%
peas, spill
kg
1.50
4.00
17,8%
2.67
2 03
2 29
2.0%
tomatoes
kg
0.36
028
-4.1%
2 93
040
-
*
bananas
kg
0.28
0.54
116%
200
034
092
18 0%
0.43
0.55
•
-
beef, loin
kg
2.10
6.22
19 8%
6.50
262
5.00
11.4%
1.22
3 15
17.1%
sheep, live
each
15.77
-
•
38 00
20 75
42 33
126%
24.07
32 00
4.9%
chicken, live
each
221
4 75
136%
10.00
3 26
517
80%
397
5.17
4.5%
eggs
dozen
*
1.71
-
2.40
1 81
-
1.95
fish, hash
280
1 91
-6.2%
189
0.54
0 56
0.6%
0.50
0.41
-3 3%
fish dried
kg
-
3.03
-
sardines
125g
-
•
-
mackerel
200g
-
-
*
neug oil. refined
litre
-
6,00
-
658
cotlee, green
kg
2 72
3.75
5 5%
3 50
346
-02%
11.56
10 00
-2.4%
Source Central Statistical AuthorityTABLE 6: APPROXIMATE FEED COSTS; PRODUCT PRICE TO FEED COST RATIO
Livestock
Beet Dairy1 Poultry2 Tilapia^ Eggs4
Feed Conversion Ratio
Feed Cost.
ElhBrrrritg
5:1                          0 90
0.5-1 2.51
2io 1:1 3.5:1
0.09
0.73
0.38
1.09
Product Price5 EthBirr/kg
1.4
0.5
4.5
Product Price lo Feed Cosl Ratio
1.6 56 62
0.5                1 3 Io 0 65
2.25
2.1
1          feeds as supplement la roughage
2           al least 30% com in the feed
3           leading broiler pellets as supplement in ponds
4 16 eggs/kg. 8 eggs for 1 ElhBirr; al least 30% corn in the lead
5          farm gate prices
Source Baiarin 1&86TABLE 7: IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF FISH AND FISH PRODUCTS
1. Recent import* of fi«h products
tonnes
1983
1984
1985
tish fresh chilled frozen
01
2.0
fish dried salted smoked
44
9.9
crusiaceans and molluscs
fish crusiaceans molluscs prepared
36
85
661
or preserved, not elsewhere specified
EthBirr (’000)
1983
1984
- 1965
fish fresh chilled frozen
3.6
67
0.4
fish dried sailed smoked
420
486
crustaceans and molluscs
fish crustaceans molluscs prepared
433
502
121 9
or preserved not elsewhere specified
Source: Central Statistical Authority
2, Import* of canned aardina* (mainly from Italy, USSR, Bulgaria)
tonnes
EthBirr
(DOO)
1975
466 6
888.1
1976
3433
631,9
1977
4989
970.1
1978
345 7
926.9
1979
30 7
71,4
1980
3.8
52.7
1981
67.5
255.9
1982
1.6
57.9
1983
3.7
469
1984
149
98.9
1985
76 0
170.9
Source: MengistiJ. Tarakegn (1988)TABLE 7: IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF FISH AND FISH PRODUCTS
3. Export*
dried
fresh
tonnes
tonne*
EthBirr (000)
1966
181
92
7150
1967
195
96
870.9
I960
79
64
643.3
1969
155
67
704,6
1970
188
74
854 5
1971
150
55
757 7
1972
220
57
985 4
1973
20
25
299.7
1974
17
18
2193
1975
89
21
5573
1976
12
na
134 3
1977
21
na
58.8
1978
na
na
na
Source; Mengistu. Tarakegn (1988)TABLE 8: ORIGINAL BUDGETS FOR EEC INLAND FISHERIES PROJECT PHASE 2
1. Capital Budget - ECU
FRDD
total
year 1
year 2
year 3
year 4
years
laboratory, office, stores, d assrooms etc.
353.300
353.300
facility for raising fingerlings
117.900
117,900
boatyard and workshop
02,500
82.500
research equipment and supplies
815.000
615,000
boat building equipment toots
216,000
216,000
subtotal
1.384.700
968 300
416.400
0
0
0
FPMC
civil works
1,495.300
795.300
350.000
350.000
equipment and supplies
147,600
147,600
office lumiture
4,700
4.700
refrigeration equipment
698,500
698.500
vehicles
546,000
546.000
fish carrier boats (5)
175,000
100.000
75.000
fishing boats (10|
430.000
200.000
130.000
other
257,000
257,000
subtotal
3,754,100
2.449.100
650,000
555,000
0
0
General
TA arid mid term review
740,000
140,000
200.000
200,000
100.000
100,000
overseas training
309,000
154,500
154,500
revolving lurid
350,000
150.000
100.000
100,000
local training
100,000
20.000
20.000
20,000
20,000
20.000
subtotal
1.499,000
464,500
474.500
320.000
120000
120,000
Total
6.637,000
3.881,900
1.540.900
875.000
>20,000
120,000
contingencies
10%
663.780
0
263,780
200.000
100,000
100.000
Grand total
7,301,580
3.881,900
1.804,680
1.075.000
220,000
220.000
Source EEC Project DocumentTABLE 0; ORIGINAL BUDGETS FOR EEC INLAND FISHERIES PROJECT PHASE 2
2. Recurrent Budget^ EthBirr
adminisl ration
professional si all
boatyard, male rials, labour sic,
boal repairs
net-making and reoairs; materials. lahcur eic laboratory
vehicles, fuel, maintenance research boat; fuel and maintenance ref rigor alien vehicles shops fishing boats; fuel, crew, maintenance carrier boats; litel. crew, maintenance
sublolel contingency
Grand total
total
y<M>r 1
year 2
year 3
1,526.265               250.000
275000               302.500
yW5
332750 366.0 r 5
1.B12.100               240,800              314.600              38 7.200              426,800               434.700
254.300 61,700
260.600
270,000
457,050
305,250
24,000 2.400
10,300
50.000
75.000
50.000
52.000 7.900
40.300
52,600
59.400
65,300
13.200               19 JOO                 19,100
04.700
81.800
81 800
55000                 55.000                55.000                 55.000
82.500
55.000
90.750
60,500
99.800 109,800
66550 73.200
4,565,000               500,000               025.000               907.500           1.111.000            1.222.100
925.752
915.642
41.135
135J47               226.245              248.869               273.756
66,555               103.020              201.331               221.464               243.464
11,365,459           1.324.190            2,032,775             2.361720           2,722.533            2,944,235
1,138,546              132.419               203.276               236.173              272,253               294.424
12,524,005            1.456,609            2 236,053            2,597,899           2.994.706            3.238.659
Source: EEC Project DocumentTABLE S: EXAMPLE OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING VERSUS ORDINARY RANDOM SAMPLING
straia
boats in
district
number
sampled
Individual catches
1 lines
70
5
2 gillneto
120
7
5
10
6
12
13
it
3 beach seine
10
3
2
7
20
3
8
23
4
9
26
totals
200
15
mean/
boat
variance
boat
es! lol
catch
variance ol total
sd.
of lotal
1 lines
4
250
280
2275
47.70
2 gillnels
10
4.87
1200
9040
95.08
3 beach seine
23
900
230
210
14.49
totals
1710
11525
107 35
oslimaied total catch
variance ol esl iota) caich
s.d. of eel total caicti
coethoent of variation of estimated total catch estimated mean catch per boat
variance ol estimated mean Caleb per boat s d ol estimated mean catch per boat
1710
11525
107 35 8 3% 8 55
0 29
054
results rf sama data came from a random sample {not stratified)
estimated total catch
2120
variance of esl total catch
129958
s d of esl lotal catch
360 50
coelllctonl of variation of estimated total caich
17.0%
ostlmaiod moan catch per boat
10 6
variance ol eslimuled mean catch par boat
3.25
e d ol estimated mean catch per boot
1 B0
Source: FAO Ash. Toch Paper 306/1TABLEW: FPMC, MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
FPMC: Equipment *nd Number of Employe**, July 1990 1. Employee*
Addis Ababa
head: oft Ice branches
Other brunches
Total employees
Refrigeration Equipment
number
87
72
58
217
quantify
uni! capacity
total capacity
Addis Ababa Head Office
blast freezer
2
2.5
5.0
cold store
2
500
100 0
Hake Ice machine
1
40
40
ice sloce
1
40
40
chill store
1
100
100
Addis Ababa shops
deep freezer
5
04
20
chill store
10
2.0
200
Chill store
2
30
60
Zjway
flake ice machine
1
4.0
4.0
ice store
2
40
6.0
chili store
2
too
20.0
Awassa
deep freezer
2
0.2
04
Arta Minch
blast freezer
1
10.0
100
deep freezer
1
04
0.4
Bahir Da/
Thermoking
1
50
5.0
deep freezer
3
0.2
0.6
Assab
Thermo king
1
65
6.5
deep freezer
4
0.2
0.0
block ice machine
1
5.0
5.0
Source FPMCTABLE 10: FPMC, MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
3. GRP Collecting Boat* Ziway
quantity unit capacity total capacity
I5hp outboard
2
12
2.4
Shp outboard
1
12
12
Arba Minch
15hp outboard
2
12
24
Bhp outboard
1
12
,12
’Aramis*, inboard
1
65
S.5
Bahir Dar
15hp outboard                                                          1 12                                                12 Total capacity, inland
Assab
15hp outboard
4
12
48
Bhp outboard
1
12
12
"AramisT Inboard
1
as
as
"AramlB". inboard
1
35
Tolal capacity marine
35
160
4. Road Vehicles
Insulated trucks 
Mercedes 
Mercedes 
Romania
Fiat
3
7.0
21.0
1
40
40
2
10
20
1
3.5
35
Relrigeraled trucks 
Fiat
1
80
80
Smaller vehicles 
Toyota pickup
2
0.7
14
Toyota hardtop
1
0.7
0.7
Toyota double cabin
1
05
0.6
Nissan pickup
3
05
13
Datsun double cabin
1
05
05
Source: FPMCTABLE 10: FPMC. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
5. Purchases of fllltted. guttsd and whole fish by FPMC from 1984/85 to 1989/90; tonnes.
84^5
85/86
86/07
87/B8
88/89
89790
Inland
Abaya and
76
55
67
126
227
368
Chamo
Avwflssa
255
595
249
238
166
86
Langano
270
387
393
422
304
273
Zhv*y
94
247
58
265
556
657
Koka
32
Tana
27
55-
subtotal
725
1114
767
1003
1200
1639
Marine
Assab
17
6
31
32
31
54
Massawa
141
05
92
113
10
2
subtotal
158
91
123
145
40
56
Total
883
1205
890
1228
1320
1695
6. FPMC Total Fish Purchaae, Sales, Spoilage and Shrinkage; tonnes
84/85
05/06
86/87
87/88
88/89
89/90
Total purchased
883
1205
890
1228
1320
1695
sales
854
1183
811
915
993
975
spoilage
14
10
5
15
10
0
shrinkage
14
15
6
7
3
0
7. Distribution of Fish Marketed by FPMC from July 1989 to June 1990; tonnes
Addis
Ababa
Zrway         Arba Minch
Mass aw a     Asmara       Assab         □ahir Dar
VolaJ
Jul-09
425
3.3
1.7
0.0
0.9
0.1
0.0
48 5
Aug-89
100 9
7.5
40
0,0
11,1
0.0
0.0
123.5
Sep-89
353
16
25
00
0.0
0.0
0.0
39 4
Ocl-89
46.7
29
7.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
57.4
Nov^9
384
37
43
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
46 4
Dec-89
43.1
24
5.5
00
0.0
2.7
0.0
53.7
Jan-90
340
2.2
4.7
00
0.0
4.1
0.0
45 0
Feb-90
617
6.4
6,5
0.0
0.0
29
4.1
01 6
Mar-90
196 0
21.1
8.8
0.0
0.0
26
4.4
2337
Apr-90
137.8
17 9
9.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
72
172.8
May-90
20.5
0.1
6,1
00
00
0.0
22
28.9
Jun-90
35 1
2.3
52
0.0
0.0
00
1.3
439
total
792 8
71.4
67 0
0.0
120
124
192
974 8
Source: FPMCTABLE 10: FPMC. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
8. Distribution to FPMC Retail Shops In Juns 1990. by Relative Prospsrfty of Location: tcuJkg
type ol location number o( shops
business area
4
medium area
8
poor area
3
Tilapia, filtered
648
8-10
312
13
1.300
Catfish, filleted
40
60
20
120
Common Carp, filleted
3.345
2.403
665
6 413
Nite Perch, filleted
0
0
0
0
Smoked
318
95
0
413
Dried
23
40
20
83
Tilapia, gutted
14.304
11.822
3.497
29-623
9. Distribution to FPMC Retail Shops In June 1990, by Relative Prosperity of Location:
Average WeighVShop, kg.
type of location
business are .3
medium area
poor area
number ol shops
4
6
3
average
13
Tilapia, filleted
162
140
104
138
Catfish, filleted
10
10
7
9
Common Carp, filleted
836
401
222
493
Nite Perch, filleted
0
0
0
0
Smoked
80
16
0
32
Dned
6
7
7
6
Tilapia, gulled
3.576
1.970
1.166
2,279
average f ish per shop
4.670
2.543
1.505
2.958
Source FPMCTABLEW: FPMC, MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
10 Flnenel*! performance
1. Profit and Lobs Statement; E th Birr thousand*
year
1905*86
1986/87
1907/88
1988/09
1989^0
Revenue
sales of fish
1977.0
1430.2
2107 1
2746 6
2953-5
Other income
16 1
26 2
70 1
0.0
40.1
1995 1
14564
2257 1
27466
29937
Goal of lish sold
beginning invenlory
0,0
00
17.2
62.9
649
additional purchases
714.3
596 5
036 0
8763
981 6
lol al
714 3
596.5
653.1
939.3
1046 4
less shrinkage and spoilage
362
22.8
45 2
20.1
540
cost ol fish available lor sate
676 0
573.6
8079
911.2
9925
less ending inventory
00
17.2
629
154.3
99 4
cost of lish soW
679.0
556 5
7450
756.9
8930
Gross profit
1317 1
899 9
15122
1969.7
21006
Operating expenses
selling *
317.7
3299
731.8
980 9
1448 3
administrative, general *
10782
941.7
877.8
813.9
749 9
sub tola!
1395.9
1271 6
1609 6
1794 8
2198 3
caplal charge
0.0
807
5%
olher expenses
shrinkage/spoilaga
36.2
228
452
28.1
540
depredation
111 8
audit tee
12 0
1432.2
1294 4
1654.9
1903 6
23761
Surplus before tax
•115.1
’394 5
-142.7
86 1
-275 5
50% provision lor profit lax
43.1
nei surplus alter taxation
43.1
10% transfer to general reserve
4.3
transter Io residual surplus
33 7
‘ italics denote FAO mission's estimates, 1990
Soured.’ FPMCTABLE 10: FPMC  MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
S
10. Financial performance (cantinuad)
2. Balance abeat; E th Birr thousands
year 196548
1986/87
190780
1968-89
1989/90
Source of turds.
long term debl
2909
00
290-9
43
2909
general reserve
00
0.0
-1000 0
capital
1614 6
1614 6
2537 7
total capital employed
2151 0
1757 3
1905.5
1909 0
Represented by:
Fixed assets
2339.0
22409
2067.9
1315.2
1703 3
Current assets
cash
626 5
262.1
44Q 4
541.3
276 7
accounts receivable
166.4
252.6
-37 0
124
193 5
merchandise Inventory
00
17 2
62.9
154 3
994
total current assets
792.9
531 8
466 3
TOM
569.6
Total assets
3131 0
2700 7
2534.3
2523.6
2273 0
less current liabilities
9800
10214
628-7
613.3
344 4
Net assets
2151-8
17573
1905 5
19098
1928 5
Source: FPMCTABLE 11: MARGINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FPMC TILAPIA EXPORT
1. Whole tilapia. Iced
total
unit coat
total coat
txjx ol iced tilapia
*0
EthBirr
E th Birr
fish
160
0 40
6 40
ce
3,0
0.20
060
single use loam box
05
910
9.10
sub total
195
16.10
marginal costa tor exporting fish
maximum consignment on Ethi
opian Airlines (light
-
iooo to
51 boxes
994 5
unit coat
total coat
EthBirr
EthBirr
ice
153.0
0.20
30 &0
boxes
51
9.10
464 10
air Ireighl                                                                                                         1 00                    99450
airport tax
other taxes
2% ad valorem
4223
service charges (Mantime and Transit)
health certificate (MO A)
health cerhlicate (Min Health) certificate of origin (Ch Comm) revenue stamps (Min Foreign Affairs) clearance. Saudi Arabian embassy clearance, Customs and Security
subtotal
21.00
10.00
20.00
20 00
4a oo
36 00
90.00
total marginal cost tor 51-box export consignment                                    2 18
marginal
assume that domestic marketing opportunity costs and revenues are equal
245.00
1776.43
export selling price; US$/kg 125
marginal revenue from 51 -box consignment
marginal profit
2.59
2111.40
marginal profit from 51-box consignment                                         041                    33497
Source FPMC and FAO mission’s estimates. 1990TABLE 11: MARGINAL ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF FPMC TILAPIA EXPORT
2. Whole tilapia, frozen
total
unit cost
total cost
box ol frozen tilapia
EthBIrr
EthBirr
fish
12.0
0 40
4 80
box with bag
05
4.00
400
sub total
125
8 80
marginal coats for exporting fish
maximum consignment on Ethiopian Airlines flight
1000 kg
80 boxes
1000 0
boxes                                                     80
unit COST ictal co«t
EthBirr                  EthBIrr
4.00                    320 00
air freight                                                                                                         1 00                lOOOOO
airport lax
other taxes
2% ad va/txem
46 50
service charges (Maritime and Transit)
health certificate (MOA)
health certificate (Min Health)
certificate of origin (Ch Comm) revenue stamps (Min Foreign Affairs) clearance. Saudi Arabian embassy clearance. Customs and Security
subtotal
tola! marginal cosi for BObox export consignment
marginal revenue
21 00
1000
20.00
20.00
43.00
36.00
90 00
245 00
1.68                 1611 50
assume that domestic marketing opportunity cosis and revenues are equal
export salting price; US$/kg             1.17 marginal revenue from BO’box consignment
marginal profit
242
marginal profit from 80-box consignment                                       0 74
2325 02
713.52
Source: FPMC and FAO mission's estimates, 1990TABLE 12: LIST OF FRDD PERSONNEL, WITH TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS
number qualification subject
Head Office, Addis Ababa
Technical Stall
place qualified
2   MSc
ichlhyofogtel
1   B Sc                     animal science
MSc
fishenes management
1   BSC                     animal science
USSR
AA: and
UK
AA
1   MSC
marine biology
2   MSC
fish technology
UK
USSR
3   Diploma
animal science
Ethiopian colleges
1   Diploma
animal science/tish technology
Elhiopia/ltaly
Administrative Staff:
2 secretaries
1 messenger
Fish Culture Station, Sebeta
Technical Staff;
1  M Sc
ichthyologist
2   B Sc                    general biology
1  Certificate
2  fishermen
Administrative Staff
4 guards
1 Cleaner
Addis Ababa Administrative Region
USSR
AA
High School
1 DVM
1 Certificate
E Shewa Ad min islr alive Region
1 MSc
1   B Sc
2  Diploma
1 Certificate
S Shewa Administrative Region
1 B Sc
1 G Sc
1   MSc
2  Diploma
3   Certificate
Arsi Administrative Region
veterinarian
fish technology 
animal science
animal science
general biology
manno biology
fish technology
animal soencertish technology
boat building
High School
USSR
Alamaya
Ethiopian colleges
High School
AA
Asmara
USSR
Ethiopia/Ualy/
Yugoslavia
Ziway
4             Diploma    animal science/tish lech oology        Eihiopia/Yugosiavia/ Tanzan»a/Cuba
Source: FRDDTABLE 12: LIST OF FRDD PERSONNEL, WITH TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS
number qualification            subject
place qualified
Sidamo Administrative Region
1 Diploma
veterinarian
1  M Sc
fish technology
2   BSc
general biology
USSR
AA
1 Diploma
animal science
Elhiopia/Ne therlands
1 Certilicate
High School
1 BSc
Bale Administrative Region
N Omo Admnislralive Region
general biology
1 BSc
marine biology
AA
Asmara
1   B Sc
general biology
2   BSc
marine biology
2 Diploma
animal science
AA
Asmara
Cuba
S Omo Administrative Region
1 BSc
animal science
Aiemaya
llulabor Administrative Region
3 BSc
general biology
1 Diploma
animal science
AA
Ethiopia
Kela Administrative Region
1 Diploma
animal science
Ethiopia
Asosa Administrative Region
I BSc
general biology
AA
Welega Administrative Region
1 Diploma
animal science
Ethiopia
W Harerge Administrative Region
1 Diploma
veterinarian
E Harerge Administrative Region
1 BSc
general biology
1 Diploma
animal science
AA
Cuba
1 BSc
general biology
1 Diploma
N Gondor Administrative Region
S Gonder Administrative Region
1 BSc
animal science
AA
Awasa
general biology
AA
Source. FRDDTABLE 12: LIST OF FRDD PERSONNEL. WITH TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS
number qualification       subject
W Gojam Administrative Region
1 B Sc
1 M Sc
3 B Sc
manno biology
fish technology
general biology
2 Diploma               animal science
N Welo Administrative Region
1 Diploma               animal science S Welo Administrative Region
1 0 Sc
animal science
1 Diploma               veterinarian
2 Diploma               animal science Entrea Alonomous Region
piece qualified
Cuba
USSR
AA
Debro Zeit
Cuba
Atemaya
Cuba
1 M Sc
fish technology
USSR
1 B Sc
animal science
Atemaya
1 B Sc
genoral biology
AA
1 Diploma
animal science
Cuba
Assab Aionomous Region
Technical Slaff:
1 M Sc
MSc
2 M Sc
fish technology procossing/h and ling
lish technology
USSR; and
UK
USSR
2 BSc
marine Oology
Asmara
2 BSc
general biology
AA
1 BSc
stalishcb
AA
1 BSc
public ad minislr alien
AA
Admintslralive Si all
1 secretary
1  messenger
2  guards
2 drivers Gambela Administrative Region
2 BSc
1 Diploma
general  biology animal science
AA
Cuba
Source FRDDFigure 1
------- *---------Animal  Breading
and Feed
Resources
Development
Department
---------------- Fisheries
Resource
Development
Department
-------*--------- Veterinary Development
Department
----- -O------- Animal Resources Marketing
Department
MOA CAPITAL BUDGETS EthBirr ( 000)Figure 2
------ ■------- Animal Breeding
and Feed
Resources
Development
Department
------ —— Fisheries
Resource
Development
Department
- ----- *-------- Volerinary Development
Department
o—— Animal Resources
Marketing
Department
MOA RECURRENT BUDGETS EthBirr( 000)(firFigure 3
____ •--------A ba ya; ------------ -O------- Awassa --------------*-------- Langano
Chamo
__ ------------ Z/way----------------- *------- Ass a b ------------- -A-------Massa wa
FPMC  PURCHASES  BY  SOURCE tonnes whole fish equivalentFigure 4
3 gross irrcome          E) boal/gear costs olhar charges S net rncome
7D00
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
ESTIMATED COSTS AND EARNINGS PER INLAND FISHERMAN EthBirr/yearFigure 5
St
S,
St
months with no water deficiency
7 —       9
4—6
■3
3
3
3
3
3
3
.3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
GROWWG SEASON OF ETHOPIA (GAMACHU.1977)Figure 6
RUNOFF (m /ha/yr )
AVERAGE  ANNUAL  VOLUME  OF  RUNOFF  FROM  A  ONE-HECTARE WATERSHED (GAMACHUJ977)Figure 7
FISH ZONES (Ref Table II)
POTENTIAL FISH FARMING ZONES (LAST, 1968)Figure B
■-------purchases (fills led, gulled and whole fish)
sates (filiated, gutted and whole
fish)
VOLUME  OF  FRMC  PURCHASES  AND  SALES tonnes actually purchased and soldFigure 9
-------- total sales,
total cosis, ------------ •---
-----tonnes ot IIsh
Eth&nOOO
EthBirr 000
sold
PERFORMANCE OF FRMC
OVER RECENT YEARSFtgure 10
SCHAEFER MODEL OF A FISHERY, SHOWING MSYFigure 11
............ .. costs. $ million           ---------------- benefits,
$ mdfior
— — * economic yidd.
$ million
short, ‘OOO days
MAXIMUM  SUSTAINABLE  REVENUE  (AT  MSY) and MAXIMUM ECONOMIC YIELD (MEY)_ 2lCPUEb hqfr»«t
Figure 12
□      CPUE. actual --------------------■ -CPUE, Schaefer CPUE, Fox
1200
10.X
8.00
ax
W
200
0.00
LAKE MALAWI CATCH PER UNIT EFFORT WITH FITTED SCHAEFER & FOX MODELSFigure 13
□ yield, actual
yield, Schaeler
- ypeld. Fox
LAKE MALAWI TOTAL CATCH WITH FITTED SCHAEFER & FOX MODELSSCHEDULE 1
KEY ELEMENTS FROM
•COUNCIL OF STATE SPECIAL DECREE ON INVESTMENT NO 17/1990'
1                Objectives (Article 3)
contribution  to  the  economic  and  social  development  ol  the
country;
utilisation  of  the  natural  resources  of  the  country  with  due regard for conservation;
introduction of science and technology and know-how;
raising the quality and volume of products and services;
creation of employment opportunities for Ethiopians.
generation and saving of foreign exchange;
promotion of a balanced Inter-regional development
2                Investors (Article 4)
The following local or foreign Investors are entitled to Invest. In accordance with Article 5. without any limitation on capital ceiling
government organisations;
cooperatives;
mass organisations;
individual entrepreneurs;
business organisations, including: ordinary partnerships; joint ventures; general partnerships; limited partnerships; share companies; private limited companies (all defined In the Commercial Code)
3                Areas Open for Investment (Article 5)
Investors  may  carry  on  activities  specified  In  the  Commercial Code, except that:-
some areas are reserved for government organisations (Including: defence Industry, postal and telecommunications, air and rail transport, radio and television);
59othor areas require permission from Council of Ministers (electricity supply, banking. Insurance, water supply, tobacco
processing)
4                Agriculture. Land and Contract of Lease (Articles 6. 7 & 8)
activities  Include   agricultural  development,  agro  industry  and agricultural services:
• the Government may lease land to an investor lor a limited
period'
the minimum size of land to be leased to an Investor shall be determined by the Council of Ministers having regard to the nature of the agricultural activities which the investor carries on.
5                Exemption from Customs Duties (Article 10)
exempt from customs duties, government and municipal taxes levied on Imported goods: the first round of agricultural
machinery with their necessary appliances and parts and the
first round of spare parts thereof Imported by the producer which are necessary for.... (various agricultural purposes)....as
well as for fisheries development
6.               Exemption from Income Tax (Article 11) for agricultural activities, exemption from payment ol income tax for a period of up to>
2  years,  capital  under  EthBirr  300.000.  if  In  an  area  designated as preferred by the Council of Ministers;
2   years  (3  years  If  In  an  area  designated  as  preferred  by  the Council    of    Ministers);    capital    over    EthBirr    300,000.    not exceeding EthBirr 750.000;
3   years  (4  years  if  In  an  area  designated  as  preferred  by  the Council    of    Ministers);    capital    over    EthBirr    750.000,    not exceeding EthBirr 2,000.000;
5  years  (6  years  If  In  an  area  designated  as  preferred  by  the Council of Ministers); capital over EthBirr 2,000.000.
60SCHEDULE 2
KEY ELEMENTS FROM
'LICENCE FOR AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES
COUNCIL OF MINISTERS REGULATIONS 7/1990’
’agricultural    development*    Includes    the    development    of    fish resources:
an investor wishing to engage in agricultural activities musi obtain a licence Irom either the Ministry of Agriculture or the Executive Committee of an Autonomous or Administrative Region authorised by the Council of Ministers to Issue such licences.
techno-economic study required with the application lor licence.
an Investor engaging In agricultural activities may not lease land
below the minimum holdings prescribed For llsherres these
minimum holdings are defined as annual production:-
tonnes/year
inland fishing
400
shore fishing
200
deep sea fishing
5.000
breeding fish in Inland waters
1.000
breeding fish and similar
sea animals and plants
2.000
the  maximum  period  of  an  Investor  s  holding
right  on  the  land  he
leaaed:-
years
fishing
5
breeding fish In Inland waters
10
breeding fish and similar
sea animals and plants
15
(leases are renewable)spend  according  to  approved  budget;  exercise  powers  and  duties under Art.6,
Capital. Extent of Liability and Duration (Arts 8 to 10)
authorised  capital  EthBirrW  million,  of  which  Eth0irr2,637.655  paid
up in cash and in kind:
FPMC not liable beyond Its assets: FPMC established for Indefinite duration.
S3Appendix I WILDLIFE TOURISM9
d
$
$)
d
$
9
9
9
9
9
9
reconnaissance masterplan
FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATURAL RESOURCES OF THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN
PHASE I
FINAL REPORT
VOLUME 1
MAIN REPORT
VOLUME 2
APPENDIX A:         LAND RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
APPENDIX B          LAND RESOURCES OPTIMISATION MOOEL
VOLUME-3
APPENDIX C:         WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
APPENDIX Cl:       SURFACE WATER RESOURCES AND WATER BALANCE SIMULATION MODEL
APPENDIX C2:       GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
APPENDIX D:         GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
VOLUME 4
APPENDIX E:         AGRICULTURE AND FARMING SYSTEMS
APPENDIX F:         FORESTRY
APPENDIX G:         LIVESTOCK
VOLUME 5
9
9
APPENDIX H:
FISHERIES
APPENDIX 1:
WtLDUFE TOURISM
APPENDIX J:
WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENT
9
9
9
9
9
VOLUME S
APPENDIX K:         MINERALS
APPENDIX L:         ENERGY
APPENDIX M: SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
VOLUME 7
9
9
APPENDIX N:
PROJECT PROFILES
APPENDIX 0:
DRAFT TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR PHASES 2 AND 3
VOLUME 8
LAND USE MAPSTABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF SCHEDULES
«
LIST OF T
ABLES
iJ
US" OF FI
GURES
'I
1
INTRODUCTION
1
2                 TOURISM ATTRACTIONS
2.1        WttdIJfe Tourism Attraction!
2.1.1              Ethiopian Specialities In the Ritl Valley
2 1.2             Wilderness Safaris
2.13               Combined Special Interest Tours
2.1.4              Comparison      with      Other      East      African
Countries
2.2        Game Hunting
2.2.1              National Overview
2.2.2              Game Hunting In the Rih Valley
EXPERIENCE TO DATE IN ETHIOPIA
3d         Ethiopian   Tourism
3.1.1              International Visitors
3.1.2              Foreign Residents
3.1.3              Nationals and Intraroglonal Visitors
3.1.4              Organisation of Tourism In Ethiopia 3.2        Rift Valley Wild lift Touritm
2
2
3
-3
4
4
5
5
7
8
0
a
8
s
8
9
3.2.1
Visitors to National Parks
9
3.2,2
Past Tours
9
3.2.3
Some Itineraries
10
3,2.4
Recent Events
10
DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL AND CONSTRAINTS
4J         Protection of the Wildlife Resource
4,2        Environmental end Social Impact
4.3        Security
4.4        Financial,    Economic and Instilullonal Consideration* 4.4.1              Development of a Market Economy
4.4,2              Exchange Rata
4.4.3              Credit Facilities
4.4.4              Institutional Aspects
4.5        Infrastructure
4.5.1              Air Travel
4.5,2              Road Transport and Other Travel
4.5,3              Accommodation and Food
4.6        The Rift       Valley and Potential Tour itineraries for International Visitor*
11
11
12
12
14
14
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
17
i5                 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF RIFT VALLEY WILDLIFE TOURISM
$.1 Policy and Planning
5.1.1              Context for Wildlife Tourism
5.1.2              Visitor Plans for Wildlife Conservation Areas 5.2         implementation of Wildlife Tourism Strategy
5.2.1              First Steps
5.2   2          Domestic Wildlife Tourism
20
20
20
20
21
21
21
0*
«r
5.2.3
International Wildlife Tourism
5.2.4
Medium Term Investment
5.2.5
Long Term Development
5.2.6
Project Profiles
22
23
23
24
REFERENCES
PERSONS MET
LIST OF SCHEDULES
SCHEDULE t          WILDLIFE TOUR ITINERARIES
SCHEDULE 5          NATIONAL TOURISM POLICY: EXTRACT FROM TRANSITIONAL GOVERNMENT S ECONOMIC POLICIES FOR ETHIOPIA
LIST OF TABLES
1                NUMBERS OF VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS
2                 SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS WILDLIFE TOURS
3                 RANKING OF ATTRACTIONS IN RIVAL DESTINATIONS
4                 STATE-OWNED HOTELS IN THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN, 1988/89
UST OF FIGURES
1                INTERNATIONAL VISITOR ARRIVALS BY NATIONALITY
2                 INTERNATIONAL VISITOR ARRIVALS BY PURPOSE OF VISIT
3                 VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS, SHOWING CONTRIBUTION FROM RIFT VALLEY
4                 NUMBER OF VISITORS IN SPECIAL WILDLIFE TOURS
25
25
<&
$
€
II
*1                INTRODUCTION
This current study focusses on ihe potential for the development of wildlife tourism In the Ethiopian Rift Valley The wildlife resources together with the landscape, historical and cultural attractions of Ethiopia could lorm ihe basis of a thriving and sustainable tourism industry However since tourism to Ethiopia for foreign holiday or recreational travel is at present virtually non existent. It Is Important that these Ideas should be considered against the background of how the Ethiopian tourism Industry overall seems likely to develop in the coming years. As explained below, wildlife tourism In the Rift Valley can only be developed as part of an integrated approach io tourism development and Indeed land-use Issues as a whole
No time was available under this reconnaissance phase to investigate in any detail existing tourism Infrastructure or other data, and though the_team has some first-hand experience of ihis. the study has therefore had to rely on other published data sources, notably UNDP/WTO 1990. There would however, appear to be some Inconsistencies in the UNDP/WTO data, and this will need to be verified In the second phase of the master plan preparation
Whilst the WTO report has been rdled upon for much of the basic data on the tourism industry the present study believes that this report Is too optimistic In Its proposed tourism development programme. The prospects for muitl-mllllon dollar Investments In 100 bed reeort/lodge type facilities, at Arba Minch and Langano In particular, are too premature. The present study would envisage such developments taking place In the 15-20 year time horizon as part of the third phase of a long term tourism development programme, see Section 5.2
12                TOURISM ATTRACTIONS
Ethiopia has been aptly described as a ’land apart" (J C Hillman in Camaraplx 1989) The rugged highland massif that forms the heart of the country Is isolated from all other highland parts of Africa This is the main cause of Its remarkable rich and diverse heritage of wildlife ■ a true case of "splendid isolation".
Scenically too. Ethiopia is outstanding, quite literally! From the extensive afro-alpine moorlands of Bale and the Slmien at over 4.000 metres to the depths of the Danakll Depression at more than 100 metres below sea level, from dense tropical forests to shimmering soda lakes, from the dissected high plateaus to the scarp of the Rift Valley from hot volcanic springs to dry pumice lava fields, from deep gorges and crashing waterfalls to lhe dry deserts on Its fringes, Ethiopia offers a range of landscapes unparalleled In Africa
Yet this biological richness and landscape diversity is not widely appreciated amongst lhe International tourism community, views being perhaps coloured by television scenes only of deserts and lhe awful famines. Before a substantial volume of tourist visits can be generated, steps will need to be taken to correct perceptions of the overall Image of Ethiopia in the minds of the travelling public.
2.1           Wild I If e Tou rl sm Attra ction s
The wildlife ol Ethiopia In general and the Rift Valley In particular are described In detail in the Appendix J: Wlldllle Conservation and the Environment Only those aspects which are likely to form the main attractions for wildlife tourism are highlighted here (See also J C Hillman In Camarapix 19B9 and Klngdon 1990)
Biologically Ethiopia has all the rich species diversity that one mlghl expect from Its position In continental Africa, but with high rates of endemism more akin to those of an oceanic Island There is good reason for this, since for many plants and animals It represents an island of mountains surrounded by a sea of inhospitable deserts.
What Ethiopia has to offer is an Immense variety of wildlife and natural landscapes together with a rich cultural herlfege unrivalled in Africa. The tourism potential is we believe very substantial, but Is mainly concentrated In different sectors of the tourism market to those currently being catered for by other East African countries.
Il Is suggested that development of wildlife tourism should concentrate on three main areas of potent iai-
22 1-1          Ethiopian Specialities in the Rift Valley
Of 242 land mammals recorded In Ethiopia, 22 are endemic, Including species such as the Walla Ibex, Mountain Nyaia and Slmien Jackal, which are confined to the highest mountain areas, notably Slmien and Bale
In the Rift Valley can be found Swayne s hartebeesl an endemic sub- species once widespread throughout (he Ethiopian Rift and on Into Somalia, but now confined to a few remnant populations al Senkelle. Nechisar, Maze, Yavello and also Awash (where It was re-introduced)
Al least B45  species of bird have so far been recorded in Ethiopia and the addition of new ones still continues as more ornithologists explore the area Of  these  at  least  28  are  endemic,  lhe  highest  number  of  endemic  bird species of any country on the African continent. As with many of the other taxonomic  groups,  most  of  the  endemic  birds  are  confined  to  the  highland areas, but B of the 28 species regularly occur in the Rih Valley Itself.
01 the 6,500 to 7.000 species of flowering plants in Ethiopia about 15% are endemic,  along  with  80%  of  lhe  80  species  ol  amphibia  Endemic  rates  are also  high  amongst  lhe  reptiles,  fish  and  Invertebrates,  although  with  most groups further study will doubtless reveal still more.
Many more species not strictly endemic to Ethiopia (in the sense of having
their range confined within its political boundaries) have their centre of distribution in the Horn of Africa, and still others can be found which are
scarce or difficult to see elsewhere on the continent
This high degree of uniqueness, combined with an already rich flora and fauna resulting from the overlapping influences of African. Arabian and Palearctic species (see Section 2. Appendix J; Wildlife Conservation and Environment) make Ethiopia a very attractive wildlife tourism destination even for (in some ways especially for) those already familiar with the wildlife ol other East African countries.
The Rift Valley will have an Important part lo play In developing tour itineraries based on highlighting the Ethiopian endemics. Although most of these species are concentrated In the highlands, the easy accessibility of the Rift from Addis Ababa en route to Bale, Omo or Yavello or as an Integral part of tours largely aimed at the northern route, adds variety and Interest, making it a highly desirable destination on almost any trip to the country (see Section 4.6).
2,1,2           Wilderness Safaris
There Is a limited but high quality market lor those seeking experience of truly wild areas and therefore, by definition, not expecting any kind of well developed tourism Infrastructure (indeed such visitors are often positively seeking to avoid such things!). Ethiopia has a great deal to offer such people with areas such as Omo and Mago In the south still largely unaffected by contact with western civilisation (but see below Section 4.2).
3Whan ihe security situation is belter resolved, such trips could also Include areas iik« Gambella. Danakll, High Simian, the SW forests. SE Ethiopia and the southernmost parts of the Rift Valley These kind of trips have 3 great attraction aven for the seasoned traveller in Africa since they can offer a quality of wilderness experience now exl re mely difficult io obtain elsewhere on the continent. The northern parts of the Rift Valley will form an integral part of such itineraries, whilst the southern part from Arba Minch to Chew Bahir Itself offers a true wilderness experience.
2 1.3 Combined Special Interest Tours
Now lhat the problems of lhe civil war In the north of the counlry seem to be largely resolved, Il Is the hope of many in the tourist industry that the wonderful religious and archaeological sites of lhe ■northern historical route' including Axum, Lallbeia. Gondar, Behar Car. Lake Tana ate will once again become freely accessible to tourists. If so. there Is a likelihood that many International visitors wilt come and want to combine their visit to the historical sites with some days viewing wildlife. Sites such as Simlen National Park, Awash National Park and the lakes in the northern part of the Ethiopian Rift Valley lend themselves well Io Inclusion In such Itineraries Using internal domestic air links It is possible that the southern Pit! Vail ay lakes or even the Omo basin could be tied in to such tours.
The Ethiopian endemic birds and mammals could also be featured. Sights such as the Lake Ablyata flamingoes or the volcanic features and hot springs of the Rift Valley would be popular attractions which, along with lhe other Rih Valley lakes, would provide a fascinating contrast in landscape, cl I male and wildlife io rhe mountains of the north.
2.1.4 Comparison with Other East African Countries
Whilst it has many of the same species of game animals and birds as olhar East African countries such as Kenya and Tanzania, and the added attractions of lhe high number of endemics. Ethiopia Is very far a way from having the currant potential to be a serious competitor lor the large-scale wildlife tourism market currently being catered for by these count rias, nor
would It, in our opinion be sensible for ft to attempt to become so.
Kenya has developed a financially very successful wildlife tourism Industry based on the extensive parts of its land area which ft has sei aside as National Parks, but has also combined this with beach tourism on Its Indian Ocean coast. Many Kenyan tour Itineraries Incorporate a game safari, either camping or In high quality game lodges in lhe National Paries, wlih a few days at beach-aide hoi ale or vice-versa. The foreign Investment necessary to achieve this has been massive however and, It Is considered, would be quite inappropriate for Ethiopia's current needs and situation.
Ethiopia lacks most of lhe general Infrastructure In terms of hotels, road systems, available transport and trained and experienced staff to cope with this kind of tourism and. until the security situation settles down. Is unlikely to attract the Inward foreign Investment necessary to achieve 11.
4In any case, in Ethiopia the game animals are generally more dispersed and. other than In remote areas like the Omo valley and perhaps Gambella, Ethiopian National Parks do not produce the overall wildlife spectacle of game that places like the Masai Mara, Ambosell or Serengeti have to offer.
Notwithstanding this the mammals are there and In some ways their general scarcity and shyness add to the enjoyment and quality of the experience of seeing them, especially In such spectacular landscapes The general absence of the big cats or dangerous large animats like buffalo from most areas, though sad In Itself does have one ma|or spin-off advantage. In that It Is generally safe to walk around In most of the Ethiopian National Parks - a great asset for those who have felt the frustrations and lack of freedom of vehicle-based safaris In Kenya or Tanzania
The birdlife ol Ethiopia Is also super abundant and, thanks to a complete
lack (for religious reasons) of any persecution, most species are very approachable, almost tame, making the country a paradise for bird
photographers
A comparison of Ethiopia's tourist attractions with those of rival destinations was made In the UNDP/WTO study of 1990, but the table on page 219
(Table 3 of this Appendix) contains a number of Inexplicable anomalies and
is therefore difficult to Interpret1.
Game Hunting
National Overview
Game hunting is not strictly included in the term "wildlife tourism”, which is conventionally used to cover the non-exploitatlve forms of tourism, e g game-viewing safaris, birdwatching tours etc. but In earlier years most tourist visitors to East Africa were big game hunters Nowadays most visitors come to shoot only with their cameras. Game hunting Is none-lhe- less still capable of drawing international tourist visitors into a country and, where licence and facility fees are high, of creating considerable foreign exchange revenue
In some African countries, management ol game hunting has even been used (somewhat ironically it may seem at first sight) to encourage conservation ol the species concerned By returning part of the licence lees to local people, It is argued that this helps engender protection of the animals by the local people, since they have a vested Interest in ensuring the animals survive long enough tor a hunter to bag them as a trophy.
For example, how the consultants could have concluded that destinations such as Seychelles. Mauritius and Madagascar rated •poor* for endemic animals almost defies belief Madagascar In pamciMar probably has one of the highest rates ol endemism in the world
5Policies towards game hunting differ markedly between countries, even within East Africa Kenya and Malawi allow only bird shooting, and In Rwanda and Burundi there Is no wildlife left to hunt outside the places where it Is protected Ethiopia. Uganda. Tanzania and Zambia all still permit licensed hunting, but claim that it Is strictly controlled
In Ethiopia the 1970 Imperial Order, which established the Wildlife Conservation Organisation (WCO). set out a procedure whereby the money generated by hunting was to be deposited In a special bank account In the name of WCO and used to fund conservation activities It Is doubtful however if this was ever fully Implemented, either under the emperor or the subsequent regime The UNDP/WTO 1990 tourism study of Ethiopia estimated Income from game hunting al USS 1.2 million, which compares Interestingly with the present annual budget for EWCO of some EthBlrr 1 2 million (USS 600.000). though whether even this latter figure was paid in lull Is uncertain Hunting may have the potential to aid conservation, but there are ail too few examples where this can be shown conclusively to have worked
Hunting is by Us very nature exploitative and should therefore only be permitted where It can be operated on a sustainable basis, without detriment to the conservation status of the wildlife species and populations concerned. If properly managed It could be used as a technique In population management; however, caution should be exercised since hunting a selection of Individuals for trophies unless controlled will produce a highly biased cull of mainly mature mates, so disturbing the natural age and sex-ratio structure of the population
The  range  of  opinions  on  the  subject  Is  as  wide  aa  they  are  strongly  held For  example,  at  the  recent  1992  CITES  (Convention  on  International  Trade
1
in Endangered Species ) meeting
in  Kyoto,  Japan,  six  nations  In  southern
Africa demanded that elephants be transferred to the Appendix II category, so enabling those nations to recycle export revenues from ivory to villages In the elephants' habitats. In contrast Zambia's Tourism Minister recently went on record calling on the international community to maintain the ban on trading In ivory since 90% of Zambia's elephants had been lost to commercial poaching. To argue that an elephant can only have value when It Is dead, however Is a philosophy of despair. Indeed, those In Kenyan National Parks doubtless earn considerable revenue for the authorities during their lifetimes, quite possibly even more than the potential value of their Ivory.
The great difficulty with hunting Is how to ensure that it i$ properly controlled on a sustainable basis, and that the licensing system Is neither susceptible to corruption, nor circumvented by poaching. This Is even more crucial In countries like Ethiopia where the legal quarry list still includes endemic mammals such as the Mountain Nyala. In theory strict
Ethiopia became a signatory to the CITES convention in January 1969
6yearly  quotas  both  for  nyala  and  elephant  are  operated,  but
how  effectively
these are administered and enforced la not known.
2.2.2
Game Hunting In the Rift Valley
Hunting  In  all  the  National  Park  areas  is  strictly  prohibited  by  law,  but
poaching  (mainly  by  local  people)  certainly  occurs  in  Ablyata-Shala  Lakes
and Nechisar National Perks within the Rift Valley basin, and doubtless also
in  the  Chew  Bahir  (so-called)  Wildlife  Reserve  Hunting  is  allowed  by  permit
only  In  Controlled  Hunting  Areas,  though  the  extent  to  which  this occurs In
the  Rift  Valley.  In  the  Boyo  Swamp  Controlled  Hunting  Area  or  Senkelle
Swayne  s  Hanebeest  Sanctuary  is  not  known.  Outside  the  protected  areas
In the RIH Valley, game are in any case relatively scarce.
The  key  big  game  hunting  areas  in  the  country  are  largely  outside  the  Rift
Valley  In  the  Omo Basin and in the  west near Gambella. It is recommended
that  as  a  new  wildlife  conservation  strategy  for  Ethiopia  is  developed,  a
complete  review  of  hunting laws,  legitimate quarry species, licence fees and
enforcement procedures etc be undertaken
73                 EXPERIENCE TO DATE IN ETHIOPIA
3.1             Ethiopian Tourism
3 1 i           international Visitors
According to UNDP/WTO (1990) the total number ol International visitor arrivals at Ethiopian frontiers increased from about 58,000 in 1986 to about 62,000 in 1989 (including between 10,000 and 15,000 transit passengers). Figure 1 gives a breakdown of international arrivals by nationality, showing the steady rise in volume caused mainly by Increased numbers of visitors with European. Middle Eastern and American nationality. Figure 1 Includes transit passengers, which amounted to 22% of arrivals in 1969
Figure 2 shows that by 1989 the non-transit arrivals were laifly evenly divided in the purpose of their visit between holiday/rec real Ion (28%), business (35%) and other reasons (37%). The UNDP/WTO report concludes that In 1987 there were only 3,400 visits by pure holiday makers to Ethiopia, However it also notes lhai much of the rest of the hoOday/recreation segment consists mainly of visitors to foreign residents In Elhlopla (see below, 3.1.2). Many of these can be expected to wish to participate in tourism activities whilst in country. To pul The numbers in context It is worth noting that Konya receives some 300.000 tourist arrivals per year, mainly for the purpose of wildlife tourism.
3.1.2          Foreign Resklents
As the headquarters location of a number of International agencies, Addis Ababa has a large population of expatriate residents, totalling approximately 20,000 Most of these are remunerated from abroad, so that their recreational travel within Ethiopia forms another way of earning foreign exchange. Tourism of this type is based chiefly on road travel from Addis Ababa. In addition, it was estimated In the UNDP/WTO (1990) report that in 1987 at least 4.300 of the foreign visitor arrivals came to visit foreign residents, undoubtedly stimulating further travel by them within Ethiopia.
3.1.3           Nationals and Intrareglonal Visitors
In the past certain pans of the Rift Valley, notably the shores of Lake
Langano, were much visited at weekends by Inhabitants ol Addis Ababa, but not currently (March 1992). Similarly, in earlier years residents of Djibouti,
for example, used to visit the Rift Valley lakes, but the potential to attract
more tourists from neighbouring Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen etc. who
could benefit from summer holidays in tha cool Ethiopian towns and resort areas, has yet to be exploited.
3.1.4          Organisation of Tourism In Ethiopia
Between 1964 and 1980 the main Institution for promotion and development of tourism in Elhlopla was the Ethiopian Tourist Organisation In 1980 the Ethiopian Tourist Commission (ETC) was established with the main
8objectives of developing and promoting tourism, and endeavouring to maintain and develop natural resources and the historical heritage of the country with a view to attracting tourists (Proclamation No 102/1980). Licences tor private tour operators and agents were withdrawn and the National Tour Operation (NTO), a semi-independent but Government-owned corporation, was given sole rights for transporting and guiding local and foreign tourists Other ETC subsidiaries include the Ethiopian Tourist Trading Corporalion (ETTC), the Catering and Tourism Training Institute (CTTI) and the National Hotel Corporation (NHC). ETC and NTO employ a total staff in excess of 500 persons. In 1988/09 the foreign exchange income ol NTO was USS 1.3 million, 46% of which came from renting vehicles.
Under the policy of the Transitional Government, some 20 to 30 private enterprises have been licenced In the last 3 months to operate as travel agencies, and several others, such as Prime Tours and Yurno. as tour operators. NTO will henceforth operate in open competition with the private sector. Some of the State-owned hotels such as the Wabe Shebele group and the Ghion may be sold to private interests. Several major international hotel groups have already expressed an interest In new Investment In Ethiopia, but this will almost certainly be focused in Addis Ababa, targeted mainly at the lucrative international conference market.
3.2             Rift Valley Wildlife Tourism
3,2.1 Visitors to National Parks
The success of the National Parks In attracting visitors is very clear from Table 1. Their apparent popularity is directly related to their proximity to Addis Ababa and easy access by tarmac-surfaced roads. Omo National Park has much more to offer by way of game viewing, but travel there is much more difficult During the period 1983 to 1989 the AbiyataShala Lakes National Park received more visitors than any other National Park, with 45% ol the total. Awash National Park, the next most popular destination, was a short way behind with 42% The other National Parks had far fewer visitors during the same period, being further from the capital, and in the case of mountainous regions and remote roadless areas, more demanding of both visitors and vehicles
Figure 3 shows the growth In the importance to tourism of the Rift Valley National Parks Over a period of 10 years their contribution, measured in visitor numbers has grown from zero to 50% Of the total
3 2.2 Past Tours
Table 2 summarises Ethiopian experience to dale in organised wildlife tours run since 1983 by NTO in association with specialist tour operators abroad. This type ol tour must be based on small groups ol tourists, in this case up to about 20 persons, with an average of 14 Ol the 22 tours listed, only two did not include the Rift Valley in their Itineraries From the Information in Table 2, Figure 4 shows the growth in this kind of tourism since 1982 and
9Us recent decline Whilst the numbers are modest, and such specialist lours represent only one particular element of the wildlife tourism market, the pattern In Figure 4 demonstrates how demand tor wildllle tourism grew despite the presence of civil strlie in parts of Ethiopia not on the Itineraries. However Figure 4 Illustrate* equally well how easily consumer confidence can be lost. The fall In numbers in 1991 is a direct result ol unease about security, shared between tour operators. Ethiopian authorities and tourists themselves (see below) Note also that tour® virtually ceased at the time of the 1984/85 Ethiopian famines
3.2.3 Some Itineraries
Schedule 1 contains a selection of Itineraries based on those used or offered In recent years by various specialist wildlife holiday companies based in the UK. Since 1933 virtually all of the specialist birdwatching holiday tours to Ethiopia have been from the UK-baaed operators In Table 2, with ground arrangements In Ethiopia provided through NTO. Despite this there would undoubtedly be a market for such tours Irom other source countries, notably Germany, Holland, Scandinavia, USA etc where there Is a strang Interest in wildlife Issues, demonstrated by their vigorous wildlife conservation organisations.
3-2.4 Recent Events
Following the climax of the civil war in May 1991 popular resentment of everything perceived as being linked to actions of the previous Government led to widespread destruction ol tourism faculties In or near National Parks and other protected areas (see Appendix J). Within the Rift Valley this Included the Abiyata-Shala Lakes National Park, Senkelle Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary and Nechlsar National Park, and also the two major hotels on Lake Langano (Bekele Molla, Wabe Shebele) and nearby holiday cottages. Tourists are at present officially advised not to travel south Into the Rift Valley (March 1992)r for reasons of security.
The future development of tourism In the Rih Valley will be very much dependent on the Improvement In the general security situation In the country as a whole and the Rift Valley in particular, Tourism is very sensitive to these Issues and therefore, whilst planning for future development should be set In progress, the actual commitment of any major capital Investment to Improve hotels and other tourism Infrastructure should be delayed until such time as the security risks are overcome
10£4                 DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL AND CONSTRAINTS
4,1              Protection of the Wildlife Resource
Setting   aside   the   needs   for   wildlife   conservation   in   Its   own   right,   a convincing  case  could  be  pul  forward  to  protect  the  wildlife  resource  lor reasons  of  Its  economic  potential,  In  particular  In  the  generalion  of  foreign currency  earnings  through  wildltt®  tourism  In  Kenya  for  example,  wlldllle tourism   Is   today   the   largest   single   source   of   foreign   exchange   to   the national  economy,  having  overtaken  coffee  In  this  respect  some  years  ago Wildlife   tourism   there   has   become   a   powerful   force   for   protecting   the National   Parks.   In   a   country   where   pressure   on   the   land   due   to   a burgeoning  human  population  Is  intense.  Such  arguments  could  be  used In an even more telling way in densely populated parts of Ethiopia such as the Hitt Valley.
It is essential, however, that wildlife tourism Is not allowed to become purely exploitative, but is used instead as a means of helping to conserve the resource on which it is based. It muet be recognised that wildlife populations are themselves a finite, albeit renewable, resource capable of over-exploitation and that there is an upper limit on the extent to which they can be utilised. Even such apparently benign activities as game- viewlng/wkldllfe photo-safaris have their maximum carrying capacity. Il would seem at times to have reached beyond this limit In areas such as Kenya's Masai Mara Reserve, where studies have revealed that cheetahs are often unable to hunt properly due to being constantly sought out and surrounded by minibuses full of camera-cl Icking tourists.
Such problems are avoidable by proper control and management, but rt must be accepted that wildlife populations are not ‘free goods" for man to exploit at will Management and protection of wildlife will cost money and may even require acceptance of some limits on personal freedom of action, but If it is deckled to utilise wildlife for recreation and the development of a tourism Industry, this is a price which must be paid. It Is no different In principle to Industry protecting the factory and sources of raw materials on which Its production processes are based, securing Investment for the future.
Utilisation of the wildlife resources In this purely commercial fashion Is however, a dangerous path to embark upon, especially if It leads to the un|us(1flable conclusion that the wildlife should only be ailowed io continue If it pays Its way; wildlife has a right to exist Independently of Its value to man, The fact that we now have the means to destroy it, does not give us the right to do so. Indeed since we have developed that power to destroy the natural world. It may be argued that, whether we like It or not, we Inherit the responsibility to conserve It, Indeed it Is in man’s Interest to do so since he is himself part of that world, dependent on the continuance of those natural resources This fact Is often overlooked in many Wesiern countries, but such dependence Is all loo glaringly close to home for many in countries such as Ethiopia.
itA   firm   commitment   to   wildlife   conservation   at   international,   national regional  and  local  level  Is  a  prerequisite  therefore,  and  vital  to  ensure  that the   development   of   wildlife   tourism   is   sustainable   Unless   tourism,   of whatever  kind,  starts  to  do  substantially  more  to  ensure  the  conservation ol  the  natural  resources  on  which  It  Is  based,  neither  It  nor  the  natural resources have much of a long-term future.
4.2              Environmental and Social Impact
Tourism has great potential to create wealth, but It can also generate considerable environmental and social problems. Most parts of Ethiopia have experienced very little tourism to date, so that there Is an opportunity to profit from lessons learned elsewhere, and great danger In not doing so. It is Important In developing new tourism initiatives In the Rift Valley to start on a modest scale, utilising existing facilities where possible and integrating tourism into lhe local community, noi sei apart from It, In this way greater understanding can be achieved between tourists and local communities, helping to avoid the potential clash ol cultures. If insensitively handled, the contrast of wealth between rich tourists and poor local people could lead to intense resentment and an increase In crime specifically against tourists.
Il is important to attract the kind of tourists who will be sensitive to the deeply rooted culture of Ethiopia, more inclined to respect local traditions and appreciate The tact that they are guests of the Ethiopian people It is equally Importani Io enable local communities to participate In and benefit Irom tourism development.
National Parks world wide are selected largely because they represent some ol the finest remaining areas of outstanding natural beauty, and are accordingly much visited by tourists In the light of this it seems almost tragically Ironic that the demands of tourism development and environmental protection are frequently portrayed to be antagonistic and in Inevitable conflict.
Tourism must be pitched at a level which the environment Itself can tolerate. Proper management ol tourism pressure, particularly In sensitive areas such as National Parks, will be vital to avoid problems like disturbance or harassment of animals, pollution, erosion, unlicensed hunting etc. Development Investment needs to be directed to a broader front, not purely for tourism bul to ensure that tourism development, far from causing problems, actually benefits local communities both economically and environmentally.
4.3              Security
Though there will always be the adventurous few, in general tourism is built on confidence. The fragile nature of this confidence and the ease with
which II can be undermined could not have bean more graphically Illustrated by the plunge in international tourism traffic during the recent
12crisis  In  the  Gulf,  even  In  countries  not  directly  Involved  In  the  conflict. During that war not a single tourist came to Ethiopia
Confidence Is based on security Where the source of Insecurity is within the country Itself, such as that caused by the various civil wars in parts ol Ethiopia over the last 20 years, lhe difficulties ot restoring confidence are all too obvious The terrible famines which have alllicted the whole of the Horn of Africa during this period, lhe desperate problems of refugees caused by conflict and famine (often directly linked), combined with the continuing unstable internal security situation has meant that Ethiopia Is now regarded, at best as an inappropriate tourism destination and, at worst, only for the Insensitive and foolhardy. With other such massive problems io grapple with, tourism development might, not unreasonably, be regarded both externally and internally, as an Irrelevance. This would, however, be to overlook iis potential benefits In attracting foreign, currency, new investment in rural areas and In generating rural employment opportunities, both directly and indirectly In providing secondary supplies and services to the tourism industry It would also help to rebuild confidence, both in consumers and in the Ethiopian people themselves
Whilst It is self-evident that the development of tourism and the waging of civil war are incompatible activities, the present state of political uncertainty in the country (which in parts amounts to almost lawlessness), pending elections and the establishment of new Governmental structures. Is equally unlikely to encourage much progress
Only one or two incidents of robbery, murder (or even threat of this) to visiting tourists would be likely to attract quite disproportionate International publicity which could set back the cause of confidence building by years. In such a situation it Is easy to understand why authorities are likely to react in a seemingly over-cautious way In restricting access to certain areas thought to be at risk of problems.
Suggestions of major new Investment eg, in hotels, airports and other infrastructure to support tourism (UNDP/WTO 1990), even II they were appropriate or could be Justified, are unrealistic and premature, unless and until the security question is first settled and consumer and Investor confidence restored In the meantime It is appropriate to establish a potential development programme which could be Implemented once this precondition Is met. Training for the tourism industry Is available at the national level and the future needs of the Rift Valley should be taken into account In determining the longer term manpower requirements The restoration of lhe National Parks should be proceeded with on conservation and environmental grounds Independent of their tourism value, see recommendations in Appendix J,
134.4             Financial, Economic and Institutional Considerations
4.4.1          Development of a Market Economy
The difficulties In developing a market economy In tourism should not be under estimated. In the recent past much of the entrepreneurial energy and skill undoubtedly present In Ethiopia have been diverted into circumventing the former command economy system Wildlife tourism will never provide economic salvation for Ethiopia, but It could make a valuable contribution if properly managed as part of an overall strategy of sustainable land use Al the present time considerable caution should be exercised towards and proposals for ma|or capital Investment In new hotels, lodges and other Infrastructure until the basic support system for tourism has been built up. Latent demand certainly exists, but consumer confidence in Ethiopia as a destination must first be established, and management ol the industry and facilities, even In Its present state should be Improved and standards raised Competition between a number of small operators will help to steadily Improve standards.
4.4.2          Exchange Rale
The present overvaluation of the national currency presents problems in tourism es elsewhere There is an approximately three to four-fold disparity between the oflicial exchange rate and (unchanged against the US$ for 17 years) and that In the parallel ’grey" market1. As NTO and the main tourist hotels in Addis Ababa deal In foreign exchange only at the official rate, transactions through them are disproportionately expensive relative to the true market value of the Birr. This makes Ethiopia uncompetitive with rival tourist destinations such as other East African countries eg Kenya. It distorts the Ethiopian tourism sector and siphons valuable foreign exchange out of the ’official" economy,
4 4.3          Credit Facilities
Today’s International tourists, tor reasons of ease and security, prefer to avoid carrying large quantities of cash or even travellers' cheques Tourists like to pay bills using International credit cards such as Mastercard and
Visa
Outside Addis Ababa no outlets accepting such cards were found by the study team, and even in Addis Ababa the only card accepted, and then only at the larger hotels, was American Express. In the ETC tourist souvenir shop in Addis Ababa the only acceptable form of payment for some items is US dollar currency notes (no credit cards, even American Express; no sterling currency or any travellers’ cheques).
i           Whist officially proscribed, the parallel market appears to operate with little official intervention
14Extension of International c rad It card facilities would not only ease payment but almost certainly Increase per capita spending by tourists. Since any such credit card transactions are easy io monitor through the banking system and must be settled at the official exchange rate, the wider use ol this form of payment would likely result In greater foreign currency receipts and less tourist involvement In the parallel market
4 4 4 Institutional Aspects
The Transitional Government has Indicated that tourism will be accorded special attention In Its economic policies, see Schedule 2 The are a number of administrative procedures that cotHd be simplified to assist in processing tourists through the immigration and other formalities For example short term tourist visas could be issued on arrival and visa extensions could be made easier to obtain.
Restrictive bureaucracy when bringing camera equipment, binoculars, telescopes etc. Into the country and the requirement to list serial numbers of such items and limits on when and where they may be used are not conducive to encouraging tourism. Previous travel permit procedures have now been abolished by the Transitional Government, but photographic freedom has not yet been relaxed. The needs of national security are recognised but few tourists are interested In such sensitive issues
4.5                Infrastructure
4,5.1 Air Travel
Although air links provide the most important means of passenger transport to and from Ethiopia, there are vary few International airlines currently using Addis Ababa. Only Ethiopian Airtines and Lufthansa (and until recently Alitalia) provide routes from what may be considered the main tourist generating countries. There are no passenger charter flighis. Ethiopian Airlines has recently reduced its London Addis Ababa tariff substantially (from £540 Io £450 return. March 1992} In an effort to stimulate tourist traffic, but th I* wilt need to be matched by adjustments in tour operators' charges (see below) to improve Ethiopia1 a ability to compete with rival destinations.
There are two airstrips In the Rift Valley which could be of interest to wildlife tour operators, at Arbi Minch (very near Nechlsar National Park) and Soddo (near Senkelle Swayne's Hartebeesf Sanctuary). Each has a one-way approach to a grass runway capable of accepting aircraft such as the Dash-6, although the strip at Arba Minch Is soft during wet weather. Domestic air links could provide a valuable way of developing attractive tour Itineraries to improve opportunities tor visitors whose time is limited, avoiding long hard journeys on poorly-surfaced roads. Remote wildlife sites unlikely to receive visitors In any other way could benefit from using domestic air travel as a link with tours focused in different areas, such as Addis Ababa or the northern "historical route".
15A     feasibility     study     for     upgrading     the     Arba     Minch     airport     to regional/internatlonal standards  is Included in the long term infrastructure development programme tor the basin.
45-2 Road Transport and Other Travel
Road access to the northern Rift Valley lakes (Ztway, Langano, Shala. Abiyata and Awassa) is good lor all types ol vehicle, with a paved road from Addis Ababa which continues south from AwasBa io the Kenyan border At present the southern lakes (Abaya and Chamo). and the western part of lhe Rih Valley (Arba Minch - Soddo - Hosalna - Addis Ababa) can be reached only by all-weather gravel roads. Although Arba Minch can be reached by ordinary cars. It is essential to use a 4WD vehicle to get into Nechlsar National Park South of Arba Minch roads are classified as rural/dry weather, so that access to the Chew Bahlr area is practicable only by 4WD vehicle.
Feasibility studies for road improvement protects In the southern part of the basin are included as components of the Infrastructure development programme ol the IMP
Until recently the only road travel option for tourists was to hire a vehicle plus driver from NTO. Although the Transitional Government policy now allows private operators to compete with NTO. there are considerable foreign currency Implications for private operators seeking to establish a lleet of vehicles. Coaches. 4WD vehicles and minibuses are especially expensive and must be imported Such issues must be taken into account when considering The net economic benefits from developing wildlife tourism.
In the pa si It has been possible for tourists to take boat trips In the Rift Valley (eg on Lake Chamo), and to hire horses and donkeys for trekking in National Parks and other areas Both present excellent opportunities for viewing wildlife and there are more opportunities for developing this again in the future (eg. boat trips around the bird Islands on Lake Shala; a larry across Lake Abaya Into Nechlsar National Park; horse-trekking up lhe eastern shore ol Lake Abiyata etc,, see Section 5 In this Appendix and also Appendix J, Sections 4 and 6 2.1) ,
4.5 3 Accommodation and Food
Addis Ababa at present provides an adequate supply of hotels for current levels of market demand, although this is severely strained during major international conferences such as organised by the Organisation for African Unity (OAU) and lhe Economic Commission for Africa (EGA). Currently most of the hotel capacity ol Ethiopia is concentrated In Addis Ababa, whose dominance seems likely only to intensify as its Importance as an International conference centre and agency base for the African continent continues to develop. Elsewhere hotel facilities are generally of a much lower standard, bul could be upgraded to an acceptable level at a modest investment
164.6
As noted above, some hotel facilities In the RHt Valley have been severely damaged (Lake Langano). Others occupy pleasant and often spectacular sites, but urgently need rehabilitation If they are to attract and handle tourists in significant numbers This requires more than normal redecoratlon and maintenance. Largely through wear and tear many rooms have unsafe electrical wiring and inadequate or damaged sanitary arrangements A relatively modest Investment programme to put right such detects and train staff adequately would be a much better option in the short to medium Term than contemplating any expensive capital Investment scheme lor new building.
Most hotels in rural areas are unused to handling tourists. There is a definite need for staff training. For example, at the time of the study team's visit in March 1992 the main tourist hotel at Arba Minch (privately owned) made no effort to provide emergency supplies of water for wasbing when the town s water supply failed for several days, allhough the local people were themselves visiting the spring to got supplies. Most tourists would find this totally unacceptable. Al another hotel (state-owned) payment for rooms was demanded in advance, despite there being no alternative hotel In town. Even in the International-standard hotels In Addis Ababa, where visitor expectations are higher, basic standards of customer care are often lacking. Such difficulties come to be tolerated by those visiting Ethiopia on business, as part ol a system where other, greater problems are much more Important, but for the sake of a small amount of staff training, most such Issues are avoidable at minimal cost.
If Ethiopia wishes to continue to develop its tourism Industry, training in hotel, catering, tour-operation and travel management would all pay dividends. Most tourists tolerate unforeseeable mishaps, but resent paying lor bad management
Adventurous and enlightened tourists are usually at least prepared to try local food in any country. It is Important, however for hotels in rural areas to provide alternative food for tourists who do not wish to eat local food ail the time, or who simply do not like it. The alternatives need not be elaborate. For example* a simple meal of Nile perch is a special treat for most tourists who have no opportunity of tasting It at home. Use ol local food sources Is not only desirable to avoid the severe foreign currency Implications of food imports, but also to generate Income for local people who could be encouraged to grow food to supply tourist sites.
The Rift Valley and Potential Tour Itineraries for International Visitors
Most International visitors coming to Ethiopia for wildlife tourism want to sample a range of the different wildlife habitats that the country has to offer, and in particular to ensure That a reasonable number of The endemic birds and mammals are included- Since most ol the endemic species are concentrated In the highland areas rather than the Rift Valley Itself. It might be thought that the Rift Valley sites were of lesser Importance as wildlife tourism attractions in this respect.
17However, this would be to overlook the key geographical position of the Rift Valley In relation to the main highland areas. Its easy accessibility Irom Addis Ababa and containing, as It does, lha main communication routes to the south. This is clearly illustrated by the example tour Itineraries in Schedule 1 which, whether they are mainly concentrating on the Omo Valley, Balo Mountains, SE Ethiopia or even Gondar and the Slmlen in the north, all still include visits io most of the main Rift Valley lakes between Koks and Awassa. Lakes Chamo and Abaya are also visited en route to Omo.
The popularity of the Rift Valley In this way arises partly because It lies on the main route to other key areas in the south, but also through the richness and variety of the lakes themselves, the Acacia savannah and Ficus sycomorut - Podocarpus woodland and habitat/species diversity seen in any trip. Pure wildlife spectacles such as the flamingoes and pelicans in AbiyataShala Lakes National Park are also great attractions In future, (his value of the Rift Valley sites as part of Ethiopian tour Itineraries seems likely to persist and even strengthen. It can be envisaged that once the northern "historical route* is opened up fully again for tourists there will be a high probability of Including several additional days in these tour Itineraries for visiting spectacular wildlife sites like Awash National Park and the Rift Valley Lakes Both ol these are so easily accessible from Addis Ababa, the main (and at present virtually the only) arrival point In the country for International visitors, that they form natural additions to any lour itineraries to Ethiopia, even if these mainly focus on the northern "historical route' and the Simien.
As trips to the Bale Mountains and Omo/Mul/Mago National Parks are developed, the Rift Valley will form a natural additional Interest on the journeys. Trips Involving more wide-ranging Itineraries Including perhaps the Egyptian Nile, Lake Tana. Addis Ababa, the Rift Valley and even Lake Uganda could also be developed in time Chew Bahlr in the southern Rift Valley and adjacent areas in Manorial Parks to the weal and Yavello Wildlife Sanctuary to the east would also form useful additions to wildlife tourism itineraries to northern Kenya, provided border crossing difficulties can be resolved.
At present sites in northern Kenya are under-exploited for wildlife tourism because they are so remote from the other main Kenyan sites, and thus difficult to build Into most medium-length Itineraries. Inclusion of sites nearby in Ethiopia which have not only abundant game-viewing to offer, but also some very Interesting endemic species and some wonderfully wild parts of Africa, couid prove very attractive if appropriately marketed.
Resolution  of  the  conflict  in  Eritrea  potentially  re-opens  possibilities  of  the Red  Sea  coast  for  tourism,  assuming  suitable  agreements  can  be  achieved between  the  new  governments  In  Eritrea  and  Ethiopia.  This  coast  which includes  the  Dahlak  Islands  National  Park  certainly  has  a  great  deal  to  offer the  visitor  but  great  care  will  need  to  be  taken  to  avoid  damage  to  coastal habitats  and  In  particular  the  coral  reef  systems  which  would  be  one  of  the main attractions for such tourists; experience elsewhere on the East African
18coasl. In the Indian Ocean and Caribbean suggests that such coral areas are very vulnerable to damage, both directly and also Indirectly Ihrough pollution resulting from nearby tourism developments,
195                 RECOMMENDATIONS   FOR   DEVELOPMENT   OF   RIFT   VALLEY   WILDLIFE TOURISM
5.1             Policy and Planning
5.1.1          Context for Wildlife Tourism
Based on the following recommendations a detailed strategy for the conservation of the key wildlife sites and populations In the Rift Valley should be devised and agreed by ail Interested parties Including, crucially, those at local level It must be an integral pan of an overall National Conservation Strategy (NCS) In which the needs and objectives of wildlife conservation are much more widely understood and appreciated than at present (see Appendix J). It will be necessary to incorporate the strategy of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation (EWCO) Into the NCS, resolving conflicting demands for the use of natural resources (e.g. water, timber, grazing etc,) as part of the national planning process
Il is vital that a positive str elegy on wildlife conservation should arise from this process, and thus decisions will need to be made on which parts of the Rift Valley are to be managed as protected areas The Government’s intentions towards Ablyata-Shate Lakes National Park, Nechlsar National Park and Senkelle Swayne’s Hartabeest Sanctuary and other possible protected areas will then naturally form part of the EVOSA Rift Valley Lakes Basin Master Plan. Once the new Government has reconfirmed its commitment io wildlife conservation, then wildlife tourism is not only an option but also one of the tools that will help to achieve wildlife conservation objectives
The management planning process for conservation areas, described further In the Appendix J, includes for all high-priority sites decisions on whether visitors should be encouraged. If so, the next stage in the process Is lo draw up visitor plans.
5 1.2 Visitor Plans for Wildlife Conservation Areas
For  each  site  where  it  is  decided  that  visitors  are  to  be  encouraged  the following must be specified in the form of a visitor plan>
visitor  experience  (what  visitors can see, why they will want to
visit);
market (what kind of people will want to visit; where they will come from, how will they get to the country; how much are they prepared to pay):
the     facilities     to     be     provided     for     visitors     (buildings, accommodation, access routes, interpretation etc.);
20a    business    plan    (Investment,    funding,    local    employment, supplies  and  other  inputs,  operating  costs,  revenues,  cash  flow forecast etc);
terms    of    reference    for    environmental    impact    assessment. Including assessment of the carrying capacity of the site
5.2              Implementation of Wildlife Tourism Strategy
It is recommended that a phased programme of development in the tourism sector be established stretching over a 20 year time horizon. This programme would consist of three distincl phases, the Implementation of the second and third phases being dependent on the successful Implementation of the immediate preceding phase. This would ensure steady incremental development with investment requirements being closely linked to the general development of the sector. The principal components of the proposed programme are ouihned In the following sections
5.2.1         First Steps
There are some important Initial steps to be taken which would facilitate the process of significant development ol tourism of any kind in Ethiopia:-
tourlsts must be confident cl (heir personal security;
the  exchange  rate  should  reflect  the  true  value  of  the  national
currency;
immigration procedures should be simplified for tourists; international credit card facilities should be extended
S 2 2 Domestic Wildlife Tourism
The domestic sector is based mainly on the purchasing power of foreign residents in Ethiopia, most of whom would welcome more opportunities for recreation and travel Once the internal security situation has been resolved, domestic wildlife tourism in the Rift Valley provides the easiest means of getting the tourist industry going again. The customer base is already there and will require much less by way ol confidence-building measures than attracting international visitors. It can be stimulated very quickly as follows;*
start with small operations based on weekend breaks (the minimum Investment might be a one man tour operator with a vehicle, tent and camping equipment)
develop  home-based  small-scale  Investment  In  rehabilitation  of existing hotels, holiday chalets, camping facilities and transport.
21arrange for local people 10 be Invoked in and benefit tram develop mon fa from the start (leases on land, managempnl, construction, maintenance food supply water, glactrlcliy, horses, donkeys etc);
train  local  people  in  support  services  (drivers,  guides,  caterers, maintenance staff):
include    environmental    impact    assessment    In    development appraisal process.
5.2.3 International Wildlife Tourism
The International sector needs more preparation than the domestic, but tan also proceed lalrty quickly once the Internal security situation has been resolved. For international tourists the Rttt Valley will often feature as part of a lour package which includes wildlife localities In other parts of Ethiopia. There is often a considerable lead time tor organised tours, as tour operators need to tie In their plans with annual brochure publication dates, usually in the autumn-
identity tourism products to sell abroad, possibly using some Ideas from Kenya and Tanzania (previously Ethiopian tours were mainly hotel-based, plus huntlng/camping in Omo). Including conventional camping safaris and vehicle tours, but also
trekking offers real possibilities;
assemble wildlife tour packages In collaboration with airlines, existing experienced specialist tour operators In source countries (see Table 2 for examples) and ground operators In Ethiopia (NTO, Yumo. Prime Tours etc);
rehabilitate existing hotels near wlldlrfe conservation areas;
arrange tor local people to be Involved In end benefit from develop ma nt a from the start (leases on land, management, construction, maintenance, food supply, water, electricity, horses, donkeys etc); give help to local people in arranging sources of funding, aid etc., and to pump-prime Investment;
train  local  people  In  support  services  (drivers,  guides,  caterers, maintenance staff) and investigate ways of funding this;
bring in camping safari expertise where necessary so as to keep the market going during rehabilitation of hotels and other Infrastructure (It Is relatively easy to guarantee standards on camping safer! holidays), but also to establish a firm reputation for good camping safaris as a long term tourism product:
arrange  educational  visits  to  Ethiopia  for  potential  new  foreign lour operators, to sell wildlife tour products to new sources:
22promote    Ethiopian    wildlife    tourism    internationally,    eg    at International travel fairs:
include    environmental    Impact    assessment    in    development appraisal process
5.2.4 Medium Term Investment
Examine the need lor lurther Investment in the Rift Valley, and carry out Improvements In the following areas (provided the environmental Impact Is acceptable)
visitor handling facilities.
small-scale  local  accommodation,  toilets  and  showers  on  camp
sites;
vehicle self-hire (domestic market first);
access tracks;
boats, horse-trekking, self-catering accommodation.
5 2.5 Long Term Development
The pattern lor long term development will depend very much on how successfully rhe short and medium term options are exploited, and It Is absolutely correct that this should be so. Many an expensive mistake in tourism has occurred where It has failed to build on firm market and Infrastructure foundations already established In a country A progressive and Incremental approach is required, steadily consolidating the ability to promote and cope with the demand In a professional way Only by (his route are sound reputations established.
S 2 5.1 Mixed Specialist Products
Investigate    and    develop    The    market    for    mixed    specialist    products, Integrating wildlife tourism (some in the Rift Valley) with;-
cultural tours;
coastal  tours  to  Eritrea  (Including  sun  and beach  tourism,  diving on coral reefs);
international  tours  combining  wildlile  and  cultural  elements  (e.g Kenya/Egypt/Ethiopia).
235.2.5.2      New International Markets
Investigate and develop new markets for wildlife lourism:
Investigate  new  markets  In  Europe.  United  States,  Japan  and the Middle East;
Improve  the  marketing  image  of  Ethiopia  so  as  to  develop  a higher profile of Ethiopia as a wildlife tourist destination;
extend    business    to    major    specialist    operators    (eg    Swan Hellenic. Kuonl. Exodus. Tour Overland etc.)
5.2  6 Pro|ect Profiles
Four projects have been Identified and project profiles formulated to relied the recommendations oulllned In the previous sections. The pro|ect profiles are contained In Appendix 0.
The four projects are;
1 r Visitor Plans for Wildlife Conservation Areas; this would be an essential first stage In the development of a long term programme for the re-establishment of the Rift Valley as a major International tourist destination in the country. Time frame between years 1 - 5.
2    First    Phase    Tourism    Development;    this    phase    would    alm    to rehabilitate  lhe  existing  tourism  faculties  and  begin  the  development of   small   scale   ventures   which   would   be   attractive,   primarily.   Io foreigners resident In the country. Time frame between years 1-10.
3.           Second  Phase  Tourism  Development;  building  on  the  developments and achievements of the  first phase, the second phase would begin to put In place new attractions and to Improve the general standards of the Infrastructure, training and faculties. Some new relatively smalt scale    capital    Investment    would    eb    envisaged    at    this    stage. International tourists might be expected to start visiting In the small numbers at this stage. Time frame between years 5-15
4.           Third Phase Tourism Development; as the demand from International visitors  Increases  the  third  phase  will  involve  the  construction  of larger  scale  facilities  and  resorts  and  will  lead  to  the  development of  the  Rift  Valley  as  a  key  destination  in  the  International  tourism package. Time frame between years 10 ■ 25,
24REFERENCES
UNDP/WTO       (1990)       National       Tourist       Development       P’an Tour consult/International SA, Madrid 1990.
ETH/90/DOS,
25PERSONS MET
Dr Jesse C Hillman
Dr T S Allen-Rowlandson
Ato Rezene Araya
Ato Yllma Dellelegn Mr P Marlin
Ato Abbas Nazerali
Mr P B Jodoln
Ato Johannes Berhanu Alo Abraha Misglnna Dr 1 Deshmukh
Mr P Sutcliffe
Mr R Hutchinson
Alo Kelerna Debele
Ato Josef Ketema Ato Chemere Zewdie Ato Solomon Desta Ato Alemayhu
Mr Per Ole Syvertsen Ato Solomon
Local representatives
Wildlife  Conservation  international  Adviser to EWCO
Wildlife   Ecologist   World   Wide   Fund   for Nature
ETC Commissioner
EWCO Biologist
WWF Education Department
YUMO International Agency
Tri-Mad Ltd
NTO General Manager
NTO Wildlife Tour Guide
ARD Senior Associate Ecologist
IUCN, Ethiopian NCS
IUCN
EWCO Warden, Ablyata-Shala Lakes National Park
EWCO Warden, Nechlsar National Park Biologist. Nechisar National Park
ETC, Head of Promotions Department Manager, Bekele Mol la Hotel, Arba Minch University of Oslo
WRDA. Genera! Manager
6    Kebeies    In    the    area    surrounding Abiyata-Shala Lakes National Park
26TA BLE 11 NUMBERS OF VISITORS TO NATIONAL PA HKS
year
ASLNP
ANP
BMNP
MNP
NNP
SIWP
. uxai
1977/78
118
501
319
1978/79
63
74
137
1979/80
3.697
537
4,234
ISBOfll
4,389
502
275
5.166
1981/02
4.154
391
300
4.846
1982/03
6,622
204
159
6.985
1983W
M71
4.591
32
110
251
6
7,361
1984/05
4,350
5.671
180
57
250
10.506
1985/0©
4 t74O
3.151
230
160
209
6.498
198&07
4357
4,437
237
30
720
9.831
1987/00
8,551
4.442
645
386
937
12,961
1988/89
5,052
4.062
2.119
631
1,192
14,176
totals
28321
45.236
S.258
1.632
4,589
6
85.021
propodions
45%
42“a
5%
3%
6%
1983-1989
ASLNP Ably At* Shaia Lake* National Park ANP Awash Nat or al Park
BMNP Bale Mountains National Park MNP Mago National Park
NNP Nechl wr National Prtc
SMNP Simian Mountains National Park
Source: UNOP/WTO 1990 Volume 1, table on page 183TABLE 2: SUMMARY OF PREVIOUS WILDLIFE TOURS
operator
start date     finish data     no in <tfaces vis/tad
group
Omttholldaya
27-Nov-83
7-Jan-84
11-Dec-83
29-Jan-84
21 Addis Ababa. Awash National Park. Debre Zeil Koka, Lakes Ziway. Langano. Abiyata, Awassa.
18
10-Nov-84       2-Dec-84           21
5-Jan-85     2 7-J an-85         21
14-Nov-87     29-NOV-87          22
29-Od-88     13-Nov-88             8
Cygnus Wildlife
■
■
«
H
14-Nov-83     25N0V-83           18   Addis Ababa, Debre Libanos. Debre Zoit, Koka, Lakes Ziway, Langano, Abiyata. Awassa. Arba Minch. Nachisar National Park.
Getersa. Bahar Dar.
17-Jan-B7       1-Feb-87             7   Addis Ababa Debre Libanos Debre ZelL Awash National Park. Bale Mountains National Park. Wondo Genet. Koka, Lakes Ziway
Langano, Abiyata, Awassa
19-NOV-87    29-NOV-87           16
19 Nov-88       3-Dec-88           10
18-Nov-89       3-Dec-89           18
2 V Jan-89       4-Feb-89           10
17-Nov-90       2-Dec-90           16
19-Jan-91       3-Feb-91              5
Bird Queit
*
H
■
■
■
19-0ec-87       2-Jan-B8           18   Acklrs Ababa. Gelersa, Menagesha, Bahar Dar, Awash National Park, Bate Mountains National Park, Wondo Genet. Lakes Ziway
Langano. Abiyata, Awassa
S-Nov-88    20-NOV-88          18
■
14-Oct-89      2-Nov-BQ          13   Addis Ababa, Getersa. Ankober. Jammu Valley, Bahar Dar, Blue Nile Falls. Bal© Mountains. Harrena, Sidamo - Negele,
YaveNo.Rifl Valley Lakes. Wondo Genet.
3-Nov-90     18-Nov-90             9   Addis Ababa, Getersa Menagesha. Bahar Dar. Awash National Park, Bal© Mountains National Park. Wondo Genet. Lakes Ziway, Lang ano, Ably al a, Awassa
21-Dec-91     27-Dec-9i
8 Addis Ababa. Geiers a, Debra Libanos, Bahar Dar. Ankober.
(there was a Bird Quest tour in 1983 and two others before 1990 lor which no data are available)
Naturetrek
5-Nov-ae
23 Nov-88
7
Addis Ababa, Debre Libanos, Bahar Dar, Debre Zeil. Awash
National Park. Bake Mountains National Park. Wondo Genet,
4-Nov-89
22-Nov-89
11
Lakes Ziway. Atwyata, Awassa
3-Nov-90
21 Nov-90
17
Getersa, Debre Libanos. Debre Zeit. Awash National Park. Arsi
Bate Mountains National Park, Wondo Genet. Lakes Ziway.
Abiyata. Langano. Awassa
2-Nov-91
20-Ncv-91
10
Addis Ababa, Gefersa. Menagesha. Ambo, Debre Libanos. Bahar Dai, Goodar, Debark, Gorgora
Source. Ato Abraha Mrsginna. N^OTABLE 3: RANKING OF ATTRACTIONS IN RIVAL DESTINATIONS
Etfi
Ken
Tan
Uga
Sey
Mad
Mau
Beach
2
2
2
0
3
3
3
Lakes
3
3
3
3
1
2
0
Highlands
3
2
2
1
0
1
0
D&s&rtj*semi desert
3
2
2
2
0
1
0
National Parks
3
2
2
2
1
4
1
Endemic animals
3
2
2
1
1
1
1
Historical attractions
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
Tourist infrastructure
1
3
3
1
3
3
3
Tour operators’ catalogues
1
3
3
1
3
3
3
All-inclusive 15-day trip: cost in DM
-
15
18
-
28
29
30
(00)
Safari in DM fOO)
47
25
30
-
-
-
Total score
22
20
20
12
13
16
12
Code* for ruling quality of attractions: 3           very good
2           good 1           poor 0           none
Source: UNOP/WTO 1990TABLE 4: STATE-OWNED HOTELS IN THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN. 1988/89
Town
number of
number of
number of
% occupancy
% occupancy
number ol
hotels
rooms
beds
rooms
beds
guest-nights
I angano
1
28
105
68%
47%
18.013
Awassa
2
72
128
84%
52%
24.338
Wondo Genet
1
40
70
36%
30%
7.665
Aseta
1
26
52
88%
85%
16,133
Sodore (sic)
1
123
246
33%
33%
29,631
There is another State-owned hotel at Hosaina.
Pnvate hotels-
Bekele Motia hotels at Langano, Soddo and Arba Minch
Source: UNDP/WTO 1990Figure 1
8 Africa
63 Middle East D India
Q Americas ■ E Asia and 0 Europe
Pack
□ Ethiopian
Nationals
residing
abroad
70.000 n
60.000
50.000
40.000
30,000
20.000
10,000
0
1906                    1907                    1908
international visitor arrivals by nationality
Source: UNDPWTO 1990 Vokxna 1, tabte on page 33.$J
I
i
Mb
"LFigure 2
-5»
*
Holiday or Business Other Transrt
Recreation
*
INTERNATIONAL ARRIVALS BY PURPOSE OF VISTT
9
9
Source. UNDP/WTO 1990 Volume 1, table on page 35number of visitor*
Figure 3
■ Atxyata-Shala Lakes B istec^tsar
□ Other
visrTORS to national parks,
SHOWNG CONTRIBUTION FROM RIFT VALLEY
Source; UNDPWTO 1990 Volume 1, table on page 1B3of visitor*
Figure 4
NUMBER OF VISITORS IN SPECIAL WILDLFE TOURS
Source: Ato Abraha MJsglnra, NTO4r~
/V3 '■SCHEDULE 1: WILDLIFE TOUR ITINERARIES
1. Cygnus Wildlife: "ETHIOPIA"               (17 days)
Pnoes:              £1.680       (Nov 1992)
£1 450       (Nov 1991)
£1400        (Jan 1991)
£1,400       (Nov 1990)
£1.400       (Nov 1909)
Accommodation Hotels throughout with caravans al Awash
Vehicle
20-seater minibus
Day 
Places visited
1
Depart London
2
Addis Ababa and Gefersa Reservoir
3
Debre Libanos and SoluHa
4
Lakes Zlway and Langano
5
Lakes Abrysta and Awassa. Black River
Forest
B
Lake Awaaaa
7/B
Wondo Genet
9/11
Bale Mountains
12
Lakes Langano and Shale
13/15
Awash National Park
16
Awash, Lake Hora, Addis Ababa
Main attractions
Hotel gardens and waterbirds. Endemic
birds
Endemic birds, Geiada baboon.
Waterbirds, Acacia woodland. Weterblrds, flamingoes, woodland.
Watarbirda, woodland.
Forest birds including endemics.
Alro-alpine habitats, endemic birds,
mammals and plants
Waterbirds, Acacia woodland.
Game animals, oryx elc. Bird-nch Acacia
savannah
Woodland, waterbirds
17
Relum to London
2  Naturetrek: “ETHIOPIA'S OMO VALLEY" (22 days)
+
Prices;
£2,700
£2,600
£1,000
(Jan 1993)
(Jan 1992)
(Aug 1990)
AccorrrmodaXin             Some hotels, mostly camping
Vehicles
4WD
Day                Places vrsFfed
1                    Depan London
2                    Addis Ababa
3                    Hosalna
Ab                  Nechlsar National Park
7/10               Mago National Park
11/15             Omo - Mui National Parks
16/17             Lake Awassa
18/19             Wondo Genet
30 Lakes Lsngano, Abiyata and Ztwsy
21                   Adds Ababa
22                  Return Io London
Mun attractions
Hotel gardens and Gefersa Reservoir.
Endemic beds
Adadi Mariam rock-hewn church Burchell's zebra, Swayne's hartebeest, crocodiles, grassland and riverine forests "Plains* game, big cats, elephant, buffalo, giraffe etc. Abundant birdtile. Indigenous
local peopie and their culture
seeMagoNP
Waterfowl and waders.
Forest birds Including endemics.
CoIobus monkeys.
Waterfowl, waders and flamingoes.
Hotel gardens3. Naturetrek: "THE BALE MOUNTAINS OF ETHIOPIA Prices                 £1.490 (Nov 1989)
(20 days)
Accommodation                Mainly hotels, camping and trekking in Bale
vehicles
4WD
Day Places visited
t Depart London
2                     Addis Ababa
3/4
Awash National Park
5 Rift Valley Lakes - 0l«hoftur Leng uno,
Ably ata
67                   Wondo Genet
8/12                Trekking in Balo Mounlains
Main attractions
Hotel gardens
Game  animals,  oryx  etc.  Bird-noh  Acada
savannah
Acacia   wood   land,waterfowl,   waders   end
flamingoes.
Forest birds Including endemics.
C do but monkey*.
Alro-alpine habitats. Mountain nyala Si mien
jackal Endemic birds and pl an is
13                    Lake Awasaa
Waterfowl end wed era. Woodland.
14                   Addis Ababa
on route
15                   Debra Libanos and Solulla
Endemic birds Galatia baboon.
16/16             Bahar Dar. Lake Tana, Blue Nike Falls
Abundant birdlile,  Coptic monasteries,
impressive waterfalls.
19                   Return io Addis Ababa
20                    Relirm Io London
4, Omltholldays: "ETHIOPIA*’
(16 days, or 23 days i
ncluding extension tour)
Prices
£1.320          or £1,755 including extension £   1,190   tx   £1,655   including   extension £940             or £1.340 including extension
(Nov 1985)
(Jan 1985)
(Jan 1984)
(no tours since 1988)
Accommodation               Hotels throughout, wilh caravans al Awash
Vehicles
Coach, small bus at Bahar Dar
Day                Places ws/ted
1                     Depan London
2                     Addis Ababa
3                      Debra Ljbanos and Solulta
4                      Debre Zelt
5/7                 Awash National Park
8^                  Koka and Awash River
10                  Lakes Ziway and Langano
Lake® A bi y eta. Lang eno and Awasss 12                    Lak© Awassa and Black River Forest
13                    Wondo Genet
14                    Lake Awmu, return to Addis Ababa
15                    Geiersa Reservoir and Menagasha Forest 16                    return lo London or:
ext 16             Bahar Dar, Lake Tana
exl 17             Blue Nile Falls
ext 18             Lake Tana, Coplic monasteries
ext 19             Bahar Dar, Gondar
ext 20             Simien Mountains
Main attractions
Hotel gardens and British Embassy
compound.
Endemic birds. Gel ad a baboon.
Woodland and water birds.
Game animals, oryx etc Bird-rich Acada
savannah
Hippopotamus woodland and waler birds.
Waterbirds. Acacia woodland.
Waterbirds,     flamingoes,     woodland.
Waterbird*, woodland.
Forest birds including endemics.
Forest and waler birds
Abundant birdlife,
impressive waterfalls.
Local birding.
High mountains, endemic birds, mammals
ext 21
Gondar
and plants
ext 22
Return to Addis Ababa
Churches and castles
ext 23
Reium ro London5. Bird Quest: "ETHIOPIA" (17 days}
Pnces                 £1.750 (Dec 1991)
£1,750 (Nov 1990)
(Bird Quest have visited Ethiopia regularly since 1983       jhe 1992 brochure oilers no lours to Ethiopia) Accommodation               Hotels
Vehides
Day
NTO minibus
visrfed
1                     Depart London
2                    Addis Ababa
3                     Debre Ubanos  and Solulta
4                     Bahar Dar and Blue Nite Falls
5                      Lake Tana, return to Addis Ababa
Awash National Park
9                     Lakes Koks, Zrway     end Lang ano
10                   Lake Abiyato
11                   Lake Awasea
12/14             Bale Mountains National   Park
15                   Wondo Genet
16 Wondo Gentt, Rift Volley* return to Addie
Ababa
17                   Return to London
0. Bird Quest: "ETHIOPIA WITH A DIFFERENCE" (21 days)
A4a*n attractions
Hotel gardens
Endemic birds, Geiada baboon
Abundant birdlife and impressive waterfalls Abundant birdtile. Coptic monasteries. Game animals, oryx etc. Bird-rich Acacia
savannah
Waterblrds, Acacia woodland. Water birds, flamingoes., woodland.
Wetorblrda. woodland.
Atro-alplne habit ale, endemic birds,
mammals and plants
Forest birds Including endemics.
Prices:               £1.900 approx
(Oct 1969)
Exact details nut available, but lhe following extraded from Bird Onset Newsletter No 1S (Doc 1989) Accommodatjon              Hotels and one week camping
Vehicles
NTO minibus (but show Id have used 4 WD vehide«)
Day                PCaces wsfted
1
Depart London
2                     Addis Ababa and Gafersa Reservoir
3                     Ankober
45                 Jemmu VaHey
6                   Reliim lo Addie  Ababa
7/8                  Bahar Dar and Blue Nile Falls
9                    Return to Addis Ababa, drive to Asela 10/11             Bale Mountains National Park
12                   Herrena and Genala River
13                   Negate
14                   Ysvollo
15                Yevalio, return       north to Rift Valley 16/19            Wondo Genet and Rift Valley Lakes
20                   Return to Addle Ababa
21                 Return to London
Ma/n attractions
Holei gardens and walerbirds. Endemic
txrds.
Ankober Serin.
Harwood's Iranktin and several other
endemic birds.
Abundant birdlife, including whlte-lhroated seed-eater. Impressive waterfalls
Afro-alpine habitats, endemic birds,
mammals and plants
Prince RuapciTa Turaco.
Prine* Ruepohte Turacc.
SMeamante buah crow and white-tolled
swallow
Strawman** bush crow and white-tolled
swallow
Forest birds including endemics. Walerbirde, flamingoes, woodland.7. Caledonian Wildlife: “ETHIOPIA AT CHRISTMAS” 
(13 days)
Prices: £1.140 (Dec 1990)
Accommodation               Hotels
(Tour ottered in brochure, bui did not run)
Vebide
NTO minibus
Day
Peaces visited
1
Depart London
2
Addis Ababa
3
Debra Zeil, crater lakes
4
Lakes Ziwey end   Langarvo
5
Wondo Genet
6
Journey to Bale Mountains
7AB
Bate Mountains National  Park
Main affrachons
Hotel gardens
Woodland and water birds Waterbirds.    Acacia    woodland. Forest birds Including endemics.
Afro-aipine habitats, endemic birds,
mammals and plants
9                      Return to Wondo Genet
10                    LekeAwesse
11 Lakes Shale and Ably ate. return to Addia
Ababa
12/13              Addis Ababa, return to London
Wsterblrda. woodland.
-
Waterbkda, flamingoes, woodland.SCHEDULE 2
NATIONAL TOURISM POLICY
EXTRACT FROM ETHIOPIA'S ECONOMIC POLICY
DURING THE TRANSITIONAL PERlOO
(November 1991 English Translation)
4 14 Give Special Attention lo rhe Development ot Tourism
Since tourism provides a vital support to the economy, it should be given special attention. Therefore, conditions will be created for Its expansion and growth with private capital participation Appropriate regulations and directives will be Issued to this end Private entrepreneurs will be encouraged lo develop touristic services Stale and private tour.operators will function side by side. The state will handle the foreign exchange earned from tourism so as to ensure Its proper utilization
4 1.5 Private Capital to Play the Dominant Role in the Service Sector
Because of Its nature, trade In other services will be more efficient If carried out by private entrepreneurs. Therefore, the state will take appropriate measures for private participation Individually or through partnerships. When necessary, the slate may intervene In limited areas |olntly with domestic or foreign investors.Appendix J
WILDUFE CONSERVATION AND ENVIRONMENTRECONNAISSANCE MASTERPLAN
FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATURAL
RESOURCES OF THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES BASIN
PHASE I
FINAL REPORT
VOLUME!
MAIN REPORT
VOLUME 2
APPENDIX A           LAND RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
APPENDIX B:          LAND RESOURCES OPTIMISATION MODEL
VOLUME 3
APPENDIX C:           WATER RESOURCES ASSESSMENT
APPENDIX    Cl:    SURFACE    WATER    RESOURCES    AND    WATER    BALANCE SIMULATION MODEL
APPENDIX C2: GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
APPENDIX D:           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
VOLUME 4
APPENDIX E:          AGRICULTURE       AND    FARMING  SYSTEMS
APPENDIX F:          FORESTRY
APPENDIX G:         LIVESTOCK
VOLUME 5
APPENDIX H;            FISHERIES
APPENDIX I:                WILDLIFE TOURISM
APPENDIX J:                      WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND  ENVIRONMENT VOLUME 6
APPENDIX K:
MINERALS
APPENDIX L;
ENERGY
APPENDIX M:
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY
VOLUME 7
APPENDIX N:            PROJECT PROFILES
APPENDIX 0:            DRAFT TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR PHASES 2 AND 3 VOLUME 8            LAND USE MAPSTABLE OF CONTENTS
1                 INTRODUCTION
1.1         Objective
1.2         Source* ol Dele
2                 WILDLIFE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RIFT VALLEY
2.1         Ethiopia And He Biological Uniqueness
2.2         Geographical Poailion of Ethiopia
2.3         The Rift Valley in the Context of the Great African
Rift
2.4         Biological Significance of the Rift     Valley a* a Part of Ethiopia
3                  WATER QUALITY AND PRIMARY PRODUCTION IN THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES
3.1         Salinity end Chemical          Competition
3.2         Phytoplankton
4                 WILDLIFE HABITATS IN THE ETHIOPIAN RIFT VALLEY
4.1         Wetlands
4.1.1               Eutrophic Lakes
4.1.2               Shallow soda lakes
4.1.3               Southern Lakes A ba ya     and Chamo 4.1.4               Crater and other Lakes, Hot Springs and
Rivers
4.2         Foresta
4.2.1              Podocarpus Forest
4.2.2               Lowland Riverine Forest
4.2.3               Somalia-Masai Riverine Forest
4.3         Grasslands and Savannah
4.3.1               Somalia-Masai Edaphlc Grassland
1
1
2
2
2
3
a
6
4.3.2               S omaiia -Ma sa I Ac a c la -Com miphora D ec id uou s Bushland and Thicket
4.3.3               Acacia Woodland/Shorl Grass     Savannah 4.3.4               Tarmlnalla-Combretum-Acacla
Woodland/Savannah
4.3          5    Dwarl Acacia Scrub Savannah
4.3          6    Semi-Desert Savannah
5                  KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND HABITAT CHANGES
5.1         Population Pressure
5.2         Agriculture
5.2.1              Clearance of Natural          Vegelation for
6
8
10
10
10
11
12
13
14
14
15
15
16
16
17
17
18
18
19
20
20
20
Cultivation
21
5.2.2
Livestock
21
5.2.3
Fuel Supplies
21
5-2.4
intensification, irrigation
and
Pollution
22
I5.3         Water Resources
5.3.1                ComperlUon for Water Resources
5.4         Forestry
5,4.1                Subsistence
5.4.2               Cash Crop
5.4.3                Commercial Forestry
5.5         Minerals
5.5 1                Soda Ash
5.6         Biodiversity
CONSERVATION
6.1         Government Policy
6.1.1               EWCO
6 1 2              Past and Present Government Policy and Strategy lor Wildlife Conservation
6.2         Conservation Measures io Date
6 2 1               National Parks
62 2              Wildlife Sanctuaries
6 2.3              Wildlife Reserves
6 2.4              Controlled Hunting Areas
6.2.5              Monitoring Wildlife Populations 6.3         Recent Event*
6.4         National Conservation Strategy
RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1         Objectives of a Wildlife Conservation Strategy
7.2         Specific Recommended Actions
22
22
24
24
25 25
26
26
27
28
28
28
29
29
29
32
33
33
34
35
36
38
38
38
7.2.1
Local Community Involvement
38
7.2.2
Integrity 01 Existing Protected Areas
39
7.2.3
International Conventions
41
7.2.4
Review Resources
42
7.2.5
Environmental Impact Assessment
43
7.2.6
Monitoring Key Environmental Factors
44
IISCHEDULE 1
SCHEDULE 2
SCHEDULE 3
ANNEX 1
TABLE 1.
2.
3.
FlGURE 1.
2.
3.
4.
LIST OF SCHEDULES
SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF FAUNA AND FLORA
EXTRACT FROM THE TRANSITIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES FOR ETHIOPIA REGARDING CONSERVATION AND THE ENVIRONMENT (November 1991: English Translation)
RESULTS        OF        BIRD        POPULATION        MONITORING (Syvertson 1991/1992)
LIST OF ANNEXES
FRAMEWORK           FOR           ENVIRONMENTAL           IMPACT ASSESSMENT
LIST OF TABLES
WATER QUALITY OF THE RIFT VALLEY LAKES
MO A PROJECT FORMULATION FRAMEWORK
EXAMPLE OF ANALYSIS OF BIRD COUNT DATA
LIST OF FIGURES
SALINITY v CONDUCTIVITY OF RIFT VALLEY LAKES
INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHECKLIST
FRAMEWORK           FOR           ENVIRONMENTAL           IMPACT ASSESSMENT
WILDLIFE     CONSERVATION     PARKS.     RESERVES     AND CONTROLLED HUNTING AREAS
IJIINTRODUCTION
Objective
Th®  objective  of  Ibis  Technical  Appendix  is  to  cover  lhe  following  items  in the Terms of Reference;-
•      review information an water quality;
■      collect available information on wlldIHe populations and
management in the Basin;
•       present a strategy for wildlife conservation,
•      Identify the key environmental Issues of the Basin;
■      elaboration of a framework for evaluation of environmental
impact:
•       present proposals for monitoring key environmental Indicators, Development of wildlife tourism Is covered in Appendix I.
Sources of Date
As well as the documentary sources quoted, the study ream is grateful to staff of the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organisation for their help and cooperation, especially Dr J C Hillman. Adviser. EWCO.
The ream Is also greatly Indebted to the special help provided by Mr Martin Davies of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, (UK), without whose detailed knowledge, Insight and enthusiasm ihls report would have been considerably impoverished.WILDLIFE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RIFT VALLEY
Ethiopia And Its Biological Uniquanata
Ethiopia conslsls essentially of a dissected highland massif surrounded by desert, which has thus long bean ecologically Isolated from all other African highland areas Having evolved in relative Isolation, the ecology of Ethiopia has become special, with a high degree of endemism amongst Its flora and fauna. Indeed, no other country in the continent of Africa exhibits such a high rale of endemism, and one need only glance at the maps In White’s "Vegetation of Africa (While 1983)1 lo appreciate the country's unique character and degree of ecological Isolation.
Of soma 6,500-7.000 species of flowering plants recorded In Ethiopia lo date approximately one-sbdh are thought to be endemic; of B0 known species of amphibia in Ethiopia an astonishing 30% are endemic, a product presumably of their relatively sedentary nature and the extreme isolation caused by the surrounding desert on such organisms requiring waler io reproduce.
Even amongst more mobile organisms such as birds and mammals, endemism rotes are high; 21 of Ethiopia's mammal species are endemic, plus several other well-marked sub-species and races (Hillman 1987); 28 bird species are endemic to Ethiopia, the greatest number of any African country (Fanshawe and G re it on 1989); this is out of a total of nearly 900 bird species recorded which Is a remarkable total In itsatf, especially since compared to well-studied countries such as Kenya, much of Ethiopia's birdlife remains relatively poorly explored or undocumented. Indeed, two new Ethiopian endemic bird species were first described to western science only in the last 20 years, and It Is not Inconceivable that one or two more still await discovery.
Geographical Position of Ethiopia
The richness of Ethiopian flora and fauna arises not only from this high rate
□f   endemism   but   due   to   overlapping   Influences   caused   by   its   geographical position   at   the   convergence   of   three   continents.   Amongst   lhe   bird   species, for example one finds a mixture IncludIng:-
•      essentially east or southern African species:
•      sub-Saharan species which show characteristic distributions In a band from West Africa to lhe Horn of Africa;
•      species of Arabian or even Aslan origin whose distribution extends from the Middle East Into the Horn of Africa;
See References/Bibliography for fuH Tide
2.                      migration ol P.taw.cUo buds - U» Rm
’
ma|or migration route between Eurasia and Africa The S r i of Bab al Mandab Is a crossing point for raptors The lakes o the Rift Valley serve as links In a chain of staging posts tor migrant birds With the exception of Sudan, more species of Palaearctic migrants have been recorded, a total of 214, than anywhere else In the Afrotropical region (Fanshaw and Gretton
1909)
2.3               The Rift Valley in the Context of the Great African Rift
Much has been written on lhe biological and evolutionary significance of the Great African Rift and a good summary may be 1ound in Kingdom 1990 and lhe numerous references that this author quotes. For the purposes of the present reconnaissance study It should be sufficient to note that the Ethiopian RHt Valley is an integral pari of the whole Great African Rift System and, when assessing its biological significance and resources, it Is Important to consider ft In this context The inter-related nature of the various parts of the Rlti can perhaps best be illustrated by reference to some of the waterblrd species which utilise the lake systems that it contains.
The Greater and Lesser Flamingoes1 which throng the shares of Lake Ablyaia, do not normally breed there but are functionally part of a single population that utilise lhe various lakes along the Rift from Tanzania north right into Ethiopia. In the case ol the Greater Flamingoes. It would appear that the population wintering on Abiyata also includes birds from the Palaearctic breeding populations around the Mediterranean and the Middle
East.
Similarly, the colony of Great White Pelicans which breeds on Lake Shala is one of the largest of the eight colonies of this species in Africa. Il varies enormously in size from year to year, however, and 11 seems clear that considerable interchange occurs between Shala and the other major White Pelican colonies In Africa, and perhaps even SE Europe {Brown and Urban, 1969, Urban and Jefford, 1977)
2.4               Biological Significance of the Rift Valley a* a Part of Ethiopia
In many ways the ecology of the Ethiopian Rift Valley Is more typical of areas further south In East Africa than it is of the rest of Ethiopia. Also, whereas endemism is significant in the Ethiopian highlands, relatively tew of these endemic species characteristically occur In the Ethiopian Rift Valley.
Mammals, birds and plants are generally referred to in rhe text by their commonly accepted English names, except where these do not exist or were not known. For
a full list giving rhe scientific names of aJl species of fauna and Hora mentioned In the text, see Schedule i
3The comparatively low rainfall and higher temperatures of (tie Aift compared lo the highlands produces Acacia-Commiphora bushland and dry grasslands remlniscenl of many pans ol norlhern Konya
The bird and mammal species associated with these habllals are also more typical of areas further soulh Thus In the dry Acid* savannah around Abiyata-Shala and Abernossa, Grant's Gazelle Is found at the extreme northern edge of its range, similarly typical birds of the Kenyan Acacia Savannah like Superb Starling and White head ad and Red-billed Buffalo Weavers occur.
Thus   lhe   Rift   Valley   help*   increase   the   habitat   and   species   diversity   of Ethiopia.
Indeed, certain habitat types which are very rare in Ethiopia are only found In the Rift Valley basin. Lake Abiyata for example Is lhe only permanent shallow soda lake In Ethiopia, and Is biologically Incredibly productive supporting lhe largest populations of flamlngoe* and other walerbirds In Ethiopia. Chew Bahlr, at tha extrema southern end of the Ethiopian Rift Valley Is also a soda lake but varies enormously in extent and someilmes all but disappears. The latest satellite imagery available to the study team. 1986. suggests that the lake Is now very small being surrounded by sail flats. The study team was unable lo visit the southernmost part of lhe project area. Including Chew Bah Jr, for reasons of both security and logislics.
To a similar extent dry edaphlc grasslands, like the plains of Nechlsar. are also a very scarce habitat in Ethiopia, and these support lhe largest remaining population of Burchell's Zebra in the country (Tesfaye. 1965}
The Inter'dependence of populations of birds uilllslng various shes along the Alft Is equally clearly demonstrated by their use by Paiaearetie waders and wildfowl which breed In lhe high arctic of Europe and Asia, bul winter dawn into sub-Saharan Africa. Some of these birds may be travelling on to shes even as far south as the Cape Province, and use tha Rftt as a major migration route stopping off at lhe various lakes to rest and re-fuel; others may stop-over and winter on the lake shores before returning north again the following spring.
Within the Ethiopian Rift itself, there are also several populations of bird* and mammals which have a very restricted distribution In Africa as a whole. Swayne's Hartebeest Is now an endemic sub-species confined to only five sites, all In the Ethiopian Rift Valley (Including one at Awash where ii was re-introduced) (Lewis and WHson, 1979, Kassaye and Massena, 1984). It once occurred in a wide band right up through the whole of the Ethiopian Rift and even on Imo Somalia, but hunting, habitat destruction and competition with man * grazing animals have reduced it la these small remnant population*.
Gravy’s   Zebra   Is   another   mammal   cl   now   very   restricted   dlslrlbullon   for which the southern part of the Rill Valley, notably the plains around Chew
4Hahlr, now hold a very significant proportion ol the world population. Elsewhere it Is known only from Northern Kenya, where its populations have recently been under considerable pressure from illegal poaching (Stephenson 1978).
53
«>
WATER   QUALITY   AND   PRIMARY   PRODUCTION   IN   THE   RIFT   VALLEY LAKES
There are three major catchment areas in the Ethiopian Rift Valley Basin,
S'
in   lhe   north   lhe   lour   Galla   lakes   (Zlway,   Ablyala.   Langanc   and   Shala)
belong to a single drainage system. Further south Lake Awassa has Ils own
small  catchmeni  Finally  Lakes  Abaya.  Chamo  and  Chew  Bahir  drain  the
S'
large but Increasingly arid catchment In the soulhem portion ol the basin.
Information  on  water  quality  In  the  Rift  Valley  Lakes  has  been  extracted
S'
s
from   Wood   and   Talling   (,9881,   a   comprehensive   paper   that   reviews   all
previous  investigations  Physical  characteristics  ol  water  at  the  surface  of
the  lakes  are  given  in  Table  I  and  Figure  1.  It  Is  clear  from  dates  of those
data,  much  of  which  la  between  20  •  25  years  out  of  date,  that  there  is  a
critical need for an up-to-date assessment of the current water quality levels
so  that  the  changes,  end  rates  of  change,  can  be  determined  lor  future
planning   and   environmental   considerations   All   assessments   of   current
development   in   the   basin   must,   therefore,   be   tempered   with   caution   Is
5'
respect of the lack of knowledge of the current state of water quality. Filling
this  data  gap  must  be  a  prerequisite  of  the  next  phase  of  Master  Plan
preparation.
*
&
If”
5»
5*
3.1 Salinity and Chemical Composition
Rift Valley lakes all owe their existence to Inflowing rivers, since the Rift Is a region of rainfall deficit, with evapotranspiration higher than mean annual rainfall. If Is worth noting here that the expression 'mean annual rainfall* In arid regions such as found In the Rift Valley Is extremely misleading, as the dominant feature of rainfall year after year Is Its absence. A long sequence of very dry years Is typically Interrupted by an exceptional year of significantly above average rainfall. The effect of these rare wet years Is generally to boost the average annual rainfall statistic to a value that Is rarely exceeded, thereby making It misleading. In order to overcome this the median annual rainfall is used. I.e. the rainfall value which Is exceeded in 50% of years More detailed discussion and data on lhe rainfall Is to be found In the Appendix C: Water Resources.
Givan the pattern of rainfall just described, it is easy to appreciate that lhe salinity of any lake la bound to vary over time. During a rare wet year there will be marked reduction in salinity as the heavy rains cause progressive dilution. Despite these observations a fairly stable sequence of Increasing
salinity    is    preserved    between    me    lakes.    Table    1    lists    chemical
0
?
C>
characteristics  in  order  of  Increasing  salinity  on  dates  selected  from  Wood
and  Talling  (1988)  to  be  as  close  together  In  time  as  possible.  The  large
variation between lakes Is Immediately clear, with the small crater Lake
As noted In Appendix H: Fisheries, ft is understood that the Department of Biology
at lhe UnlverMy of Addis Ababa has carried out some work on water quality In
recent years but regrettably the Department declined to aBow the consultants access
to this research.
0
6Chltu having over one hundred times the salinity of the most dilute, Lake Zlway The main determinant of the salinity of a lake Is the nature ol Its drainage, open or closed Those with the highest salinity are all closed, or terminal lakes but the reverse Is not true Salinity is primarily determined by evaporative concentration.
Lake Abiyala receives Its Inflows from Lakes Ziway and Langano via the Bulbuls and Horakello rivers, and, being shallow, acts as an evaporating basin (or The two feeder lakes. During a period of some thousand years Abiyata has become a soda lake with roughly 10 and 60 times the concentration of solutes found In Lakes Langano and Ziway respectively. The shallowness of Abiyata coupled with uncertain rainfall In the region combine to produce a lake of highly variable size and concentration. Even In *good“  times the salinity is noticeably different at the beginning and end of the rainy season.
At present (March 1992), Abiyata has been severely reduced In size by the combined effects of several years of low rainfall and abstraction of water from Its inflows. According to the General Manager of tha Abiyata soda ash plant, the lake area1 Is down to about 130 km2 and salinity has Increased to approximately 28 micrograms per litre (September 1991). This is almost double the March 1964 figure given In Table 1P and clearly demonstrates the extreme sensitivity of Lake Abiyata as a wetlands habitat.
The crater lakes Chltu (small) and Shala (exceptionally deep) are also soda lakes, both normally having higher salinity than Lake Abiyata. although at present (March 1992) Ablyata's salinity Is almost certainly greater than that of Shala Lake Shala is fed by several rivers, but Its salinity Is thought to be enhanced by a reflux pathway. Lake water, seeping down as groundwater, is heated geothermally to rise under pressure as hot springs, which promote evaporation without new Input. See also Technical Appendix C2 dealing Inter alia with the Groundwater Resources of the Basin,
The solitary river-fed Lake Awassa also appears to be closed, with no obvious outflow. However. Its salinity Is low in contrast to the terminal lakes described above. The dilute Inflows certainly contribute to but cannot fully explain why the lake has not become more concentrated by evaporation It is thought that Lake Awassa must lose water by seepage, bur this has not been proved.
Lake Chamo Is another terminal lake having lower salinity than might be expected Lake Chamo drains Its own catchment and that of Lake A bay a when the connecting Kulfa river is flowing. It has been demonstrated that during the last hundred years or so. Lake Chama has overflowed from time
The 'observed" lake area quoted here differs from the estimated current lake area calculated in the water balance simulation model (Appendix Ct: Surface Water Resources) as a result of the assumed bottom profile and laka/area relationship used In the model An accurate lake area survey Is obviously required.
73.2
to   time   Into   Chaw   Bahir   via   the   Sagan   river.   Lake   Chamo   Is   therefore Intermittently open, a fact which may help explain its anomalous salinity
Lake Abaya has a salinity higher than Ils waler budgel would lead one io expect. However Its main Inflow is the river 011 ate which runs a much longer course than Inflows to the other Rift Valley lakes, acquiring a high concentration of solutes on the way. A laboratory lest by WRDA on waler from the Bllate at a point defined as ‘Canal 10T (Irrigation) in December 1989 gave a conductivity reading of 264 mlcrosoconds/cm at 25*G, almost as high as that of Lake Ziway.
Lake  Langano  Is  open,  but  Its  water  budget  Is  effectively  under  atmospheric control,    since    (evaporation    minus    precipitation)    Is    greater    than    outflow Under   these   conditions   and   with   no   seepage   loss.   Lake   Langano's   salinity has stabilised at a level higher than lhe average Inflow concentration
Finally. Lake Ziway exhibits the characteristics expected of a simple open lake with limiled retention time. Inflow and outflow In this shallow lake are sufficiently high to leave lhe lake with a salinity almost Identical to Its main Inflow, lhe river Meki.
Many further details of chemical composition can be found In Wood and Talling 1988. but see Figure 1 for the relationship between conductivity and salinity for the RHt Valley Lakes. The mean conductivity per unit Ionic content of anions or cations Is approximately 85 microseconds/cm. Conductivity Is very closely correlated with lhe concentration of individual Ions given In Table 1.
Phytoplankton
Ah ho ugh the nutrients, soluble reactive silicate and phosphate, tend to increase In concentration whh salinity (Table 1), lhe unknown dynamics of algal growth are likely to introduce variance. Lakes of high salinity are typically very productive In terms of phytoplankton biomass and photc synthetic rates, supported partly by high concentrations of phosphorus and inorganic carbon. The notable exception is Lake Shala. In which vertical mixing between the lower carbon dloxide-produclng layer and the upper carbon dioxide-consuming layer Is prevented by thermal discontinuity at 50m to 70m depth. This has significant Implications for the proposal to pump water from thia take Into Lake Ablyata In order to sustain the lake level there If the expaneion of the soda ash plant is to go ahead, this Issue Is further discussed In Technical Appendices B and J dealing with the water resources of the basin and the minerals potential respectively.
This may be a limiting factor for algal production in Lake Shala, but more research Is required to determine, for example, whether a shallow pond of waler from Lake ShaJa, as suggested by Wood and Talling (1988), might be productive. If not, Ideas of water transfer to artificially bolster lake levels In Ablyata should be regarded with tome caution, as ihey may then not redress lhe biological productivity of the Lake in rhe way that might
8otherwise be predicted. Some of the limited data on algal biomass are also given In Table 1.
Many algal species are of restricted saHnlty*alkallnity range, characteristic of lakes with a low level (e g. desmids, Maloaira spp), Intermediate (eg Planctonema laulerbornl), or high (eg Splrullna plalensla)
Phytoflagellates are mo&i strongly represented in waters with higher concentrations of calcium and magnesium cations. The cyanophyte Microcystis aeruginosa, tolerant of a wide salinity range. Is common
94                   WILDLIFE HABITATS IN THE ETHIOPIAN RIFT VALLEY
4.1               Witlind*
various efforts are currently being made To collate information on wetlands In Ethiopia and their biological Importance The most useful of ihese to date Is that produced by IUCN in 19B9 in their Draft Directory of African Wetlands which includes some 17 pages describing the key weiiand areas In Ethiopia (p 145-iSl. IUCN 1989 Mlmeo). Some of lhe details from this directory are included below, however given the volume ot delall available h Is recommended that the directory should be used alongside this report and also extended to cover some of the smaller or less well-known wetlands listed here. Deliologn and Hillman (1992) are In the process ol compiling a comprehensive list of Ethiopian wetlands for which such data should be collated
4.1 1            Eulrophic Lakes
4 1.1.1         Lakes Ziway and Awassa
Lakes Ziway and Awassa form highly productive eutrophic wetland habitats normally teeming with IMe; algae, zooplankton. Invertebrates and fish There is lush marginal vegetation with beds of reed and water-lily (Urban, 1970). With the large fish populations typical of eutrophic lakes, Hsh-eallng species dominate the bird community here. Including darter, long-tailed cormorant, various herons, fish eagle. kingfishers, spur-winged goose, African pygmy goose, white-faced tree duck, black crake, jacana. palaearctlc migrant waders and lams, and waterfowl The Sesbanla bushes around Lake Ziway provide nesting sites for the smaller eagre!s and herons. In the large Ficus sycomorus trees near Lake Awassa there is a dispersed colony of marabou (one of only two known colonies in Ethiopia) and amongst them also breading pink-backed pelicans. There have been no recent systematic counts of wintering or breeding birds at Lakes Ziway and Awassa In both lakes there are populations of hippopotamus. Lake Ziway Is one of the Galla lakes, draining via the Bulbula river into Lake Ablyata The other two are Lakes Langano and Shaia
4.1.1 .2       Dabashi Swamp (Dabashi Hayk)
This Is a large area of eutrophic swamp vegetation with a lake at Its centre,
to the east of Awassa No dala are available on lhe flora or fauna of this
wetland, but view from a distance (from the hills above Wondo Genet) It
looks likely to prove off considerable Interest, though difficult of access.
41.1.3       Boyo Swamp (BUate Hayk)
According to Ledant (1985). the Boyo freshwater lake/swamp supported a high concentration of water birds in November 1974. Since that time there have been attempts to establish an irrigation scheme In the area, but which was damaged by the local people, and the present situation with respect to the wildlife population Is not known.
10The Boyo swamp is listed as a Controlled Hunting Area for hippopotamus
4.1.2            Shallow soda lakes
Soda fakes are specialised habitats Where very high salinity levels occur, only certain highly specialised organisms can survive At lower salinity levels such soda lakes can be highly producilve As In other shallow lakes, aquatic algae proliferate in shallow soda lakes because lhe light penetration and frequent mixing enable a high rate of photosynthesis. Such lakes can therefore support enormous populations of aquaiic invertebrates and fish.
4 1.2 i Lake Ablyata
Lake Ablyata, a terminal member of the Galla lakes system of the northern Rift Valley is fed by rainfall and by the Bulbula and Horakello rivers, which drain Lakes Ziway and Langano respectively. As noted above, normal variation in rainfall In the catchment area leads to a marked natural variation In the depth and area of this lake, which Is exacerbated by abstraction of water for irrigation from the Lake Ziway. the Bulbula and Horakello rivers and the Soda Ash plant
In Its most shrunken state, Lake Ablyata becomes too saline io support the otherwise prolific fish population of tilapia, in which case bird communities dependent on fish either die or seek food elsewhere. Occasionally after a long spell of calm weather, which results in lack of mixing, conditions of anoxia can develop In The water, which have caused major fish kills (Kebede and Hillman, 1988).
Notwithstanding   these   potentially   adverse   factors   Lake   Ablyata   can   usually support     huge     numbers'     of     greater     flamingo     (57.500),     lesser     flamingo (146.000    Syverison    1991;    100.000,    Urban    1975).    white-necked    cormorant, great   white   pelican,   herons,   storks.   Ibises;   Cape   wlgeon   and   other   African ducks;   palaearctic   ducks   Including   large   flocks   of   shoveler   {5.000.   Urban 1970).    garganey,    pintail,    wlgeon.    and    tutted    duck;    avocet,    black-winged stilt,   ruff,   little   stint,   and   various   other   waders   Other   water   birds   visiting Lake   Abiyata   Include   white-winged   black   tern,   Caspian   tern   and   a   winter population   of   great   black-headed   gull,   the   most   southerly   population   known. There   are   particularly   high   concentrations   of   birds   at   the   inlets   of   the Bulbula   and   Horakello   rivers.   Klttlltzs   sand   plover   breed   on   the   soda   flats surrounding  Lake  Ablyata  and  wintering  stone  curlew  can  be  found  In  rocky areas nearby.
The study team visiting the lake In March 1992 saw the effect of 7 years of drought during which Lake Ablyata had contracted from a surface area of
180 km* to an area reported io be only 132 km , a decrease of some 25%,
?
The concomitant increase in salinity has been sufficient to kill off all the fish, a state that will continue until the lake waters can be replenished.
Under these conditions the algal feeding greater flamingo and lesser Unless otherwise slated, bird counts are from Syverteen 1991.
11flamingo   predominate,   with   the   great   white   pelican   absent   altogether.   There have bean reports of fish eagles preying on flamingos.
Species  found  at  the  eutrophic  lakes  are  rarely  seen  at  Lake  Abiyaia  which Is lhe best site lor water fowl in Ethiopia.
4 1.2.2 Lake Chew Bahlr
This Is a temporary endorheic, very shallow, saline lake In lhe extreme southern part of the Ethiopian Rift Valley Though sometimes as large as 4S km long and 30 km wide, Il often dries up almost completely, allhough the lowest pari In the NE always stays damp. Only In the very wettest years Is It deeply flooded and most of the area has only very sparse, holophytlc vegetation with reeds, sedges and rushes In the permanently moist part (IUCN 1989).
Little is known of lhe biology o< the Lake itsetf. but around Lake Chaw Bahlr in 1974, Tyler found lesser flamingo and gull-billed tarn, and In the swamp to the north openbill stock. Allan s galllnuie and fulvous and whltelaced tree ducks (Tyler 1975) The plains around are Important for Grevy's Zebra and other mammal species (see ?.)
4.1.2.3         Lake Abay (Abay Hayk) and Nearby Wetlands/Soda Flats
Situated to the edge of the plain o1 the Rift Valley floor, just south of Butajlra are a group of small lakes and soda flats centred around the village oi Gerbeber. Although marked on moat maps, and visible looking down from the Hosalna-Butajira road, there seems To be Utile recorded Information about these wetlands. They are listed in Delletegn and Hillman, 1992, but not described in IUCN, 1989. From their position In the Alft and the range of habitats, including shallow soda lakes/flats, it is likely that they will prove to be of some considerable interest for waterbirds.
4.1.3            Southern Lakes Abaya and Chamo
Lakes Abaya and Chamo are mainly shallow, wllh rich marginal vegetation including Typha, Phragmites spp, Juncus spp, tall waterside grasses such as Loudetla phragmltoldes and bushes such as Sesblana spp. There are hippopotamus In Lake Chamo, 23 being noted at the Crocodile Market (Cambridge Expedition, 1990). Nile crocodiles are found in the Kulfo river In parts of Lake Chamo up to 60 can be seen at one time. There are crocodiles also in Lake Abaya
The study team observed a large colony of marabou (330 pairs estimated) nesting in the forest between the lakes in March 1992. This colony used to be located at the southern end of Lake Chamo (J C HU Iman. pers. comm.). This and the colony at Awassa are possibly the only ones in Ethiopia Smail numbers of yellow-billed storks (10 pairs) nest amongst the
marabous
12□ala    on    water    birds    al    Lakes    Abaya    and    Cha™    are    sparse,    but    the Cambridge    Expedition    to    Nechlsar    (1990).    recorded    small    numbers    of    great white   pelican   and   pink-backed   pelican,   10   heron   spp.   long-tailad   cormorant, darter and 3 stork spp
4.1.4              Crater and other Lakes. Hot Springs and Rivers
The Rtf! Valley was produced by massive earth movements and although not as active as In some phases in the past, seismic and volcanic activity still continue In varying degrees. The range of geological and geomorphological features (lava fields, crater lakes, calderas, hot springs and even extinct/dormant volcanoes on the RIH floor or scarp) are of considerable Interest In themselves, but also produce interesting areas of wildlife habitat, from lush vegetation around the hot springs to virtual stone deserts on the lave fields These habitats have not been studied In detail, but such a study should be incorporated in developing an overall strategy lor wildlife conservation In the Rift Valley.
The river systems similarly, would repay further biological study and certainly contain features of great interest, albeit on a smaller scale than the more obvious lakes and areas of forest. The banks of the Horakello river for example contain significant numbers of breeding Carmine bee-eaters, and the River Mekl supports a species of fish endemic to Ethiopia which Is found only In the Mekl and Is absent even from lake Ziway.
4 J.4.1        Lake Shala
Lake Shala is the other terminal member of the Galla lakes. It Is a steep sided deep soda lake in which very little aquatic life is found. However It has supreme Importance for breeding and roosting birds. Big colonies nesting there safe from predators fly dally to feed at the nearby lakes, especially Lake Abiyata In addition to being a hydrological unit, the four Galla lakes must therefore be seen as a single ecological entity
Birds nesting at Lake Shala include great white pelican, white necked
cormorant Abdim's stork, sacred ibis. Cape wlgeon and Egyptian goose
Urban reported several thousand little grebe near the abundant hot spring
inlets in 1970 and. In 1975. thousands of white-winged black tern.
The 8 islands In Lake Shala form reluges for important bird breeding colonies Pelican island is the site of the second largest breeding colony
of the great white pelican in Africa According to Brown and Urban. 1969. this is one of the six known regular colonies visiting four other sites. It is the only colony in Ethiopia, with aboul 7.000 pairs (3.000 to 14.000 range, Kebede and Hillman. 1988). Urban reported 6,000 great white pelican nesting on Flat Island In 1974
Sacred    ibis    bread    on    Cormorant.    Sacred    and    Abdim's    Islands    White
necked   cormorant   breed   on   the   same   three   Islands,   numbers   between   1966
and   1972   varying   from   89   to   298   pairs   (Urban.   1979)   Abdim's   stork   use only Abdim's Island
13Laks  Child  Is  a  small  crater  soda  lake  near  ihe  southern  shore  of  Lake Shala Several thousand Lesser Flamingoes regularly feed lhere.
4.1.4.2       Lake Langano
Lake Langano has little or no aquatic vegetation except near the Horakello rtver oullat. It has stoap aides, with Typh*r Juncu* and S»sbanl« tpp growing on the east and south edges There Is vary little phytoplankton so that the lake supports only a small fish population, and so little other Wildlife. The Acacll woodlands surrounding It are very rich in species, however.
4,14.3 Lake Weyto
This small lake Iles at the extreme northern end of Ihe Chew Bahir depression, but llltle seems to have been recorded as to its physical status, habitats or wildlife According to ihe Weito Irrigation Scheme Feasibility Study in 1902 the lake had been dry for at least seven years previously. This situation would seem to be confirmed by the 1986 satellite Imagery. The lake is listed in Dellelogn and Hillman, but not described In IUCN 1989.
4.2             Forests
Much of the original lorest cover on Ihe floor and scarp of the Rift Valley has been cleared, or so modified by the activities of man that most of the remaining areas of forest habitat are mere remnants or sig nil leant ly altered. Nonetheless, they still support some Important communities of animals and plant6, many of which are confined Io these small blocks of forest and do not occur outside them, even in agricullural areas that contain many trees.
4.2.1          Podocarpus Forest
4.2.1 J       Forest along Scarp near Wendo Genet
Ona such example of remnant high gallery forest cover Is found along the slopes and hills above Wondo Genet to the SE of Shashamene. The tall Podocarpus forest here Is in places silll very dense and species rich
Five of the Ethiopian endemic bird species occur In the forest - yellow- f rented parrot, Nack-headed forest oriole, banded barbel, golden-backed woodpecker and black-winged lovebird ■ and In clearings or along the lorest edge, the endemic white-winged cliff chat may also be found.
Abyssinian black and white CNobus monkeys share the forest with the crowned hawk eagle, which predates them. Other bird species Include white-cheeked turaco, silvery-cheeked hornbNI, dive pigeon, tambourine dove, broad-billed roller, emerald cuckoo, lemon dove, grey cuckoo shrike, slender-billed chestnut-winged siadlng and Abyssinian crimson-wing (Cygnus Wildlife tours; Benson 1945). Benson quotes similar communities along parts of the Rift Scarp, Southern Ethiopia and also menilons a patch
□f evergreen forest at 4.000 ft attitude (l.200m) which contained scaly
14francolln. Abyssinian ground thrush, wattle-eye flycatcher and red-capped robin chat.
4.2  12 Munessa-Shashamene Area
The area referred to as the Munessa-Shashamene forest has. in fact, rather patchy tree cover. In many places represented only by scattered Podocarpus gracllior within an agricultural landscape. Tree cover has reportedly further decreased markedly In the last twelve months, with much Illegal telling and tree clearance. Juniperue procera also occurs in small quantity at about 2.600m. on the very edge of the Rift (but is probably only truly native In the highland areas) (Chaffey. 1979) There are also plantations of Cupreseua luaitanlca, Pinus app., Eucalyptus app. and some Junlperut
Little information on wildlife is available on the wildlife of the Munessa- Shashamene Forest, but Important forest bird species such as white cheeked turaco. silvery-cheeked homblll and black-headed forest oriole were observed and are likely to be widespread In this area The Wendo Genet Forestry and Wildlife Resources Institute may well have further detailed Information, and a detailed study of the Management Plan for Munessa Shashamene State Forest for 1990/91 - 1991/95 (Forest Management Planning Division 1990) Is recommended.
4.2.2         Lowland Riverine Forest
This   forest   type   Rift   Valley   floor,   once   much   more   widespread,   is characterised by Flcut aycomorua-Acacla
A remaining example of this is the Black River Forest at Awassa. It Is one of the habitats of the Abyssinian black and white Colobus monkey The bird life found there includes scaly francolln, yellowblll. silvery-cheeked hornbill, red capped robin chat, spotted creeper, wattle-eye flycatcher and lemon dove
4.2.3         Somalia-Masai Riverine Forest
4 2.3.1 Arba Minch Groundwater Forest and Kulfo River Forest
In these forests the tallest trees are to be found along the river banks, dominated by 30m high Ficus eycomorus and Garcinia llvlngstonea. Other tall canopy species present are Cordia a tri cans, Dloapyroa abyaainica. Veprla dalnellil. Techies nobllla, Trichllla emetics and occasionally Acacia polyacantha Large forest-asaociated shrubs Include Carlas* adults, Ricinus comunla. abundant lianas and creepers including Hippocratea africana and Plumbago zeyianlca. Away from the river and springs the forest is lower and dominated by Dioepyroa app and scattered Terminalia brownli, Tamarindus Indlca etc The species predominant at the edges Is Euciaa schlmperi before it merges into the surrounding bushland (Cambridge Expedition, 1990). This forest type Is very striking, with many characteristics of lush rain forest despite Its occurrence In an
15C1
S’
S'
S'
S'
white-cheeked  turaco.  yellowbiil  Narlna
rrogon.  broad  billed
roller
silvery  -
cheeked   hornblll,   northern   brownbul.
red-capped   robin
chat,
orea of low rainfall It 1$ dependent on groundwater and springs tor Its
survival.
Although the vegetation type and structure might suggest the likelihood ol these forest areas containing 'critical' forest bird species (Stuart 1955), the Cambridge Expedition, 1990 found none of them. Ths forests contain largely pan-Atrlcan species, with no endemlgm. This may be explained by (he small size oi the forests. Iheir extreme isolation from other key forest areHS. and also the fact that these toresls may bo of relatively recant origin, since Lakes Abays and Cbamo were undoubtedly connected during the pluvial periods (Bolton 1970).
Mammals living here include Abyssinian black and white CoIobus monkey,
large spotted genet and leopard. Amongst the bird community are scaly
trancolln, olive pigeon, tambourine dove, lemon dove, orange-belliBd parrot,
flycatcher, green-backed twin a pot and grosbeak weaver
wattle-eye
s'
*■
T-
4.2.3.2        Sagan Valley Riverine Forest
The Sagan valley between Chew Bahir to north-east of Telteie. and Indead virtually to Nechfaar. contains a narrow band (In places no more than lODm to 200m wide) of riverine forest. No data ware available on the species composition or wild!Me of this forest, but its great length and continuity suggest that it Is likely to comprise a wildlife corridor of some considerable importance. The FAO Land Use maps could eesily be used to Identity the extent of riverine forest In valleys like the Sagan (and probably also the Weyto) to help plan further study of these potentially very rich areas of
habitat.
4.3
4.3.1
Grasslands and Savannah Somalia'Masai Edaphlc Grassland1
4.11.1         Nechlsar Plains
2*
The   "white
grass"   plains
of   Nechlsar   cover
2
some 270 km ol mostly
■ MF
Chrysopogon
aucherl    ver,
qulnqueplumls    and
Chryaopogon    spp,    with
Linton  la  nutans,  Selarla  spp  and  TTtamtda  iriandrla  in  the  northern  part (Bolton 1970 quoted In Testa ye 1985)
The plains are notable for Burchell's zebra (herd butt! up to 2,000 or more), the largest remaining population In Ethiopia. In 1990 there were some 400 Grant's gazelle and about 75 Swayne's hartebeesL an endemic sub-species previously widespread but now known from only (hie sites in Elhlopla (sea further discussion of this area in Sections 6.2.1.2, 7.2.23). Nechlsar is the
r —---------------------- - ---------- —---------
Vegetation types malrty follow the classification of Wh*e hg83), as quoted in rhe Cambridge Expedition. 1990.
16site In Ethiopia for the whlte-taiied bush lark and also found are secretary bird, kori bustard, yellow-throated sandgrouse, swallow-tailed kite, greater kestrel. Archer’s greywing, spotted thlcknee and star-spotted nightjar (Telfer et al 1990 - Cambridge University Expedition).
4.3.2          Somalla-Masal Acacia-Commiphora Deciduous Bushland and Thicket
4 3.2.1 Nechlsar Bushland And Thicket
Bushland near riverine or groundwater forest or near the hot springs is very dense, but elsewhere on thinner and rockier soils Is more open, with larger patches of grass between the bushes. The tallest trees and bushes Include Acacia tortilla, A. syale, Combretum spp and Balanites aegyptlca Other common tall species are Acacia malllfara, Rhus natalensis and Cadaba farinose. Amongst woody shrubs and smaller species include Caparia mlcrsntha, Dodonaea angustilolia and HarTiaonla abyssinica Tall grass between bushes include Cenchrus clllarls. There Is a rich bird fauna, the Cambridge 1990 Expedition recorded 204 bird species In this habitat, full details of which are listed In Telfer et al 1990. The thicket area Is also a main habitat for Guenther’s dikdlk and greater kudu
4 3 3 Acacia Woodland/Short Grass Savannah
Various types of Acacia-dominated communities are typical of many of the lower rainfall areas of the Rift Valley. In the northern part of the Rift the ground under the trees Is often cultivated for maize or sorghum, the crop stubbles and other areas being used for grazing by mainly cattie and goats In particularly low rainfall areas where cultivation is not viable, the land is used mainly for grazing, and resembles typical Acacia woodland/short
grass savannah. Such areas support a remarkably rich variety of bird life Typical species associated with this habitat Include superb starling, white- browed sparrow weaver, namaqua dove and both red-bWIed and white- headed buffalo weavers
4 3 3 1 Abernossa Cattle Ranch
This is a large area of woodland dominated by Acacia tortilla, and some A. syale between Adami tulu and Abernossa. It had been fenced for the last 30 years (since Imperial times). Incidentally protecting the trees and allowing prolific regeneration of both trees and ground layer but the fences were removed by the local people In May 1991.
A variety of large mammal species are known to occur here, but population ligures are not available However these include beisa oryx, greater kudu, oribi, warthog. bohor reedbuck, olive baboon and the most northerly known population of Grant’s gazelle (J C HHIman, pers. comm.). There Is no available information on bird populations but the area doubtless supports the usual rich species diversity associated with A. tortilla communities.
174 3 3 2 Abiyala Shala Langano Area
This lower-lying area in the northern part of the Rih. with a particularly low rainfall regime (500mm) Is characterised by open Acacia woodland
dominated by AJortlfis but with frequent A. tyale and Balanites aegyptlca Notable mammal species here Include Grant's gazelle, greater kudu,
warthog and orlbi In the Senkeile area bohor reedbuck also occur, and,
until recently, the largest known population of Swayne s hartebeesl, an
endemic sub-species.
The   woodland   areas   are   extraordinarily   rich   in   bird   life,   with   over   270
species recorded, including at least live Ethiopian endemics (banded barbat, black-winged lovebird, thick-billed raven, wattled Ibis and black headed forest oriole) Also notable are blue-naped mousebird, white-bellied and bare-faced go-away-birds, whrte-crowned shrike, sulphur-breasted bush shrike, black wood hoopoe, mariqua sunbird, cut-throat finch, black cheeked waxbtll, pale flycatcher, red-Wiled, von der Deckens and Hemprichta hornbllls and Abyssinian ground hornbhl. In the past, flocks of up to several thousand chestnut-bell led sand grouse have been noted coming dally to drink at the Horakello river. Over-grazing by cattle and goats and recent tree-cutting may wall have reduced the ability of this area to support such a rich assemblage of bird and mammal species, and In parts It la In danger of becoming a dustbowl (see Section 6.3 and also Hillman 1986 and Hillman 1991).
4.3.3 3     Sod do - Arba Minch Area
This area, though less wall-defined than ths Abiyata-Shata Langano depression, has a similarly low raintail regime and supports apparently simitar open Acacia wood I a nd/savannah communities Systematic data on the bird and mammal populations are not avaltable, but casual observations suggest that a number of the typical Acacia woodland bird species are present (e g Superb Starling, Namaqua Dove. etc ).
4.3.4          Term inalla -Combret u m-Acac la Woodland/Savannah
Just beyond the edge of the study area, the region between Telteie and Yavello Is known to support Termlnalia-Combrelum-Acacta
woodtand/uvannah. Though data are lacking, the area within the study
area west of Tell eta towards Chew Bahlr Is probably similar In character with a rich bird fauna (J C Hillman, pars, comm.),
4.3.5           Dwarf Acacia Scrub Savannah
The black cotton soils north of Telteie support dwarf Acacia scrub (possibly A. mallttera). No further specific Information on this area is available However, Shalle/s starling is recorded there (J C Hillman, pars, comm ); this species breeds only in Ethiopia and Somalia, inhabiting Acacia- bordered dry river beds and thorn-bush country (Williams and Arloft, 1980).
104.3.6
4.3.6
Semi-Desert Savannah
1 Chew B
ahlr
Of  t
he
Chew
Bah
lr  area
of  about  2,000
k
7
m , a fifth
is  ta
ken  up
b
y  the  saline
lake
In
the
dry
season
from  Decembe
r
to  March
and
June
to
September.
During the rainy season in April/May and October/November up to half the area may be under water (Stephenson 1978) The present slate of Chew Bahlr Is not known, but the recent Landsat cover used in the FAO Land Use Mapping for this pro|ect showed the lake area well below Its maximum extent.
Tyler {1975) noted that at the north end ol Chew Bahlr there were "scattered trees and patches of scrubdel (slc)..M notable trees including Acacia nublca, A. reficlena, A. met I Hera, A. Senegal and A tortilla.” Further south there was "little vegetation except for Acacia trees higher up on the gravel and rocks of the loothllls on the west end east sides ’ Vegetation was 'very sparse on the flood-plain proper and over much of the mud-flats... non-existent." Further specific data on the wildlife of this area are almost as sparse, but typical species of sandy semi-desert country occur here. Including Grevy's zebra (see below), beisa oryx (over 300), ostrich, korl bustard, Lichtenstein's sandgrouse and chestnut-headed sparrow lark (Tyler, loc. cit). Khtlitz's sand plover probably breed around the springs in the southern area of Chew Bahlr. Grant’s gazelle were numerous on the west and east sides gerenuk frequent In the scrub at the west and east edges and lion, caracal and spotted hyaena also recorded (Tyler 1975).
Gravy's zebra occurs only in Ethiopia and northern Kenya and is recognised as an endangered species by IUCN The population ol (he Chew Bahir plains is a very important one whose range extends beyond the boundaries of the Rift Valley to the Teltele and Dilo-Bota plains in the east and the Murie and Karo plains In the west, and beyond the Ethiopian border into Kenya In the south. In 1970 Grevy’s zebra's only Ethiopian sites ware Chew Bahlr (1,200). Alledeghi Plains (250), and Awash National Park (10). information on the Kenyan population was noi available.
195                 KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND HABITAT CHANGES
5.1              Population Pressure
At an average growth mte of 2 9% the largely rural population of Ethiopia Is Imposing rapidly increasing pressure on the country's natural resources. Any solution to pressure cm natural resources eventually comes back to the short term need lo support the rapidly growing pop Gallon, and finding ways of supplying those needs, and longer-term, io controlling the rate of population growth. As noted elsewhere throughout this report current trends of resource exploitation are already unsustainable With the population expected to double in less lhan 2S years, the problems can only get worse (Wood and St*hl, 1990k The people themselves are sometimes regarded as rhe problem, but the real question is one of matching resources and
need
Improved standards of living generally lead to smaller fam Hies and a lower rate of population growlh. It follows, therefore, that a reduction In poverty leads, in the medium to longer term, to a reducing population pressure. Since a high proportion of the Ethiopian population live In rural areas, and the country has vary few exploitable mineral or mineral fuel resources, the economy of the rural areas, and the survival of lhe people In them, therefore depend on finding ways of maintaining sustainable use of Indigenous natural resources, primarily agriculture and associated resources Being especially close to the land makes Ethiopians highly dependent on and sustained by rhe soil, water and forest that support them. The common theme In tackling population pressure on natural resources must be long term sustainability.
6.2             Agriculture
Agricutture is clearly the dominant land use. by tar the largest part of (his is of a subsistence nature. There are some extensive State Farms the future of which have slid to be determined by the Government. Within the project area cash crops such as cotlee, cotion, fruit, tomatoes, melons, pineapples and papaya are grown. With increasing population, more pressure Is placed on land for agriculture, but It Is Important to develop agriculture In sympathy with the environment rather than so as to damage the natural resources on which It and people depend. Soil erosion, for example Is a serious problem in many areas, Including parts of the RIH Valley. These problems are discussed in the Appendices dealing with Land Resources Assessment, Agriculture and Forestry.
Recent studies suggest that nationally, soil loss on arable land exceeds soli formation by « factor of six, and thus the amount of land unable to support agriculture beet use of soil erosion will Increase to some W million hectares by 2010, During the next 30 years It is predicted that crop yields will decline by tit to 3% per annum and droughts will have more severe Impacts (Wood and StAhi 1990). With a rapidly increasing human population, tha effects of this upon both the people themselves and ihe natural environment can only Intensity
205.2.1           Clearance of Natural Vegetation for Cultivation
Over large parts of the RM Valley natural vegetation has already been
cleared. * Podocarpua and Syccmorua forest, and Acacia savanna
much more widespread In the past. Though some species of flora and
fauna can adapt to a certain extent, (e.g. bushbuck Is found even In
Eucalyptus plantations), many cannoi and those dependent on natural an
semf-natural habitats must have undergone major contractions In
distribution and population eg. Swayne s hartebeest.
Current   trends   towards   further   clearance   will   serve   only   to   reinforce declines  In  wildlife  populations  If  specialised  wildlife  that  depend  on  those habitats are to survive In the Rih Valley, then steps must be taken to ensure that  they  are  protected  The  best  way  to  ensure  this  is  for  those  habitats to  perform  some  positive  function  In  the  local  and  naiional  economy  e  g either   as   sustainable   yields   of   tlmber/charcoal   or   by   developing   wildlife products  or  wildlife-related  tourism.  See  Appendices  F  and  1  on  Forestry and Wildlife Tourism respectively.
5.2 2           Livestock
Domestic livestock occur in large numbers in the Rift Valley (see Appendix G Livestock). Management of those livestock has a major impact on the structure and species composition of vegetation and soil. Over-grazing is widespread, encouraged by the ‘savings bank’ nature of livestock Such heavy levels ol over-grazing are unsustainable, leading io soil erosion on slopes, or desertification problems in drier parts of the Rih Valley
Evan In National Park areas, large numbers of domestic livestock occur in
direct competition with wild grazing animals. The wild animals lose out by
sheer lorce of numbers Livestock remove nutrients from the system,
without putting them back, a process further exacerbated by the common
practice of using dried cattle dung as fuel.
5,2.3           Fuel Supplies
Fuel supply Is a crucial issue, both in respect of loss of potential soil nutrients and for maintenance of tree cover. Other ways of addressing requirements for fuel such as substitution of kerosene, could have a major, beneficial impact on rural land use and Its sustainability. This applies both to rural sites and even more so when timber becomes a cash crop for supporting the urban population of Addis Ababa and other towns.
A recent ENEC study, using the a soil life model (Economic Assessment of Land Degradation in the Ethiopian Highlands. NCS Secretariat 1991), estimated fuelwood, dung and crop residue use for energy In a large nationwide sample of Ethiopian households in 5 cities and 81 urban/rural locations. It was shown that In terms of impact on agricultural production^ water-holding capacity Is a more Important factor than loss of nutrients' The outcome of the NCS study, using the model and the survey data, Is an estimate that in the Ethiopian Highlands lhe loss ol crop production through
21dungburning  is  len  times  mare  than  by  soil  erosion  The  corresponding position in the Rift Valley needs to be established.
5.2.4         I ntfl nail I cat ion, Irrigation and Pollution
The Increasing demands for sell sufficiency and consequent Increasing pressure on land have led id more intensive land use. There Is a growing use of artificial fertilisers and aerial application of pesticides has increasad In certain areas, largely those related to slate farms. Thera has been a greater demand on water resources through irrigation schemes although few of these have bean enllrely successful in meeting their original production targets, and even fewer are located In the project area.
Features of Increased intensity of land use include Iree Jelling rar fuelwood/char coal. clearing land for extra cultivation, and heavy grazing leading to soil erosion.
Problems  ot  sallnisation  have  arisen  in  same  irrigation  schemes  and  this has led to a loss of overall soli iertilfiy and thus agri cultural output.
In tho Rift Valley the system ol closed lakes. In which chemical pollutants will accumulate from runoff, means that the terminal lakes Abiyata. Shale and Chamo are in pedicular danger from pollution. Pesilcide contamination could also have serious implications for fisheries and potable water supplies (see also Section 5.3.1.3).
5.3             Water Resources
Tbs Rift Valley Lakes Basin Is an area of general rainfall deficit, especially In the lower valley floor areas, giving rise to dry or very dry areas. In these lower, drier areas, both fuel and water are critical fncfors In the survival of the human population. Once more the central point Is competition between different demands on natural resources
5.3  1 Competition for Water Resources
Il is clear that there are various demands for water resources arising Irom human needs, agriculture, fisheries. Irrigation, etc. and all are often in dlreci competition for the scarce resources. A balance between these conflicting demands must he Identified. The water balance simulation model, described In the Water Resource Appendix, is an attempt to resolve some ot these issues in relation to the Meki-Ziway-Ably ata system and the competing demands on the water resources far agriculture, irrigation, industrial uses (soda ash) and the needs of the wildlife and environment.
5 3,1.1 Agriculture
Efficient use of ra Ini al I including terracing, contour ploughing, bunding etc. and through improved water harvesting techniques, which In combination with natural nutrient recycling (eg. returning dung to soil) can help Improve the productivity of such areas (Reference Paper, NCS, iflgi), Dung
22recycling plus efficient use of rBinfed water Is a better option than l e intensive combination of artificial fertilizer and Irrigation. Il has no potential for causing damage, as It helps to conserve the soil and reduces the risk of downstream floods through lower runoff rates
5.3.1.2 Fisheries
The Mekl Irrigation scheme Is reported to remove fry from Lake Zlway (WRDA, March 1992) Endemic fish species in the Mekl river must be at risk from the Irrigation scheme. This exacerbates the other problems facing the fisheries of the lakes basin, see Appendix H: Fisheries
Some of the water loss which has become noticeable in the level of Lake Chamo is also reported to have been exacerbated by Slate farm Irrigation abstracting waler from Inflows to Lakes Chamo and Abaya. As .a warning of the damage that can easily be done to a shallow soda lake, one need only consider the example of Lake Nakuru In Kenya, where considerable problems have developed due to accumulating runoff from agricultural chemicals and domestic effluent
53.1.3      Wildlife
Lake Ablyata Is very sensitive to the natural local variation In rainfall, which during the last 25 years has also shown a downward annual trend, at first gradual, then increasing steeply since 1987 Given this natural sensitivity of size and salinity, abstraction for Irrigation of fresh water supplies from two of the three rivers flowing into Lake Ablyata (the other Inflow Is too saline for purposes of Irrigation) can only make matters worse. This may prove crucial to some species where, for example, the Lake provides the source ol fish so Important for the great white pelican colonies on Lake
Shall.
Lake Abiyata Is much more vulnerable to pesticide or other pollutants because it is shallow, with a low volume of water. Its high degree of biological productivity confers on Lake Abiyata a greater propensity for bioaccumulation of pollutants, Increasing with ascent of the food chain, finally passing from tilapia to the feeding birds.
This Is not the case for the adjacent Lake Shall, whose large volume of water provides much greater dilution of pollutants, and whose biological production is so low that very little contamination can pass up the food chains Referring back to water quality, any substantial reduction in the biological production of Lake Ablyata (such as happens when salinity becomes too hlQh for fish to survive, or when anoxic conditions cause fish kills ) has major implications for internationally Important populations of birds that depend on it.
5 3.1 4 Water Supply
At present, many rural dwellers obtain their water supplies direct from lakes and rivers, with consequent risk of damage to their health. The provision
23of polable waler supplies Is clearly a high priority for improving the quality of  life.  Once  more  this  must  be  sustainable  and  in  balance  with  other demands  on  the  limited  water  resources  The  potential  for  the  further development of ihe groundwater resources is discussed In Appendix C2 Groundwater Resources
5.4            Forestry
Recent estimates suggest that wood In Ethiopia Is being used at twice the present rate of replacement, so that. In theory, unless major changes in current management of resources are achieved compete deforestation will occur by the year 2025 (Wood and StAhl 1990). Natural forests, plantation foreslry including exotic species, and tree cover in Ihe agricultural landscape are easily distinguishable forest types, but there is currently no precise distinction between these types In terma ol how they are used and whai demands are made upon them.
Short term measures such as widespread planting of fast-growing exotic species eg. Eucalyptus or Cupressua app. can make a very important substantial short-term contribution to supplying urgent demand However it muai be stressed that such plantations have environmental coats. For example Eucalyptus can exert a high water demand, and this can be particularly acute at times of low rainfall. When, as often, they are planted loo close together. they can dry oui the soil; they can also change Ihe chemical status of the soil through pungent aromatic metabolites; the shape of their leaves with a large surface area and sharp point Induces large rain droplets to form and may thus increase soli erosion beneath.
From the wildlife conservation point of view, exotics have much less value than native forest species The medium and long-term goal of the forestry Industry should aim towards planting and using a greater proportion of native tree species, better adapted to the local environment, and in which Ethiopian wlldlHe Is better adapted to live.
5.4.1         Subsistence
Timber Is a basic fuel for cooking and heating, and one of the main construction materials. The rising human population has placed ever- increasing demands on forest resources. Replacement supplies have not kept pace with the rate of depletion. Although recent Indiscriminate cutting has been driven by fully understandable Immediate needs, a new strategy Is Imperative for sustainable cropping of one of the most Important naiural resources.
The long history of feudalism followed by the rigours o< vlllagisatlon under a command economy, with a civil war that overlapped the two. have collectively deprived the rural population of any vestige of land ownership or even security of tenure. It Is to be hoped that when the peasants eventually leel the security from tenure of their own land, when once more their dwellings are scattered around the rural landscape, they will have the
24forward-looking  confidence  to  plant  trees  and  Introduce  more  conservallon oriented and sustainable farming systems
The study team heard from the coordinator of the Farm Africa project In Awassa how farmers In the Weleyta enset cultivation area of high population density are already demonstrating such confidence. In that area, much tree-planting Is In progress, so that tree cover Is now good and even Increasing. Different tree types are being planted for a variety of uses
5 4 2 Cash Crop
Since the market value of trees is rising with the greatly Increased demand. It Is now worthwhile for a farmer to Invest In trees as a cash crop, to provide medium term insurance against a poor harvest. This practice should be encouraged as a way of supplementing rural Incomes.
There is always the danger of economic pressures forcing people into adopting very short term solutions, chopping trees down for immediate requirements, with no effective consideration of the future This Is happening In the Ablyata-Shala Lakes National Park, where there Is widespread telling of Acacia for the Addis Ababa charcoal market.
The promotion of plating tress as a cash crop should be encouraged and developed Into a sustainable Industry. This Is discussed in the Forestry
Appendix
5 4 3 Commercial Forestry
There Is little commercial forestry In the Rih Valley Basin. At present. Podocarpus and Juniperui trees are harvested In preference to recently- planted Cupresaus, because the they are regarded as "free" limber. There could be no more erroneous concept, as trees should be valued by their economic opportunity cost, or In simple terms the cost of replacement A harvested mature Podocarpus or Junlperua cannot be replaced free of cost Once foiled, even If it Is replaced immediately with a new sapling, there is a quantifiable and very substantial cost, spread over long years of walling for a mature replacement tree. Podocarpus and Junlperus trees may Indeed provide better timber for some purposes than eg Cupreasus, but the price differentials between mature old trees and recently-planted fast-growing types are at present Inverse relative to the real value of the standing timber
As elsewhere in the economy, a radical change is needed in pricing policy, in this case to prevent gross waste of natural resources by failing to appreciate their economic value. This, like other economic values, can be readily estimated in money terms. Whilst there is clearly a place for commercial forestry, it must be part of an Integrated land use strategy. At the same time, one should not Ignore the potential value of 'commerciar forests as a wildlife habitat simply because of timber being a crucial resource There is no need to sacrifice all other objectives to that of timber
25production,  $lnca  prop&r  planning  of  loreslry  development  and  exploitation can achieve multiple ob| act Ives.
5.5             Mineral)
Al pre$eni itwre Is little exploitation oi minerals in lhe project area other than the extraction of rock for hardcore. This la on a limited scale, largely for road construction, and is not considered an environmental hazard at the present tlme.
The only significant current mineral exploitation issue ci environmental consequence, of which the study team ts aware, is thal of lhe soda ash plant which commenced production in 1989 an the north side ol Lake Ably ata The implications ci this are also dealt wrlh extensively In lhe Appendices C and K on War Resources and Minerals respectively
The Minerals Appendix has Identified a number of other potentially exploitable mineral resources in the pro|eci areit Including dolomite, bentonite and some limestone. There are also possibilities that epithermal gold may be present although this will need extensive lurther investigation before commercial reserves can be proven. Each ol these potentially exploitable resources has environmental consequences, both physical and biological, and all would need full Environmental Impact Assessments to be Included as part of the detailed feasibility studies.
S.5.1        Soda Ash
Soda ash began to be extracted In 1989 by progressive evaporation from specially constructed ponds adjacent to Lake Ablyata. The specific impact of this on ihe lake is as yet not clearly understood, but the first phase of production (15,000 mt/year} Is thought to have Increased the evaporation rate of rhe lake by about i% end contributed to the 25% reduction in lake area over the last seven years. Although the present rate of production may be exacerbating the already critical water level situation, n may be less damaging than the reduction al freshwater inflow caused by abstraction for irrigation.
Expansion plans for the soda ash plant promise a huge Increase in production (200,000 mt/year). to be achieved by pumping water from Lake Shala, and using Lake Ablyata as large evaporating pan for Lake Shale. As the lull affects ot this proposal are unpredictable (water table, wildlife, fisheries), and have not been fully studied it would be very dangerous from the environmental perspective to proceed before a full El A has been undertaken and the various options and alternatives considered. This Is especially so since the market for soda ash In Ethiopia Is limited and. as noted In the Minerals Appendix, there Is little likelihood of II being a potential commodity tor export at a competitive price on lhe world market.
It should be noled that the establishment of a soda ash plant at Lake Abiyata, regardless of any expansion plan, has been in direct conflict with lhe Government's objectives of National Parks. In particular it I louis the
265.6
provision of the Wildlife Conservation Order Number 56 o
'maintenance of the spectacular scenic attractions and easy access t y national parks' (see Section 6.1 1). The Abiyata Shale Lakes National ar
was established to protect internal tonally important waterfowl popuations
which uss this system of lakes and no provision was Included to allow It to
play host to mineral extraction.
Biodiversity
The richness of Ethiopia's fauna and flora and high degree of endemism are crucial aspects to be addressed In the National Conservation Strategy (see Section 6 4). This long term sustainability can only be achieved by maintaining biodiversity and so keeping open as many natural resource options as possible for future generations
Amongst the indigenous plants of Ethiopia which have long been used by
the local people, the endemic Teh provides the cereal for Injera, the
Ethiopian Banana or "Enset" Is grown widely for Its shoots and stem pulp, Safflower seeds produce a flour when roasted and also a cooking or tamp
oil. the Oromo Potato is grown widely for food especially in the South West
and amongst the range of uses of Sensei leaves are as a treatment for
malaria and as a soapy cleaning agent.
Coffee is however probably the most famous of all the Ethiopian endemic plants in terms of Ils world-wide economic Impact. Long used by the Ethiopians, coffee was Introduced to London fn the 17th century, and to-day is the USA's single largest import. As Jonathan Kingdon (1990) put it rather poignantly ‘All this from a scruffy-looking understorey bush hidden away
in the lower reaches of Ethiopia's mountain forests*?
Ensuring that such potential is not lost is the key objective of policies to maintain biodiversity. Ethiopia is such an important centre of endemism thai such policies musl form a cornerstone of its conservation strategy (see also Madams, R, 1989).
Mosi of the focus ol endemism in Ethiopia is In the highland areas, but the importance of (he Rih Valley ecosystems should not be under-estimated - maintenance of the full range of habitat types represented must be a key objective (see Section 7 i).
276                CONSERVATION
G.t             Government Policy
6.1 I EWCO
In 1970 a Wildlife Conservation Organisation, now known as EWCO. was established by Imperial Order (No 56 of 1970) The Organisation was sei up as an autonomous Public Authority under the chairmanship of the Minister of Agriculture, with as Its principal objective -
• “to ensure the proper conservation of wildlife
resources In (Ethiopia) and to establish, develop
and administer national parks for wildlife game
reserves and other conservation areas designed to
provide lor the better protection of the fauna and
flora, and for purposes of education, recreation and
scientific research."
The Organisation was to achieve its objective by being responsible for, Inter
alia;-
• administration, and enforcement of legislation;
•      issuing licenses or permits for hunting wild animals or birds and collection of fees payable;
•      establishment, demarcation and management of national parks, game   reserves,   sanctuaries   and   controlled   hunting   areas, declaration  of  wildlife  conservation  areas  and  maintenance  of the  spectacular  scenic  attractions  and  easy  accessibility  of national parks and game reserves;
•       fixing  and  collecting  fees  payable  by  visitors,  reviewing  any schedule of game animals and capitation fees;
•        granting  concessions,  collecting  lees  lor  exploit  ah  on  of crocodile or other wildlife resources;
•      granting concessions for erection and operation of hotels and camps; provision of other facilities for use of public In nailonal parks, game reserves or other wildlife conservation areas
Coiled Ing fees
All Income was to be deposited in a tund lodged In the National Bank of Ethiopia in the name of the Organisation.
286.1.2           Past and Present Government Policy and Strategy for Wildlile Conservation
Government policies In relation to wildlife conservation are likely to have a fundamental Impact on the extent to which the various proposals and recommendations presented In this study may be realised. The Transitional Government has given some priority In Its economic policies for the transitional period to conservation and the environment, The relevant section form the policy statement Is given at Schedule 2.
This national policy Is being translated into a strategy for action and a draft documeni produced for the Transitional Government of Ethiopia by Dr J C Hillman (Adviser, EWCO) ‘Wildlife Management Policy and Strategy* (October. 1991. Addis Ababa, Mimeo 17pp) (Hillman 1991b) is especially
important in this respect. Useful background Information Is also contained
in MoA/EWCO 1985 "A Development Plan for Wildlife Conservation In Ethiopia* (March. 1985, Addis Ababa, Mimeo, 203pp).
6.2              Conservation Measure* to Date
6.2.1           National Parks
The  general  location  of  the  National  Parks.  Reserves  and  Contolied  Hunting Areas in the RIH Valley Lakes Basin are illustrated in Figure 4
6 2,1,1       Ablyata-Shala Lakes National Park
Ablyaia Shala Lakes National Park, established In 1970, has yet to be gazetted. It comprises both lakes Abiyata and Shala, together with a narrow strip of surrounding land north of lhe Shashamene-Alaba Kolito road and west of the Ziway-Shashamene road, with a formal boundary description made by EWCO In 1974.
The Park was created to protect (he spectacular numbers of aquatic blrdst notably the great white pelican and lesser flamingo, which feed on Lake Abiyata. the bird breeding islands in Lake Shala. and finally tor the scenery, which is rugged around Lake Shala In addition there is the contrast between the deepest Ethiopian Rift Valley lake (Shala, 260m) alongside one of the shallowest (Abiyata, rarely over 14m). There are large lava caves south ol Lake Shala. and hot springs around the same lake
The Park has a staff of 35 with (until recently, see Section 6.3) a total of 40 buildings distributed around a headquarters and various outposts
During  1974  local  farmers  and  pastoralists  began  to  'flood  into"  the  Abiyata Shala  Lakes  National  Park  area,  clearing  forest  for  shitting  cultivation,  felling trees  to  make  charcoal  (or  cash,  and  overburdening  the  land  with  livestock (Stephenson,  1978).  By  1978  the  north  and  west  sides  of  Lake  Abiyata  had become    near-desert    Early    In    1977    the   newly   formed   local   Peasants' Associations  forcibly  took  over  complete  control  of  the  Park,  denying  the Government’s  WLCDD  staff  any  role  In  the  matter  Lake  Abiyata  was  freely fished By July 1978 the park accommodated 2.105 dwellings, 9.875
29parsons, 27,670 callle. 11.000 sheep and goats and 5.380 horses mules and donkeys
II Is therefore not surprising that most of the wildlife previously inhabiting the area had vanished by 1978 The Park area long ago Josi lhe beisa oryx. Swayne  s  hartebeest,  buffalo  watsrbuck,  giraffe  and  lion  that  It  once supported Greater kudu, klipspringer and jackal have all but disappeared, leaving only a few Grant s gazelle, Abyssinian black and while CoIobus monkey, oribi and warthog
Allhough EWCO was able to regain control and management, and wildlife tourists, especially bird-watchers came regularly to the Park during the tsao's, two serious events were lo cause further damage, some ol which may prove to be Irreparable- One was the Installation of an Industrial plant on the north shore of Lake Abiyata for the production ol soda ash from the lake water, a process that began In i960 (see above) The other happened in May 1991, at the sudden change of Government that marked the end of the civil war (see Section 6.3 ■ Hillman 1991b). As a result, the Ablyata- Shala Lakes National Park Is now (March 1992) in a state even worse than Stephenson described in 1978
6.2.1.2 Nechisar National Park
Nechisar National Park was proposed In 1967 wMh a formal boundary described in 1975 Like Ablyata-Shala. It has also not been gazetted. This very spectacular Park Includes small portions of northern Lake Charno and southern Lake Abaya, the area between the lakes including the Kullo Groundwater Forest and the hills to Its east and last the famous Nechisar Plains, one of the few Ethiopian exemplars of this type of grassland habitat.
The total area of
J
the Park is 752 km , bounded on the east by the Amaro
mountains, on the west by the town of Arba Minch, on the north by Lake Abaya and on the south by Lake Chamo. In addition to the Kulffo river between the two lakes, the Sermale river flows southwards near the eastern boundary, before Joining the Meo river in the extreme south of the Park. The combined waters of the Sermale and Meo form lhe Sagan river which soon leaves the Park across the southern boundary. Not far from the confluence of (he Sermale and Meo rivers is a hot spring at Fllwoha.
The 26 staff of EWCO were installed with a headquarters and some outposts comprising 12 buildings.
Tesfaye, 1985 gives a detailed description ol habitats and mean density par km2 of the Park's five main wild herbivores during wet and dry seasons, from his research visits between December 1984 and April 1985. Unfortunately there Is no estimate of the total numbers of animals Burchetrs zebra were seen In groups of 100 or more during the dry season, when they chose to be near water, In lhe riverine forest of the Sermale valley. In the dry season they split into smaller units of 10 to 20 animals, scattered all over the grassland plains. Greater kudu prefer the dense thicket, visiting the plains only In lhe wet season. Regardless of season
30warthog were found In a restricted range of wooded grassland south of Lake Abaya and east of the grassland plains. Grant s gazelle, being tolerant of high temperature In the absence of water, can spend any time of the year on the open plains or in grassland with scattered trees and bushes. Finally, Swayne’s hartebeest were frequently seen grazing in the foot hills (presumably on the Park's eastern boundary) In the dry season, visiting the plains In the rainy season.
in the same study, Tesfaye described the main threats to the habitats and integrity of the Park. Along the eastern boundary, especially the Sermale valley, the Park suffered from human intervention from the GuJI nomad pastoralists and the Kolra farmers On a day in July 1985 some 188 herdsmen and almost 1,700 cattle were observed between the plains and the eastern boundary. The consequence was noted as competition between livestock and wildlife for food, trampling damage, soli erosion and.exchange of disease between livestock and wild animals Both tribes would Indulge in Indiscriminate burning of grass, the GuJI to encourage new growth of grass for their cattle, the Kolra to extend their areas of cultivation. Burning brought a reduction both in fertile soil and In tall grasses There was also a high Incidence of poaching wildlife for meal, the main victims being Swayne s hartebeest, greater kudu, bushbuck, reedbuck and hippopotamus, Because ol poaching, the wild buffalo in Nechlsar had been annihilated by 1979.
The open plains contained a high tick load which threatened the animals
there, especially Burchell s zebra and Swayne's hartebeest.
The western border was noted for unauthorised entry to the Park by townsfolk of Arba Minch, who came to the Groundwater Forest for fuelwood and building timber Many were also noted to visit the lake areas within the Park in order practise unauthorised fishing for the Informal market in Arba Minch. Others would enter the Park purely for their leisure
During the three years prior to May 19S1. EWCO’s efforts were successful in confronting most of the problems noted by Tesfaye (apan from the (leks on the plains). Nomads and farmers were kept out, with poaching greatly reduced- At the end of 1990 there were ihought to be 2,000 to 2,500 Burchell s zebra. 400 to 500 Grant s gazelle, 400 to 500 greater kudu and 100 or more hippopotamus In the Park. Together with bushbuck, warthog, water buck, dikdik, jackal, hyena (rare), mongoose, leopard and occasional lion and even wild dog
Despite the increased efforts put into wildlife and Park management, the number of Swayne s hartebeest had remained at 70 to 75 animals, no more than at any time during the 1980's. As poaching could be ruled out by 1991 and predators would have chosen more abundant targets, it was thought that juvenile mortality caused by ticks could be limiting the population of Swayne s hartebeest A management priority was to rest the lick hypothesis by selective burning followed by observation of pregnant females and their offspring in burnt and unburnt areas. This was never
31Tried, as Park management was overtaken by the events of May 1991 (see Section 6.3).
6.2 2       Wildlife Sanctuaries
6.2  2.1    Senkelle Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary
The sanctuary lor Swayne s Hartebeest on the Senkelle Plains was established In 1976 and managed by the staff ol Ablyata-Shaia Lakes National Park until 1990. and Independently after that. Like the Rift Valley National Park It has not been gazetted It is an area of some 54 km south
2
□I Sodda on the western side ot the Rift Valley
According to Lewis and Wilson (1979), land use In the area at the time of establishment of the Sanctuary, was a mixture of maize and bean cultivation, and transhumant grazing of livestock by the Arussl people Inhabiting rhe area, the cattle being withdrawn during lhe dry season (October to February) lor lack of permanent water The number of hartebeest counted between December 1975 and February 1975 varied between 336 and 440. sharing the area with a highly variable number ol cattle, from zero at the and of November 1975 up to a maximum of 1,600 by February 1976.
Of the 6 vegetation types Into which the area had been classified, the hartebeest preferred lhe type of fallow with the shortest grass. Although this lype comprised only 10% of the total, lhe harts bee st spent 60% of their time on it. It was estimated at the time that the Senkelle population ol endangered Swayne's hartebeest amounted to approximately 60% of the world population.
After living on the Senkelle Plains amongst the Arussi for two months. Hell and (1976) was able lo write In great detail about Lhe human ecology
of the area. In his view the agriculture/pastoral adaptation ol the Senkelle Plains had characteristics of a vicious circle, doomed to seif-deaiructlon. First, agriculture permits higher Investments in catUe, increasing the stocking rate and reducing pastoral productivity. This Is then compensated by intensifying the agriculture to maintain the high stocking rale, only to destroy the pasture by overgrazing. As the soil becomes exhausted, agricultural productivity will fall, forcing the farmer to extend the agricultural land, thereby reducing pasture. Thus the reduction of pasture accelerates, hastening Its destruction As for the hartebeest, they have to compete with livestock under increasingly difficult conditions. There was also some hunting of hartebeest by the Arussi. but thia was checked by the four game guards from outside the area, Installed by EWCO.
The Swayne s hartebeest was of no significant economic value to the Arussl, but In order to persuade them of the moral and scientific need lor conservation, the then Government and EWCO represented lhese needs simply as an enormous sum of money. ElhBIrr 15,000 per animal. It was understandable for the Arussl to regard the hartebeest not only as
32Government  property  protected  by  the  Government's  agents,  but  also  as  of rather greater apparent value than themselves
It is all the more remarkable, therefore, that, despite the predictions of Holland, the number of harlebeest had increased four fold by 1904. when they were counted on three occasions by Kassaye and Messana (mean of 1,748 animals, standard deviation 39). This success was attributed to the EWCO system of confiscating cattle and Imposing fines for poaching, or grazing livestock In areas set aside for harlebeest Simultaneously, attempts had been made at more positive methods of control, by setting up a committee made up of Arussl farmers, the local administration and EWCO
By 1984 the traditional felling of trees for fuelwood in Senkelle had increased greatly, driven by the rising population, with dozens of donkeys laden with wood tracking dally to and from the ever-receding forest, which at that time comprised about 25 km2 on the east and south east of the sanctuary,
6.2.3          Wildlife Reserves
6.2.3 1      Definition
According to the recently produced draft "Wildlife Management Policy and Strategy" (Hillman 1991 b), a “wildlife reserve’ is defined as an area:
a)             set   aside   for   the   conservation,   management   and   propagation   of wildlife  and  the  protection  and  management  of  Its  habitat  and  which could  be  upgraded  as  a  National  Park  II  and  when  the  concerned authorities deem it necessary;
b)            within   which   the   hunting,   killing   or   capture   of   fauna   shall   be prohibited  except  by  or  under  the  special  direction  of  the  Minister of Agriculture and the Environment:
c)            where  wildlife  conservation  Is  managed  in  tandem  with  other  forms of landuse. including regulated settlement and agriculture.
6 2 3 2 Chew Bahir Wildlife Reserve
Stephenson (1978) described aspects of the wildlife and land management situation In the Chew Bahir area The extent to which the objectives and conditions that its status as a wildlife area would Imply are relevant to the way in which It is being currently managed can only be a matter for speculation since no recent Information is available (see Sections 4 1.2 2 and 7,2.2 4).
6.2  4 Controlled Hunting Areas
Hunting access to a Controlled Hunting Area is permitted only in the company of a professional hunter after payment of special game licence (e g elephant EthBirr 3.500) Boyo (Bilate) Controlled Hunting Area, the
33only one In the AIft Valley is provided for hunting hippopotamus The area Is importani to local people, who graze livestock there
If status as a Controlled Huniing Area confers any protection as to land use, It was Insufficient to stop an official scheme io dam and flood the area This scheme Is reported to have been forcibly resented by local opposition, leading io the destruction of construction works and plank The Irrigation scheme was abandoned and Us future status has not been determined
6 2.5 Monitoring Wildlife Populations
In establishing lhe present protected areas in the Rift Valley, various surveys of wildlife populations have been done (here references will ba supplied by MD). Apart from these surveys there has been relatively little counting of wildlife, and no systematic surveys until the recent work by Syvertsen on Abyata-Shala Lakes National Park waterfowl in 1991 and 1992
The monitoring procedure Itself, needs to be designed around lhe particular species or habitat In question and precisely what one Is hoping to discover about It. However, where resources are extremely limited, sampling techniques to give estimates of overall trends clearly have a great advantage over attempts at complete counts. As an illustration of statistical analysis applied to one particular form of wildlife sampling survey. Schedule 2 reviews data collection by Syvertsen between December 1990 and January 1992.
A similar form of statistical analysis could be used on properly'designed sampling surveys of other forms of wildlife. The main difference would be in the method of sampling and lhe entitles observed. A widely used method for population estimation is to travel amidst or over (in an aircraft) the animals In question, counting the numbers of each species on either side occupying an area called the transect, which may be of fixed or variable width. Thus, one can take a transect on foot walking at constant pace through a forest, or from a vehicle travelling steadily along a track, from an aircraft hying at constant height or even from a boat. The transects sc covered each represent a stratum (eg a habitat type), or definable components ol different strata within the ground or water area under observation
Having quantified the total area Into (he different habitats (by a separate survey} and estimated the corresponding contribution of each sampling stratum, the approach to estimating total populations and their confidence limits must employ statistical methods such as that illustrated (or the
Ablyata-Shala Lakes National Park waterfowl survey data In Schedule 2. Another method used for sampling fauna In certain circumstances is to stand still in a particular spot, collecting sample data for a fixed period of time before moving to the next sampling point.
Alternatively a transect might ba used for periodic sampling of tha habitat ItaeW. for instance to delect trends In abundance of trees In a forest. Yet another method employs marking techniques eg. to estimate total
346.3
population from the traction of marked Individuals amongst a population (examples Include fish-tagging, bird-ringing and more recently fitting radio transmitters or transponders to animals). However different may be the survey techniques most appropriate to use In different contexts, the final statistical analyses have much In common between survey methods.
Recent Events
Following the climax of the civil war and fall of the former Government In May 1991. there began a period of social unrest and public disorder. Some of this was directed at Infrastructure and habitats of National Parks and other “protected" areas (Hillman 1991a). Though much of the most Intense damage occurred In a relatively short period following the downfall ol the previous regime, habitat destruction and other practices inimical to the objectives ol National Parks and protected areas have continued, eg. tree felling, charcoal production, domestic livestock grazing, re-establlshment of settlements and areas of cultivation within park boundaries
To begin to comprehend why such destruction occurred, it is necessary to understand the history of land tenure In Ethiopia Through consecutive times of feudal and nationalised ownership, the peasants still see the land as theirs, hence the various continuing tribal disputes over land and the tremendous resentment generated amongst local people by policies of the former Government For example, some people dwelling within areas demarcated as National Parks were evicted without compensation, and forced to build new houses elsewhere at their own expense. Subsequently, EWCO were required to carry out policies of hostile protectionism. Furthermore, none of the benefits deriving from the National Park system accrued to the local community.
Inevitably, National Parks came to be seen as a prominent symbol of the former Government, on which to vent pent-up frustration and anger. At same time the breakdown of local government was perceived by local communities as threatening supplies of relief food aid. Cutting trees for charcoal was naturally seen as the only remaining means of getting cash to pay for food
Destruction of assets of National Parks might seem at first difficult to understand, but It was perpetrated by those who had seen no benefit from them, only their own exclusion. At this troubled time, damage was by no means confined to National Parks. Clinics, schools, fisheries and much more property were to suffer a similar fate It Is interesting, though not comforting, to recall that similar destructive events attended the fall of the emperor in 1974. and Indeed in many other parts of Africa where National Park Authorities have attempted to practise a protectionist policy Independent ol the views and aspirations of the local people
Of all the protected areas, the Abiyata-Shala Lakes National Park was to suffer the most serious damage during the last week in May 1991. Extensive looting and destruction deprived the Park s facilities of roofing sheets, doors, windows and their frames, equipment and personal
35belongings Also stripped of all equipment was lhe WCI.'EWCO research post at the Horakello river Damage extended beyond property directly associated with lhe former Government, to facilities on Lake Langano such as the Bekelle Mola hotel. With the help of the local Peace and Stability Committee, some of lhe looted material has been recovered
Recalling that Ablyata-Shala Lakes National Park suflered some ol the worst damage during the events of May 1991 and subsequently, greater community involvement in and support for this National Park will be crucial if rt is to have a future at all. In March 1992 members of the study team and EWCO atlended a mealing with the National Park staff and representatives of six of the kebeles In the Ablyata-Shala area to discuss ways of achieving better cooperation and community Involvement In lhe management of the Park Despite the seriousness of the recent damage, lhe tenor of the meeting was remarkably positive. If followed up h may bode well for the opening of a new chapter In lhe management of this National Park
Staff at the outposts of lhe Nechisar National Park In May 1991 were withdrawn for their own safety before looters moved in, causing extensive loss and destruction. The headquarters near Arba Minch escaped damage. During the following months, especially August and September, serious tribal conflict arose between the Gu|l and Kolra peoples In the area near the Park, driving many of them back Into Nechisar. There was widespread burning of a ma|or part of the grassland, estimated at the time as between 50% and 75%. and still evident at the time of the study team’s visit to the Park In March 1992. By that time there was little sign of the numbers of wildlife Inhabitants that had built up during the previous three years of successful management. Heavy poaching had greatly reduced the wildlife population, but many animals were thought to have dispersed during lhe
fires.
During a day-long visit to Nechisar in March 1992 only about 200 Burchell's zebra. 40 Grant’s gazelle and a single greater kudu were seen. Not a single Swayne’s hartebeest was observed, although one of the EWCO staff had seen five the previous week.
After total destruction of Its facilities In May 1991, Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest Sanctuary was to become the scene of tribal conflict between the Sldama and Arussl peoples As In Ablyata-Shala Lakes National Park, the EWCO staff had to be withdrawn, leaving the feuding occupants of Senkelle to persecute not only each other, but also the hartebeest, which would seem either to have scattered or their numbers decimated. Of the 2,000 Swayne’s hartebeest built up during the previous 10 years, about 500 remained In August 1991. By October only 49 were counted during a visit by Hillman.
0.4 National Conservation Strategy
The  previous  Government  Initiated  the  process  of  drawing  up  a  National Conservation Strategy (NCS) and requested the International Union for the
36Conservation of Nature (IUCN) to advise and assist In this process NCS s are based on the ideas outlined In the World Conservation Strategy (IUCN UNEP 4 WWF, 1990) which sot down principles for sustained management
□f    natural    resources    and    the    maintenance    of    life-supporting    ecological processes, and shows how these can facilitate development.
An NCS applies ecological principles to ensure that the greatest sustained benefit is obtained from a country's natural resource base for the present generation, while maintaining the potential to meet the needs of future generations. There can be few countries around the wortd where the need for an effective NCS is more crucial, urgent or self-evident than In Ethiopia.
The Phase 1 NCS report (Wood and Sifthl 1990) followed a 3-monlh sludy In May 1990 a national Ethiopian NCS conference agreed io produce a National Conservation Strategy With the advent of the new Government, a new framework Is now being designed for pursuing the strategy With Increased moves towards regionalisation following the change of government, the aim Is now to devolve development strategy to regional level. A total of 20 regional task forces are therefore being established to produce the equivalent of the Phase 1 NCS report for each region In parallel, several national task forces will examine e g. land policy, highland versus lowland issues, environmental impact assessment procedures etc. Subsectoral strategies will examine certain issues eg the Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan, soil and water conservation - husbandry, water resources, livestock, and possibly also wildlife conservation
Once regional and national studios are complete, the alm Is to draw together an NCS In draft form by the end of 1992. to be finalised by the end of 1993 after public consultation The NCS will also seek to harmonise with other strategy documents e g on the national population policy, food and nutrition strategy, disaster preparedness strategy, etc. The whole NCS process Is funded by IBRD. ODA, UNDP etc. It Is at present managed in association with IUCN. The alm is for the NCS secretariat to eventually expand into a coherent programme of natural resource management, to oversee the implementation phase which will clearly need to last many decades.
377                RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1             Objectives of ft Wildlife Coniervalion Strategy
It Is recommended that the following three objectives be adopted
•       protect  representative  examples  of  the  full  range  of  wildlife habitats within the Ethiopian Alft Valley
•        maintain   the   range   ol   species   diversity   supported   by   lhe Ethiopian   RWt   Valley   ecosystems,   especially   those   species whose  populations  are  rare,  endangered  or  localised,  or  for which the Rift Valley has a special significance In International or national terms:
•       encourage utilisation of the natural resources of the Rift Valley In a sustainable way In order to support lhe human population and maintain the wildlife interests of the area
7.2             Specific Recommended Actions
7.2.1        Local Community Involvement
In democratic countries wildlife conservation can only proceed If It has a base of popular support. The wildlife conservation policies of lhe imperial era and also those of the subsequent regime Ignored this principle. This could not be more clearly Illustrated than by the backlash of public resentment and destruction in May 1991 Resolution of lhe difficult Issues of land tenure Is vital, but whatever Is decided, community involvement In National Parks and other protected areas Is crucial if their conservation cb|ectrves are to be achieved. Ways of working towards this difficult goal may Include
•       allocating  a  portion  of  fees  received  from  visitors  to  the  local community;
■   recognition   of   the   local   people's   Interest   In   the   lend,   where appropriate  leasing  such  land  from  the  local  community  for National Park buildings and other facilities;
Involving the local community In the management of lhe
National Parks by giving them representation in the Parks
decision processes, with priority to local people in
opportunities for employment, full-time (e.g. wardens and game guards) and contract tasks (e.g. construction, maintenance of access tracks, habitat management);
•     create     opportunities     for     the     local     community     to     work cooperatively with tour operators and other tourism investors In projects such as camp sites, lodges, catering facilities and craft sales, so that the local community receive economic benefits
38from such activities Dependent on how the land tenure Issues are resolved, benefits might take the form of payments to individuals or directly to support community facilities such as schools, clinics, etc;
•       making  permission  to  construct  new  tourism  facilities  dependent on  extension  of  the  water  and  electricity  services  to  the  local community;
•        seeking  whether  there  are  ways  of  enabling  a  sustainable  yield of  a  natural  resource  such  as  trees  for  charcoal  production  or firewood   to   be   taken   by   the   local   community,   whilst   still achieving wildlife conservation objectives,
•        examining   the   possibility   of   spacial   and   temporal  zoning   of certain   of   the   National   Parks   (e   g.   AbiyataShala)   or   other protected   areas   to   allow   some   degree   of   use   for   livestock grazing and even temporary cultivation;
•        encouragement  of  use  and  enjoyment  of  the  National  Parks facilities and wildlife by the local people to cultivate a feeling of pride and custodianship In their National Park;
•       allocating a portion of fees generated by hunting where such an activity    is    deemed    appropriate    and    authorised,    to    local communities
7.2.2          Integrity Of Existing Protected Areas
There is an urgent need to re-establish and maintain the integrity and effectiveness of the existing protected areas to conserve the Important endangered or vulnerable fauna and flora that they contain A full review should be undertaken of the relative status and effectiveness of the National Parks wildiife reserves wildlife sanctuaries and controlled hunting areas to determine whether alterations in these designations or upgrading are required
7 2 2.1 Abiyata-Shala Lakes National Park
The Government and regional administrations must recognise the vulnerability and Interdependence of the Galla lakes group. Management of the water resources must balance conflicting demands within the catchment area as a whole, giving appropriate weight to maintaining the international wildlife importance of Lakes Abiyata and Shala In the past much of the management attention of the National Park has been focused on the land, whereas the main reason for its designation was the importance of the water areas and the wildfowl they support As already noted (section 6.3) there Is an urgent need to develop closer community involvement in and support for this National Park. Many of the recommendations outlined above (section 7.2.1, community involvement) apply to the AbiyataShala area
39In order to regain the integrity of the Abiyala Shala Lakes National Park. The following actions are recommended:-
■  a  new  management  plan  should  be  drawn  up  which  re-locuses attention on the water areas:
« a detailed study should be undertaken In close consultation with the local community to ascertain how such Ideas can best be
realised
7 2 2 2 Senkelle Swayne's Hartebeesf Sanctuary
For  Senkelle  Swayne’s  Hartebeest  Sanctuary,  the  following  actions  are recommended:-
•       conduct  an  Initial  survey  to  find  numbers  and  locations  of Swayne s hartebeest;
•       discuss  the  situation  with  local  community  representatives, explain  objectives  of  conservation,  define  needs  and  problems of local people;
•       decide  whether  to  re-establish  Senkelle  Swayne  s  Hanebeest Sanctuary  -  If  so,  carry  out  In  co  operation  with  local  people; If  not,  relocate  any  remaining  animals  to  suitable  protected
areas.
7 2 2 3 Nschisar National Park
In order to regain the Integrity ol the Nechisar Naiional Park, the following actions are recommended
•      re-establish the boundaries by negotiating agreement with local authorities and their leaders: relocation with compensation of families resettled in the area; negotiate whh Side mo authorities the return of the Guji people out of the Park; dear all domestic livestock from lhe National Park,
•       establish  a  local  management  committee  involving  community leaders from Arba Minch and any other relevant settlements and National Park personnel;
•       examine firewood and charcoal problems, particularly in relation to   the   Groundwater   Forest,   and   agree   local   solution   for protecting  the  natural  forest;  If  appropriate,  finance  should  be found  for  fuelwood  limber  planting  schemes  as  an  alternative local  supply  and/or  other  fuel  supplies  eg.  kerosene;  the  latter may  be  useful  as  a  short  term  measure,  pending  development of alternative timber supplies;
40•         reestablish   and   reconstruct   game   guard   outposts,   supply   with vehicles    and    radio    communication,    Increase    number   of    game guards     from    10    to    50,    recruiting    new    ones     from    local community, preference being given to displaced Koira;
•         resume   maintenance   and   repair   work   on   National   Park   tracks and     buildings,     again     employing     local     labour,     similarly     for reconstruction of park buildings.
7 2.24 Chew Bahlr Wildlife Reserve
There would seem to be no recent information available on the Chew Bahir Wildlife Reserve, so In this case II will be necessary to start by undertaking some basic survey work to establish Its current status:
•       perform a wide-ranging, Initial air survey of the area:
Investigate existing cover by aerial phoiography. do further
aerial survey If necessary;
•         perform   a   ground   survey   to   determine   present   land   use,   and how   this   may   interact   with   conservation   interests;   In   particular, gain  an  understanding  of  human  and  livestock  use  of  the  area; a   brief   reconnaissance   could   perhaps   be   followed   up   by   an expedition     of     experts     capable     of     detailed     assessment     of conservation   Interests,   to   include   mammal   survey,   bird   survey, vegetation      mapping      by      local      verification      of      air      photo interpretation;
•         perform   an   aerial   survey   of   the   larger   wildlife,   especially   to assess   the   present   status   off   the   Grevy's   zebra   population; repeal air survey to detect migrations:
•         examine   a   sequence   of   satellite   data   to   detect   patterns   of fluctuation in lake area;
•         reassess   wildlife   reserve   status   and   recommend   any   changes
necessary;
•       draw up proposals for future management of the Wildlife
Reserve
7 2 2 5 Boyo Swamp Controlled Hunting Area
No information was available on the current conservation Interest, status and management ol this site A site visit is recommended at the earliest opportunity.
7.2   3 International Conventions
A   number   of   the   areas   of   wildlife   habitai   in   the   Ethiopian   Rlfl   Valley   are clearly of International conservation importance.
41In particular, several of the wetlands support waterfowl populations of great significance In East African and Indeed world conlext For example lhe breeding colony of great white pelicans on Lake Shala is lhe second largest In Africa and one of the largest In the world The Rift Valley lakes also form part of a chain of wetlands of great importance to passage and wintering palaearctlc waders and wildfowl.
In recognition of wildlife and the environment Ethiopia Is a oarty to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
It Is recommended that consideration be given to the country becoming a party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Wildfowl Habitats (Ramsar Convention).
An additional convention of relevance to lhe conservation and protection of the migratory species of the RVLB would be the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS).
With reference to the Ramsar Convention, a basic principle is to promote the wise use of wetland habitats; 59 countries worldwide are already parties to the convention. Including a number In Africa, but as yet very few in East Africa. Ethiopia sent a representative to the Montreux meeting of the Convention In 1990 and to the Uganda Seminar on African Wetlands In 1990, and subsequently expressed Interest In becoming a party Io the Convention.
It Is recommended that further steps be taken towards Ethiopia becoming a full party at the earliest opportunity This would have a number of benefits io Ethiopia, Including:-
•          statement    of    the    Government's    commitment    to    International conservation     and     therefore     recognition     by     the     international community      of      Ethiopia's      earnest      intention      to      fulfil      Its international conservation responsibilities;
•           facilitating     access     to     naw     sources     of     finance     to     help conservation      projects,      through      the      Increased      confidence engendered by this statement;
•         exchange  of  Information  with  other   parties  on  the  management of wetlands.
7.2.4          Review Resources
7.2  4.1     Habitat - Distribution and Trends
The  following  actions  are  recommended  to  determine  lhe  habitals  in  the  Rift Valley that require further protection:-
42•         through  a  detailed  study  of  the  land  use  maps  and  GIS  output, calibrate      land      use      types      with      known      vegetation      type distributions also using air photos and field verification;
•         examine  Implication  of  trends  detected  by  the  present  study  for habitats so identified
7.2.4.2           Species - Range, Population and Trends
The following actions are reccmmended:-
•           perform    International    literature    research,    to    Include    existing survey   data,   species   lists   for   all   taxa   where   data   available,   in order to supplement the data available within Ethiopia Itself;
•         undertake   surveys  to  fill  gaps  in  knowledge,  prioritising  species ct greatest conservation significance;
•      draw up a programme of essential fieldwork, bearing In mind
probable severe resource constraints.
7.2.4.3        Further Potential Protected Areas
Through a detailed examination of the wildlife populations In the whole of the Rift Valley, determine whether further areas require forms of legal protection for the purposes of wildlife conservation, e.g. Abernossa Cattle Ranch. Lake Awassa and Lake Ziway. Riverine Forests, e g Sagan and Weyto, Thicket. Bush and Savannah Areas
7.2.4.4        Natural Features
The   Rift   Valley   contains   a   wide   variety   of   geological   and   geomorphological leatures of Interest, especially those associated with volcanic activity.
To ensure that all the most important of these features are adequately protected, it is recommended that a full Inventory of them should be produced. Including an analysis of their past, current and potential status, and strategies for their conservation built into the overall master plan for the basin.
7.2.5 Environmental Impact Assessment
The Government should adopt the procedure of Environmental Impact Assessment, as outlined In Annex lr so that future developments In the Rift Valley and elsewhere can be pursued with minimal or. at worst, known but acceptable damage to the environment.
437 2 6 Monitoring Kay Environmental Factors
7.2 6 1 Water Quality
Tha long-tarm trend in water Quality through evaporative concentration of the lakes has been noted (Section 3). but the main inters*! Irom Itie monitoring point of view lies In the much shorter term Routine monitoring should measure the following, on a monlhiy basis al several sampling points In each lake:
■      main      physical      charactarlallcs:      pH.      conductivity;      dissolved
solids:
•      disease vectors:
«     primary production:
•         the   number   of   different   species   of   Invertebrate   present   In   a constant area of the lake bed
The reason for the last item is to detect lingering affects of pollution An event causing pollution such as a spill of pesticide could be very hard to detect In a lake even at the time of the event, because of dilution. However the fauna would respond differentially, so that some species would tolerate the pollution better than others. The net effect, which would continue after the event, would be a reduction In the number of species present. Pollutants are concentrated more In animals higher up the food chain, so that the best way ot identifying a suspected aquatic pollutant is to analyse a fish specimen A fish-eating bird is higher up the food chain, but cannot be guaranteed to have fed only at the lake In question.
Water to be used for Irrigation should be routinely checked for the first two Items above. Waler tor drinking should be checked according FAO standards.
7.2.62 Wildlife
As  noted  in  Section  6.2.5.  the  kind  of  monitoring  of  wildlife  that  should  be undertaken requires a clear definition of Its exact alms and objectives
Subject to whatever may be concluded through the process of drawing up full management plans lor each of the protected areas, the most urgent needs would seem to be;
to keep a check on the status and population trends of some of the key mammal and bird species (e.g. Swayne's Hartebeest. Burchell s Zebra, Gravy* s Zebra, th® breeding colonies of Great White Pelicans. Sacred Ibis, etc,);
442    to    monitor    the    extent,    status    and    trends    of    the    main    habitats    of wildlife    Importance    (e.g    wetlands,    forests,    Acacia    Savannah    etc.) and where relevant Identity causes of any changes occurring,
3.    monitor    usage    of    the    lake    systems    by    populations    of    migratory birds.
The main routine wildlife monitoring activity should be periodic counts of the various species within a protected area, at intervals related to their life history, with the main objective of Identifying trends In animal numbers and distribution end habitat extent and status
The   following   recommendations   provide   ihe   basis   for   a   minimum   monitoring system for the bird and wildlife populations of the Rift Valley;
•         as   far   as   the   bird   populations   of   the   Rift   Valley   lakes   are concerned   these   should   be   counted   at   least   in   January   and July,    (using    a    sampling    procedure    If    complete    counts    are Impractical),   points   which   correspond   to   the   peak   and   trough of   migrant   activity   In   the   Rift   Valley.   It   would   be   better   still   to make   quarterly   bird   surveys   at   each   important   site,   If   resources
permit;
•         mammals   within   National   Parks   and   Wildlife   Sanctuaries   should also   be   counted   at   least   twice   a   year,   one  option   being   at   the height   of   the   wet   and   dry   seasons.   In   which   some   animals modify    their    behaviour.    This    procedure    should    give    adequate warning   of   undesirable   trends   In   disease   or   mortality,   poaching,
etc ;
•         the   only   affordable   way   to   monitor   wide-ranging   large   animals such   as   Grevy's   zebra   In   the   Chew   Bahlr   area   Is   to   do   aerial surveys at one or two-year intervals
7.2.6.3        Other Factors
Without industrial development air pollution is not expected to be a problem in (he Rift Valley. Neither of the chief remaining environmental factors, soil erosion and woodland cover, is particularly easy to monitor on a representative scale. Probably the most effective method would be remote sensing using satellite photographs, but the resolution required would make this an expensive option. Regional soli erosion In a catchment could be deduced from regular monitoring of the sift load at various points In rivers
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DELLELEGN,      Y      and      HILLMAN,      J      C      (1992      and      in      prep.)      Ethiopian Wetlands. BWCO. Mimeo 4 pp.
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1994/95. FMPD/SFCDD/NRCDMD/MoA. Addis Ababa.
HELLAND,       J,       1976.       The       Human       Ecology       of       the       Seakeile       Plain. EWCO Addis Ababa. Mimeo 4 5 pp.
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pl45-161>. IUCN Miffiflo 17 PP -
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Divers!ty.
1989. Ethiopia.* Conservation of Biological
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STUART, S N, 1985. Rare Forest Birds and Their Conservation
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Shala and Abijata,
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URBAN,  E K,  1979  .
GrMt Coraiorunt in
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r
19     80.     A     Field     Guide     to     the     Birds     of
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48TABLE 1' WATER QUALITY OF RIFT VALLEY LAKES
1. Chemical compoa ft Ion
Zrwey
“Awaesa
Abaya
'Cbamo
Langarx)
‘Abiyffia
*ShaJa
Chrtu
Date
M ar 84
Mar 64
-Ian iM
Feb 64
Mar 64
Mar 64
Mar 64
Aug 66
Donducfivily kjg fmScm' )
1
322
840
623
110c
1810
15800
19200
28600
salinity (gfl)
0 349
1 008
0.771
1.099
1.08
162
21 5
38 3
ionic concentrations:
Stations (megfl)
3.72
112
9.1
13 S
20 5
228.5
308
556
S anions (meq/ll
3.8
11 04
9.1
13 5
20 9
240 5
316
539
Na  (rreqA)
+
2 11
948
7.7
11.6
19.6
222
301
539
K*(moqfl)
0.3
1.04
041
0 51
067
65
- 7.1
17 2
Ca   (meq/l)
2+
07
058
0.76
07
028
<1
<1
<_1
Mg  (meq4}
2+
0815
0.1
0-22
0 75
<1
<1
<1
<.1
CO   + HCO   (meqfl)
33
22
3.34
93
7.41
10 9
14 4
1665
212
400
Ch (meq^
0 24
0.84
11
2
4.7
51 5
79
121
SO^'ffneqfl)
022
0,9
0.8
0.8
13
22.5
25
17.7
&O2. (mg/1)
45
96
40
28
48
128
112
320
PO4 (rngfl)
<5
12fl
90
50
760
1700
pH
89
88
89
94
103
9.9
98
■ic/Cl
1392
11.07
6 74
5 45
306
47
3.02
446
(Ca+Mg)/(Na+K)
0.55
006
0.12
0.12
0 02
0.004
0.003
0.0015
2. Algal Womaw
Apr 00
Apr BO
Jul 66
May 79
Mar 60
Apr BO
Apr 00
Aug 66
chlorophyll a coocentralton
(mgA)
91
40
69
73
7
65
6
2600
' denotes a terminal I aka Source: Wood and Talling, 1908TABLE 2: MOA PROJECT FORMULATION FRAMEWORK
This is the form used by MOA to produce the agricultural ‘techno-economic feasibility study' required by Council of Stale Special Decree on Investment No 17/1990 Tbo following headings summanse information which the applicant must provide •
Project Title/Code Duration. Own Input. Loan/Source;
Project Formulation Guideline
1    Introduction
2    Background
2.1  general
2 2 geographical locallon/map
2.3          population and infrastructure
2 4 existing development conditions in the area
3    The Project Area
3.1  dimate, rainfall, temperature, evapotranspiration. LGP
3.2  topography
3.3  soils; physical and chemical condition
3.4  water resource; ground/surf ace
3.5  wikillle
3 6 current land use and natural vegetation
3 7 socio economic conditions, farming system
4    Prevailing Environmental Problems
erosion sahnrty and alkalinity, deforestation, overgrazing, diseases and pests (human and
livestock)
5    Suitability Assessment ol the Area for the Proposed Project
6    Proposed Resource Conservation and Development Measures
7    The Project
7.1  objectives
7.2  benefiaanes; directfndirecl
B Cost Estimate
8             1 investment cost
8.1.1  construction
8.1.2   equipment
8.2  operating cost
8.2.1 direct inputs
8 2 2 indirect; salaries, services, stationery, land and income taxes 8.3  project output
8.4  cost estimate summary
8 5 sources of finance
9    Marketing
10  Implementation Scheduki/Ran
11  Conclusions and Recommendations
12  Annexes
Source; MOATABLE 3: EXAMPLE OF ANALYSIS OF BIRO COUNT DATA
(L*k« AblyrU waterfowl iurvay, 19 January 19M)
Parti: All flamingoes
1.1. Survey data
dlslnd S
500m sections
sections/
dslricl
275
sections
number of birds in each seclioa
sampled
1 A2
2
06
79
sw
3A4
275
2
573
1566
NW
546
275
2
737
436
NE
7 A8
275
2
436
45B
lai Bls
110
a
46B9
1.2, Estimates of mean* and variance*
dlslrict
500m sections
mean/
500m
variance
500m
esl lol
birds
var of
esl lota!
s.d of est tglai
S
1&2
243
53466
66®
10745990
4330
SW
344
1073
487006
29494
17078003
1306B
NW
5 A fl
507
45301
18129
15883488
3965
NE
7A0
448
200
12320
70125
266
totals
64611
205483606
14336
AobIvbIb of variance
source of
sum of
deg. of
mean
variance
variation
squares
freedom
square
ratio
between slles
747422
3
249141
1.70
residual
566050
4
146512
total
1333472
7
Comparison of Mllmatee from stratlfted and pooled s
amples
stratified
pooled
500m section:   estimated mean number ol birds per 500m section                                                                             587                       587
variance of number of birds per 500m section S.d of number of birds per 500m section
190496
436
variance of esl. mean number ol birds per 500m section                                                                16982                   22000
s d ol estimated mean number ol birds per 500m section                                                                   130                       149
total population: estimated lolal number of birds 64611 64611
variance ol esl total number ol birds
205483606
267170615
S d. of esl lolai number of birds
i
14336
16345
95% confidence limils lor total number ol birds
±286®
*32691
ooetiicteni of variation of estimated loial number of birds
222%
253%
Source ol bird counl data: Par Ole Syvertsen. Division ol Zoology, Dept ol Biology. University ol Oslo.TABLE 3: EXAMPLE OF ANALYSIS OF BIRD COUNT DATA
(Lake Abiyiits waterfowl survey, 19 January 1992)
aand plover
*‘1. Survey data
dttfrid
500m sections
sections/
sedions
number ol birds In each section
s
district
sampled
sw
1 A2
275
2
34
42
3&4
275
2
12
1
NW
5&B
27.5
2
0
20
NE
7A0
27.5
2
65
31
totals
110
e
213
2.2, Estimates of meant and variances
district
500m sections
mean/
variance
est lol
var ol
s.d, ol
S
50Cm
50On
birds
©st total
est total
1 A2
38.0
320
1045
11220
106
SW
3A4
65
605
179
21213
146
NW
5A6
14.0
3920
385
137445
371
NE
7AB
480
570.0
1320
202661
450
totals
2929
372539
610
Analysis of variance
source of
sum of
deg. of
mean
variarca
variation
squares
freedom
square
ratio
be!ween sites
2331
3
767
2 89
residual
1063
4
266
total                                      3364                          7 2.4. Comparison of estimates from stratified and pooled samples
500m secton estimated mean number of birds per 500m seclion
stratified
27
pooled
27
variance of number of birds per 500m section
s d of number ol birds pec 500m seclion
variance of esl. mean number d birds per 500m section
s d ol eslimated mean number d birds per 500m section
31
6
481
22
56
7
total population: estimated total number ol birds                                                                                                              2929                     2929
variance ol est total number ol birds
s.d d est total number of birds
372539
610
673976
921
95% confidence limits lor total number d birds
coefficient of variation of eslimaled total number d birds
±1221
20.9%
±1642
2ao%
Source ol bird count data: Per Ole Syverlsen, Division of Zoology, Depl d Biology. University of Oslo.TABLE 3: EXAMPLE Of ANALYSIS Of BIRD COUNT DATA
(Lake Abiyata waterfowl survey, 1® January 1902)
Part 3: Avocet
3.1. Survey data
eta riel
500m swltons
sec lions j1
SOCUOTIS
number ol turds In each section
district
sampled
S
1 &2
275
2
0
0
sw
344
27.5
2
2
0
NW
546
275
2
200
429
NE
748
275
2
300
307
totals
110
5
1230
3.2. Estimates of mean* and variance*
district
5O0m sedrons
mearv
variance?
est lol
var erf
s.d ol
500*
50Crri
birds
ost total
esl total
S
1 & 2 00
0
0
0
0
SW
3 44
1.0
2
28
701
26
NW
5&a
3145
26221
8649
9193563
3032
NE
7Afl
3035
25
8346
aseo
93
totals
17023
9202854
3034
3.3. Analysis of variance
source of
sum of
deg of
mean
varunco
variation
squares
freedom
square
ralio
between sites
190467
3
63489
968
residual
26247
4
6562
lolal
210714
7
3.4. Comparison of estimates from stratified and pooled samples
stratified
pooled
500m section
estimated mean number ol birds per 500m section
155
156
variance ol number ol birds per 500m section
30960
8 d of number of birds per 500m section
176
variance ol ast mean number ol birds per 500m eednn
761
JJW
ad oi estimated mean number ol birds per 500m sec I ton
20
eo
lol Bl population
estimated lolal number of birds
i
17023
17023
variance ol est lolal number ol birds
9202854
4342Q098
s.d. ol esl total number of birds
3034
EL09
95% confidence limits (or total number ol birds
±6067
±13179
coatlbctoni ol varialkxi d eslknaled lolal number ol birds
170%
30 7%
Source of bird count data: Por Ole S/varlson, Division of Zoology. Depl of Biology. University al OsloFigure 1
■ Wood and TaJing
a Ziway WRDA
□ Ziway WRDA
O Ziway WROA
1968
Nov 1990
Jun I9TO
Jan 1990
100000 -i
Chltu a
Shala
Abiyata
10000 -
Langano
1000 -
Chnmo
Abaya
Awassa
□
O
ZfiAfay
100 -I________________ 01
-- ----------------------------------------------- 1-------------------------------------------- 1
1
10
iqo
salinity, g/lrira
SALINITY v CONDUCTIVITY RIFT VALLEY LAKES$Figure 2
Category I
Agri culture and rural development
reclamation and new land development
rivar-basin development
large-scale irrigation and drainage
commorcai logging
large-scale aquacuftLre^mancajItLre
Industry and infrastructure
dams and hydropower
mining (including oil and gas)
large-scale industrial plants
thermal power development
manufacture and transportation of hazardous materials (e.g. pesticides)
projects which pose serious accident risks large-scale urban water supply and sanitation large-scale power transmission
dl and gas pipelines
roads and railways
ports, hartxxrs and coastal structures airports
large-scate tourism devetopmeni
then.
Category II
Environmentelly ten alt Iva araes coral reefs
mangrove swamps
small islands
tropical rain forests
"areas with erosion-prone soils
(eg mountain slopes)
"areas prone to desertification
(and and semi-arid zones)
'"natural conservation areas
I "wetiards erf national or international importance
"areas which harbour prelected
and/or endangered spedes
"areas of unique scenery
"areas at particular scientific interest areas of particular historical or
archaeoogical interest “areas of importance to threatened
ethnic groups
I " denotes a category relevant to Rift Valley Lakes Basin
Agriculture and rural development reforestalion/atlcrestation
land and soli management
small-scale rogation and drainage Tnal-eceh aquscutturejriiaricufture
Industry and Infrastructure
mini hydro-power development small-scale industry development smaW-scale power vans mission
renewable energy deveiopmenl letecommunicatH^ns laoibes
rural waler supply and sanitation public lacrtbes (hospitals, schools,
housing, etc?)
small-scale tourism development
----------------------------------------------------
but H the project is located
in or close to;
then:
physical interventions in the environment
Category 111
Institutional development health programmes
family planning programmes nutrition programmes education programmes environment programmes
Source: Kok, 1992
but, il the project involves
INITIAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHECKLISTFkjure 3
FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Source: Kok, 1992e '? a e >4*
<£.( j.
ftgire 4
Wildlife LCUHfiTatirm and Chntwlbd Hunting /liras
I
l ’rtrtiHH 4rlinf Ar rar
S3
Sb
□;LlRiI» SdKlUJiti Jid Pvw v»t
Harare* Parks ijrnfcc «:aUist«~'
r-SCHEDULE 1
SCIENTIFIC NAMES          OF SPECIES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT
FLOWERING plants
Acacia spp.
Acacia nre-Ilifera
Acacia nubica
Acacia pojyacani:^
Acacia reficiena
Acacia aenagal
Acacia syale
Acacia tortilii?
Adhatoda schimperiand
Minutes aegyptica
Cadaba farinose
Caparia micrantha
Carissa fldulis
Carthamus             tinetoriuh
Cenchruf ciiiaris
Chrys op agon a  u ch e ri va  r.
Coffea arabica
Comb ra t um app.
Cosun iph o ra app,
Cordia africana
Cupressus spp,
Cuprtjfiiif lusitanica
Diospyroa abysslnica
Dodoaaea anguatifolia
Enaete ^encriccaa
Eragroatie tef
Eucalyptus spp.
Euclaa achiaiperi
Ficus sycomorua
Garcinia  1iringstones Warriaonia  abya  aini ca
Hippocrates africana
Juncus appT
Juniperua procera
Litonia autins
Loudetia               phragmitoides
Phra gmi t e a spp .
Pi ntts appi
Flectranthus edulis
Plumbago icylauici
Podocarpus gracilior
Rb u s Eta tai ens 1 ■
Ricicus coofflunis
Seebania app.
Secaria spp.
TamarIndus indica
Techlea nobilis
Terminalia broraii
Themeda rria-ndiria
Trichilla emetica
Typha spp.
Vepris daineliii
guinguepl umi s
(Sensei)
(Safflower)
(Coffee I
(Ethiopian Banana or
Ensat)
(Taff)
(Oromo potato)
49ALGAR
Melosira app.
Pl&ncconeoia lauterborni Spirulina p2atensjs Microcystis aeruginosa
Abysinnian Black and White Colobus Monkey
African Buffalo
African Elephant
Beisa Oryx
Bohor reedbuck
Burchell's Zebra
Bushbuck
Caracal
Cheetah
Common Jackal
CYANOPHYTES
MAMMALS
Defasba
Gerenuk
Giraffe
Grant'e
Warerbuck
Gazelle
Greater Kudu
Grevy d Zebra
1
Guenther's dikdik
HippopotSNUB
Klipepringer
Large-spotted Genet
Leopard
Lion
Mountain Nyala
Olive Baboon
Oribi
Simian Jackal
Spotted Hyaena
Swayne *e Hartebeest
Walia Ibex
Warthog
•• Names of mammals according to Dorat and Dandalat, 1372 REPTILES
Colobus abyssinicus Syncerus caffer Loxodonta africana
Oryx beiaa
Redunca redunca
Eguus burchelli Tragelaphus scriptus Felia caracal
Acinonyx jabacus
Can! a aureus
Kobus defaaaa
Li tocranius waller! Giraffa Camelopardalis Gazella grand Tragelaphus
Eguus grevy! Rhynchotragus guentheri Hippopotamus amphibius Oreotragus oreotragus Genetta tigrina
Paothera pardus Panthera leo
strepsiceroa
Tragelaphus buxtoni Papio anubis Ourebia ourebd Canis simensis Crocuta crocuta Alcelaphus
ewaynei
Capra fibexJ walie
buselaphus
PJiacochoerus aethiopicus
Nile Crocodile
Crocodylus niloticus
50BIRDS
The fallowing List* *11 bird apeciei mantionad in the rext namoa unod ar* baasd on Urban and Brawn (19711 together with update* by Dr J Ash incorporated into the "Checklist of Ethiopian Birda" (Hillman, 19B9).
For
D              ot       reference       by       thooe       unfamiliar       with       avian       ayatematic
** * 
order, species are listed alphabetically according to their English name. as used in the texc,
Ab dim e Stork
Abyssinian Crimson -wing
AbysBinian Ground Hornbill
Abyssinxan Ground Thrush
African Fish Eagle
Allen’b Gall inula
Archer'a Gray-wing
Avocet
Banded Barbet
Bare-faced Go-away Bird
Black Crake
Black Hood-hoopne
Black-winged Stilt
Black-cheeked Waxbill
Black-headed Forest Oriole
Black-winged Lovebird
Blue-naped Mousebird
Broad-bilied Roller
Cape wlgeon
Carmine Bee-eater
Caspian Tern
Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse
Chestnut-headed Sparrow-Lark
Crowned Eagle
Cut - throat
Darter
Egyptian Goose
Emerald Cuckoo
Fulvous Tree Duck
Garganey
Golden-backed Roodpacker
Great Black-headed Gull
Great White Pelican
Greater Flamingo
Greater Kestrel
Green-backed Twin-ap t
Ciconia abdimii
Cryptoapira sal vsdorii
Bucorvs abysainicus
Turdua plaggiae
Haliaeetus vocifer
Porphyrio oIImI -
Frtucoliflui
Jevaillantoides
Recurvirostn avoaetta
Lybius undatuf
Corytbaixoidea perionata
Llmnocorax flavirostra
Phoeniculus acerrimus
Himantopua himanropus
SatriIda erythronotos
Oriolua monacha
Agapornis raranta
Coll a oiacrourus
Suryatomus glaucurus
Ana a caperi ala
Meropff nubicus
Sterna tfichcgravd
Fterocles exustus
£r emop eer lx algnata
Stephacoaetus coronatus
Amadina fascia ta
AnJiinga rufa
Alopochen aegypciaca
Chrysococcyx cupreus
Dendrocygna bicolor
Anaf; querquedula
abyssiulcus
o
Grey Cuckoo-shrike
Grosbeak Weaver
Gull-billed Tern
Heaprich1 s Hornbill
Jacona
Kittlitr* a Sand-plover
Kori Bustard
Lemon Dove
Lesser Flamingo
Lichtenstein's Sandgrouae
Little Grebe
Little Stint
Long-tailed Cflrmorah r
Marabou
Mariqua Sunbird
Dendropicos
Larus ichtbyaetus
PelacMus onocrctalus
Pboeoicoptertis ruber
Falco rupicolsides
Na_ndingoa nitidula
Concina cassia
Amblyosrpiia altifrons
Sterna nilotica
Tockue hemprichii
Actophilomia africaua
Charadrius pecuarius
Otis kori
AplDpelia larvata
Phoanicopterufl minor
Rteroclaa 
Fodiceps rufi col1i 5
IIchtensteinii
Calidris minuta
Phalaerocorax afriranuff
Leptaptiles criuianiferua
FTectarinia marig^ueiiaia
51Namaqua Dove
Narina'B Trogon
Northern Brownbul
Olive Pigeon
Open-bill Stork
Orange - bellied Parrot
Ostrich
Pale Flycatcher
Pink-backed Pelican
Pintail
Prince Ruepoli'e Turaco
Pygmy Goose
Ped-billed Buffalo Weaver
Red-billed Hornbill
Red-capped Robin-chat
Ruff
Sacred Ibis
Scaly Francolin
Secretary Bird
1
Shelley a Starling
Shoveler
Silvery-cheeked Hornbill
Slender-billed Chefltnut-winged
Starling
tftfluiroatris
Spotted Thicknee
Spur-winged Goose
Star-Bpotted Nightjar
Scone Curlew
Stresemann1 a Bush-crow
stresemauni
Sulphur       -       breasted       Bush-shrike sulfureopeetus
Superb Starling
Swallow-tai led Kite Tambourine Dove
Thick-billed Raven
Tufted Duck
Von der Decken'b Hornbill Wattle-eye
Wattled Ibis
White - bellied Go-away Bird
White-browed
white - cheeked Turaco White-crowned Shrike White-Faced Tree Duck
Sparrow-weaver
White-headed
White-necked
Buffalo Weaver
Cormorant
White-tailed Bush Lark
White - tailed Swallow
White-winged Black Tern
Whi     te-winged     Cliff     -     chat Wigeon
Yellow-billed Stork
Yellow fronted Parrot
Ye1low-throated Sandgrouee Yellowbill
Oena capensis
Apaloderma narina Phyllastrephu^ strepitans Columba arguatrix Anascomus lam elligerua Poicephalus rufiventris Srruthio camelus BradorniP pallidas Pelecanua rufescens
Anas acuta
Tauraco ruspolii
Nettapus auritus Bubalornis niger
Tockus erythrorhynchus Cossypha natalenffiu Philomachus pugnax Threskiornis aethiopica Francolinus squamatus Sagittarius serpentarius Spreo shelleyi
Anas clypeata
Bycanutei brevis Onychogna thus Burhinus capensis Plectropterua gambensis Caprimulgus stellatua Burhinus oedicnemus Zavat tariorni s
Mil&conotuB
Spree superbus Chelictinia riocourii Turtur typanistria Corvus crassirostris Aythya fuligula
Tockus deckeni Platysteira cyanea Bostrychia carunculata Cory tha ixoldes leucogaster
Plocepasaer mahali Tauraco leucotis Eurocephalua ruppelll Dendroc/Tna viduata Dinemel1la dinemel1i Phalacrocorax carbo Mirafra alblcauda Birundo znegaenais Sterna leucoptera Myrmecocichia semirufa Anas penelope
ibis ibis
Poicepha2 us flavifrons Pt erodes yutturali s Ceuthmochares aereua
52J 
fe'
%'■
■J
JSCHEDULE 2
EXTRACT FROM THE TRANSITIONAL ECONOMIC POLICIES FOR ETHIOPIA REGARDING conservation and the environment
(November 1991: English Translarionl
2. J Giving Priority to the Conitrritlon in<3 Development of Natural Resources.
The conservation, development and utilization of natural rcBQurceB which are currently in a debilitated state have a major impact on the country's overall economic development. Priority will be given to the conservation and development of forestry and livestock resources, soil and water conservation
which were, and still continue to be, utilised wastsfully.
2.3.1
issue policies for the conservation and development
of forest resources and in order to prevent
deforestation with the direct involvement of the
public; issue and enforce policies for land use and
wildlife preservation;
2.3.2
In order to exploit the country's large livestock
potential, policies will be iasuod with a view to
preventing the improper utilization of this resource
on the one hand and by guaranteeing its efficient
utilization by private capital on the other;
2.3,3
In order to minimize the effects of recurrent
drought, issue soil and water conservation policies
which will prevent land degradation, for improving
the livelihood of the peasantry and co establish a
basis for sustained economic development;
2.3.4
In       order       to       implement       these       policies,
the
state
will
promote direct participation by the public,
encourage        research        activities        and        promote
a        wider
use of modern agricultural inputs*
2 4 Since the participation of peasants is essential for implementing the agricultural policy, the state will design strategies for the formation of cooperatives on a voluntary
basis.
53“1“
nr
-
r r- r. i ■
.b
K;
cI
TSCHEDULE 3
RESULTS OF BIRD POPULATION MONITORING
(Syvcrtson 1991/1992)
Introduction
Th#  following  is an illustration of how onfl kind of monitoring might be Achieved, a  aampling  method currently  being  developed
Si or
"l. 'yv.rt.on <SyverE.»n 1931,
»>«          » «.-«
tXr        bird        fopul.t.m.        v.ing        Lab*        Iblyat.        >.        .x<u»xaed.        together with proposals for analyBifl techniques
Counting Waterfowl
Systematic counting of birds in the Abiyata-Shala Lakes National Park has already begun, -ith two one - day surveys conducted by Per Ole Syvertaen and IWCO ataff on 9 December 1590 and 19 January 1992. Oaing maps and serial photographs, the lake shoreline .as divided into two geological typea for
the first survey, ®n estimated 50km of shallow sandy beach,
and 11km with stones protruding. Thia gave two sampling errata. Representative sampling sites ware chosen, 4 in sandy parts. 2 in stony parti and a single site at the mouth of the Horakello river which was analysed separately.
The two teams of observers visited each site together, starting 300m apart about the central point, then pacing 5Q0m of shore in opposite directions,. counting the number of birda of a
range of species as they proceeded. In thia way two counts
for each species were obtained for each site. The total population estimate for each species in each stratum was calculated by multiplying the mean count per 500m shore section by the appropriate raising factor, i.s. 100 for sandy
(50km/500m) , and 22 for atony (llkm/SOOm) .
The standard deviations of the population estimates were calculated by multiplying the standard deviations of the counts per 500m shore section by the same raising factors, a technique which leads to serious overestimation of variability. The 954 confidence limits given for the population estimates
seem excessively wide (e.g.
1,173 + 1,809 for greater flamingo
population on stony shore), but without the original data it
is impossible to comment further.
The study team was fortunate to obtain from Syvertson in March 1992 the actual sample counts from the 1992 survey, unpublished at that time. in January 1992 the water level was much lower than on the previous occasion, rendering the same
classification of shoreline impossible.
Four sampling sites were chosen around the lake; i) at the southern end tS) ; il) in the largo bay south of the Gogessa rivsr (SW) , Hi) just north of the dried-up Gogassa river
{NW); and iv) at the northern end of the east side, south of the driedup Horakello river (NE). Precisely the same counting procedure was carried out as before at each site. The
perimeter of ths lake was estimated at 55km, giving an overall (pooled) raiaing factor of lio (S5km/500m) . A separate,
special site was designated near the mouth of ths Bulbula
river, by ths soda-ash plant intake channel.
Table 3 uses the same method for estimating bird population and standard deviation as described for fishery sampling survey
54analysis (flee Appendix on FiBheriee. and FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 306/1). In Table 3 the data are sample coun s
of all flamingoes 19 January 1992, showing the differences in sample meanc and variances between the 4 nites*
The analysis of variance is used to test whether the
differences in mean counts between sampling si tea are significant (variance ratio teat}, assuming there was no systematic bias in counting accuracy between the two teams, and that there was no significant diurnal bird migration around the lake. If the variance ratio is significant, it is appropriate
and more efficient to analyse the data as a stratified sample, rather than pooling all the figures into a simple random sample, even if the reason for the pattern of variation is not known* For the purpose of this example, it is assumed that each site is representative of 25* of the total lake shore, giving 27.5 as the raising factor for 500m of each stratum, i.e. (SSkm/BOOm)/4, Two sets of results are given in each part of Table 3, one a stratified analysis, the other pooled.
in the case of the flamingo counts (Table 3, Part 1), the variance ratio is not significant, do that there is no significant difference between estimates from pooled and stratified samplee. Taking 95* confidence limits, and subject to the assumptions stated, the best estimate of total population of flamingoes on 19 January 1992, to the nearest hundred is €4,600 ± 32,700.
Part 3  of Table 3 there were hardly
west sites.
analyses counts of avocet.
any of this species at the but about 600 counted at each of
It is clear that south and south- the other two.
Here the variance ratio is significant at the 5* level,
indicating that the stratified sample analysis will give more precise estimates of total population variance. Indeed, the estimates of population standard deviation from the stratified sample ia less than half that from the pooled sample. Taking 95* confidence limits, and subject to the assumptions stated, the best estimate of total population of avocete on 19 January 1992, to the nearest hundred is 17,000 ± 6,100,
Part 2 Of Table 3 shows an apparently intermediate situation, with the counts of Kittlitze sand plover. Taking the results from the stratified sample, the best estimate of total population of Kittlitx's sand plover on 19 January 1992, to the nearest hundred is 2,900 ± 600.
When the sampling sites are known to comprise nnegug1 proportions of the strata which they represent (the more usual situation), the stratified method of analysis must be employed
55I
— ——
_______ J—■ '“.J?-------------
bannex 1
FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Introduction
Environmental impact A^i^nt (EIA) i« a term which describe two distinct tout related activities:
1. The process of gauging positive and negative
environmental effects of a development project or policy; 2    The procedure within which the process above is
incorporated into Che Project Cycle, ao Chat possible environmental impact can be considered from the very start.
Kok. <1992) gives an excellent summary of both aspects of RIA, which is used as ths basis for this section. For a more detailed discussion, see the UK Overseas Development Administration (ODA) Manual of Environmental Appraisal.
initial Screening
The objective of RIA is to improve project appraisal by
merging environmental judgment into the technical, financial
and economic aaseaacnent procedures normally used by governments and funding agencies. To avoid unnecessary expense, proposed projects must first be screened to see if an EIA is needed at all. Figure 2 shows the checklist used for this purpose by the African Development Bank (AfDB)  in which proposed projects
r
fall into one of 3 categories:-
Category I projects need RIA's because of rhe nature and extent of expected environmental impacts;
Category II projects need alleviation if they are situated in or near Environmentally Sensitive Areas, known as ESA's. In euch a case, the Category II project ie promoted to Category I. The checklist
in Figure 2 gives the AfDB list of ESA types, over 50% of which apply to various parts of the Rthiopian Rift Valley. The corresponding UK/ODA list is very similar but includes also:
beaches/cobstlines;   areas largely untouched by people (“wildlands" - e.g. Chew Bahir); areas of high concentration of population or industrial activity where further development could create significant environmental problerne; slums; Category hi projects are neutral, unless they involve physical interventions in the environment, in which case they are promoted to Category Il_
Scoping
The initial screening precess is part of the Project Identification stage of the Project Cycle. Within the same stage follows a process called Environmental Scoping, the purpose of which is to determine a list of expected impacts, representing the scope of possible environmental intrusion. Repercussions on the environment can be grouped as fallows
(ODA)
56different. Impact® may also vary between social
groups, especially where property rights to land and other natural resources are 00 differentiated;
Degradation of land, Deforestation., ecil erosion, overgrazing and salinisation are some of the danger
si gun ;
Water pollution. This can result from uncontrolled waste water sewage discharge from human settlament0, industrial effluent, contamination by agricultural chemicals, etc;
Ai r oollution, This may be caused by urban traffic fuzes, routine industrial discharge, industrial catastrophes, etc;
Damage to wildlife and, habitat . The impoverishment of fauna and flora, by loss of species or genetic erosion of economically or scientifically important groups;
Cultural.—historic and screntitier losses .■
Climate, especially the hydrological cycle;
S^nef1gift J______aspects„ Development may for example reduce pressures on natural resources, restore and protect key areas, prevent soil erosion and floods, and improve public and the built environment.
Unfortunately it would seem that from the review of the status
of the environment and conservation practices in the Rift
Valley Lakes Basin that during ths last 10 to 20 years in the Rift Valley, bad environmental repercussions have far outweighed good ones. With the exception of air pollution, negative environmental impacts easily identified in all the
other groups above have been described already in this report* These have not necessarily been caused by project development
In many casee the root cause has been simply population
pressure.
j f^°?Xn9l_th? TermB Reference for the KIA itself must
The Environmental Impact AsaesBrnent
preparation stage. iijcxd are 3 phase®;-
57Baseline data collection. Includes physical/ecological data (topography, geology, soil hydrology, meteorology, flora, fauna, quality of ambient air/soil/water/groundwaterJ and woe10/cultural/economic data (demography, land-use employment, income, education, health, religion, infrastructure ate.};
Prediction and quantification of environmental impacts. Techniques include experiments, interviews, mathematical models and expert judgment; Presentation of rtlulti as a technical report which must alio be eummariBed in an Environmental Impact Statement (BIS) , so that decision-maker a can act upon it .
There is a methodological parallel between the E.A and the Economic Assessment. Just as the economic coat/benefit analysis must make a comparison between the ’With Project’ and
■Without Project" icenarioB, and take into account possible variants of the project, sc mutt the BIA, Refer to Figure 3, in which the procedure of AfDB is represented. It is clear that two KIA'b must be carried out ("With Project’ and
"Without Project"), plus a third set of BIA'a if alternative project options would modify the environmental impact (siting, technology, mitigation meacures or phasing).
Remainder of the Project Cycle
The Project Appraisal mission must review environmental aspects. During the Project Implementation stage, the process of environmental monitoring suit begin, so that actual results can be compared with effects predicted by the BIA, and with any applicable standards. Undesirable developments can thus be recognised and treated at the earliest possible stags. Monitoring provides both this early warning and the opportunity for post-project auditing.
Efficient monitoring can be used finally as a means of evaluating the quality of the BIA itself. Table 2 is a list
□f headings on the MOA investment appraisal form of 1390. Although it incorporates some of the environmental aspects discussed in this section, neither these nor the corresponding financial and economic analysis are treated in the rigorous and systematic way demanded by an BIA, In fairness to MOA, the documentation of which Table 2 is a part was produced quickly in response to the former Government's rapidly changing economic policy.€S
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Summery

Summary of Rift Valley Lakes Basin Fisheries Report

Summary of the Reconnaissance Masterplan for the Development of the Natural Resources of the Rift Valley Lakes Basin

1. Introduction

This report, prepared by Sir William Halcrow & Partners Ltd in association with ULG Consultants for the Transitional Government of Ethiopia, evaluates the fisheries sector in the Rift Valley Lakes Basin. The objective is to assess current fishery operations, project market demand, and recommend development plans for capture fisheries and aquaculture.

2. General Overview of Fisheries in Ethiopia

Fish Production: Estimated at 4,300 tonnes annually from inland lakes and reservoirs in 1990.
Domestic Consumption: Almost all inland fish is consumed locally, with minimal exports.
Employment: Approximately 2,000–2,500 fishermen, with 220 employed by the Fish Production and Marketing Corporation (FPMC).
Economic Contribution: Fisheries contribute minimally to GDP, with government revenues offset by losses from FPMC operations.

3. Capture Fisheries

Fishing Areas: Mainly Rift Valley lakes (Ziway, Awassa, Abaya, Chamo, Langano, Abiyata, Shala) and reservoirs (Fincha-a, Koka).
Species: Tilapia (80% of catch), Nile perch (15%), catfish, and Barbus.
Potential Yield: Estimated between 10,000–20,000 tonnes annually, though actual production is much lower.
Challenges: Overfishing, inadequate gear, and lack of infrastructure.

4. Aquaculture

Current Status: Limited development, with few small-scale ponds and the Sebeta Fish Culture Station as the primary facility.
Potential: Suitable for warm-water species like tilapia and Nile perch, but constrained by lack of tradition, training, and market demand.
Recommendations: Focus on artisanal units near urban areas and improve institutional support for training and credit.

5. Domestic and Export Fish Marketing

Domestic Demand: Driven by fasting seasons of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, with tilapia being the most popular species.
Prices: Fixed by FPMC, but informal markets offer higher prices, leading to a thriving parallel economy.
Export Potential: Limited, with small-scale exports of tilapia to Saudi Arabia. Nile perch fillets and skins have untapped potential.

6. Institutional Framework

Fisheries Resource Development Department (FRDD): Underfunded and understaffed, limiting its ability to regulate and monitor fisheries.
FPMC: State-owned corporation with monopoly rights, but inefficient and financially unsustainable.
Legislation: Lack of fisheries laws hampers effective management and regulation.

7. Key Recommendations

Pricing: Liberalize fish prices to reflect market demand and reduce pressure on stocks.
Legislation: Enact fisheries laws to empower FRDD and regulate fishing effort.
Monitoring: Establish a fisheries monitoring system to assess stock levels and guide management.
Infrastructure: Improve landing facilities, access roads, and storage to reduce post-harvest losses.
FPMC Reform: Privatize FPMC to improve efficiency and competitiveness.
Aquaculture: Promote small-scale fish farming and provide institutional support.

8. Project Profiles

Inland Fisheries Resource Development Programme.
FPMC Privatization Study.
Fisheries Legislation.
Fisheries Resource Monitoring System.
Aquaculture Study.

9. Conclusion

The Rift Valley lakes have significant potential for fisheries development, but uncontrolled fishing, lack of regulation, and inadequate infrastructure threaten sustainability. Immediate action is needed to implement monitoring, improve management, and support aquaculture to meet growing demand and ensure long-term resource viability.