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Ministry of Water Resources, Basin Development Study Department Aysha Basin Reconnaissance Phase Study
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THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
AYSHA BASIN RECONNAISSANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
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Volume II:    Natural Resources Study
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A- Geology & Mineralogy
B- Geomorphology & Soils C- Land use/Cover
D-Forestry
E-Energy
F-Wildlife & Tourism
(Preface
f
The dry basins reconnaissance phase study has been conducted by the experts pulled out from the basin development study department Data collection and rapid field visit was made for three diy basins simultaneously viz. Ogaden. Aysha and DenakiL between June and August 1999. then the report production was almost completed in May 2000.
The report is divided in to VI volumes made up from works conducted during the study phase. Each volume lias sections depending on the details of the sector.
Volume 1
Volume II
Volume III
Executive Summary Natural Resources
Agriculture
Volume IV
Water Resources
Volume V
Volume VI
Socio-Economv Environment
List of experts produced these report are;
Eyilachew Yitayew Abebe Gulma Solomon Mengistu Amare EL Selassie Fekahmed Sintayehu Tilahun Mckonncn VVorku Isayas W.AIariam Girum Admasu
Belay Tegegn
Geology and Mineralogy
Soil survey and Land evaluation
Land use'Cover
Forestry and Energy
Wildlife and Tourism
Agronomy
Livestock. Range land. Apiculture and Fishery Hydrology
Hydrogeology
Dams and Hydropower
Wubshet Alemayehu
Irrigation and Drainage
Abnel GAkdhin
Geo technic is and Ir.fri's hue Lure
Cioshu Kebedc
Agricultural Economics
Melaku
Demography
Getachew Beyene
Soil and Water Conservation
Yeyesus Work Bekele
Environment and Environmental HealthAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
THE FEDERAL DEMOCRA TIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF WA TER RESOURCE
A YSHA BASIN RECONNAISSANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
RECONNAISSANCE PHASE
GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY
NOVEMBER, 1999
ADDIS ABEBA
Geology and mineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
TABLE OF CONTENTS
RECONNAISSANCE PHASE GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY
ABSTRACT
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1  General
1.2  Objectives of the study
1.2.            Geographical setting
1.2.1   Location
1.2.2.         Relief
1.3  Previous works
1.3.1   Introduction
1.3.2   Data collection and sources
2.  GEOLOGIC INFORMATION
2.1  Geologic history
2.2   Regional Geology
2.3  Stratigraphic Relationship
3. LOCAL GEOLOGY
3.1   Geological setting of Aysha Basin
3.2.1  The Archaean Complex
3.3         The mesozoic Sedimentary Rocks............................................................................. .....................................
3.3.1   Jurassic Sediments..............................................................................................................................................................
3.4. The Calnozoic Volcanic........................................................................................................ ..................................
3.4.1    Tertiary Volcanics.............................................................................................................................................................
3.4.2   Quaternary volcanics and sediments............................................................................................................................... 1
4.0 TECTONICS AND STRUCTURE:
5.0    MINERAL RESOURCES..
13
5.1.   Introduction ............................................................................................................................... .......................... 13
5.2.   Mineral Occurrences ........................................................................................................................................13
5.3    CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS13
BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................
1.  INTRODUCTION
1.1  General................................................................................................................................................................19
1.2  Objectives of the study....................................................................................................................... 19
1.3  Study approach and Methodology20
2.      BACKGROUND INFORMATION21
2.1   Location.............................................................................................................................................................. 21
2.2    Economic situation........................................................................ ......................................... l..**....l*Z*”**'*22
ABBREVIATIONS
Geology and mineralogy
qj \o O 'O Qo 00
00           •'J CZ\ -U
-KLmLUUjGuAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
List of figures
Fig 1.1
A sketch showing the location of the Aysha
basin and roads at 1:2,000,000 scale.
Fig 1.1.1
Location Map of River Basins in Ethiopia at 1:8,000,000 scale.
Fig 1.2
Location Map showing the NUBIAN and Arabian shields and the
Mozambique Belt (after stoesser and camp, 1985).
Fig 1.3
Simplified   Geological   map   of   the   Hom   of   Africa   showing 
the
distribution 
of
the
Mozembique   belt   (After   Worden   and   Horkel,   1984),   The   East   African   Rift   System and the probable Regression- Trans Gression Axis.
Fig 1.4               Distribution of the pan African Orogenic zones of Africa and Arabia engel et at 1980) (not to scale).
(After
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Geology and Mineralogy
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5 -. 
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.Aysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
Abstract
The   first   part   of   the   study   has   already   been   completed   and   involved   the   collection   of   existing documentary data on the study areas home government and other organisations.
The  second  part  of  the  study  concerns  field  reconnaissance  data  collection  in  the  basin.  This  will result in the preliminary identification of development potential sites of the basin
In the Aysha Basin various geological formations are occurred from precambrian to quaternary.
The   Arhean   formation   consist   of   the   Alghe   Group   Biotite   and   hornblende   gneisses,   granulite   and magnetite with minor metasedimentary gneiss.
In   the   Cretaceous.   The   major   formation   are   Amba   Aradom   formation   (   sand   stone,   conglomerate and shale and Hamanlei formation (Oxfordian lime stone and shale).
The   Cainozoic   (Tertiary)   Volcanism   resulted   to   the   Afar   series   (mildly   alkaline   basalts),   Dalah formation (fissural basalts and how erratic flow) and mabla and Arba Couracha formation.
Quaternary   sediments,   (Superficial   cover),   A   alluvial   and   lacustrine   deposits   and   Alkaline   olivine basalt flows are the major onces.
Different   geological   structures   (faulting,   folding,   foliation)   associated   with   Archean,   Sedimentary and Volcanic rocks are formed as a result of sedimentation and volcanism respectively.
Geology and mineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
1 Introduction
1.1          General
The Ministry of water Resources (Basin study Development Department which is responsible for the preparation of master plan for the River/Dry Basins in the country that will enable efficient utilisation of the natural and water resources of the country and to identify major potentials and constraints.
1.2 Objectives of the study
The proposed reconnaissance level study has the following principal objectives:-
I.    Review of all previous studies related to the basins;
II.   Make reconnaissance field visits to all accessible parts of the basin;
III. Establishment of a preliminary data base and information system;
IV.  Preliminary analysis of the resources potential/opportunities and constraints;
V.     Identification of data gaps which are required for the subsequent phases of the master plan studies;
The field trip is aimed at collecting and compiling published and unpublished existing reports and maps from Dire-Dewa and Aysha basin.
The main activities during the Reconnaissance phase involved:-
- Evaluation of previous master plan projects;
- Collection of all existing documentation and evaluation of missing data;
- General reconnaissance field survey of the study area depending on the local conditions accessibility.
The report is directed to a reconnaissance phase study of the Aysha Basin including:-
•    Discussion on the geology and structure of the study project area/Basin based on the geological map with their explanatory;
•    Reconnaissance field visit (Road geology) touching the major geologic formations.
•    Pointing and describing the major geologic resources potentials/constraints of the basin.
Geology and MineralogyAvsha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
The main geologic potential areas are shown on the mineral occurrences maps (according to
Jelenc and the EIGS) to get further in detail in the next phase studies.
1.2. Geographical setting
1.2.1   Location
The study  area (Aysha Basin) is found  in  Eastern  part of the country  and  North  part of the Somalia Regional State. The area is drained  by  dry  rivers of the Aysha Basin  with  their tributaries.
The study  area is approximately  located  in  between  10° I O’ N latitudes and  42° 15'E longitudes and  covering a total area of about 4000  km2 most parts of the basin can be accessed by motorable cars along and all weather roads.
1.2.2. Relief
The landform is broadly  the lowlands occupying  the Eastern  part of Ethiopia to  Djibouti border. The largest portion  of the basin  has an  altitude below 1500m above sea level which  is kolla/Berha and arid area so that the low lands are influentially nomadic pastorals
1.3          Previous works
1.3.1   Introduction
In  the  Aysha  basin  many  works  have  been  carried  out  by  Ethiopian  institute  of  geological  survey (EIGS)   and   other   for   ground   water   exploration   and   investigation.   Regional   geological   survey which   has   much   importance   in   delineation   of   the   various   rock   types,   structural   features, sedimentary  stratigraphic  pattern  and  potential  area  is  the  major  forget  for  any  occurrence  or deposits.
Geophysical,  Geochemical  and  mineralogical  investigations  are  also  performed  on  selected  areas which enable e to under potentially the major economic minerals of the basin.
In  addition, different field  partakes have studied  mineral deposits of the basin  up  to  noul to determine the quality  and  reserve there by  approving  the commercial exploitability  of the deposits.
Geology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
In  fact  much  study  is  expected  in  the  basin  for  its  wide  resources  such  as,  non  metallic  minerals, construction and industrial minerals resources and hydro thermal energy resources.
1.3.2 Data collection and sources
The data collected  and  selected  to  be bottom of the geological back  ground  in  the master plan study, are wasted  below. Since the major geological activities are performed  by  the EIGS, most of the data collection is restricted these specially on geological map collection.
The Data collection include the following item:
1:2,000,000 scale geological map of Ethiopia, 1996 with explanatory notes,Mengesh T.
1:2,000,000 scale geological map of Ethiopia 1972 V. Kazmin
1:2,000,000 scale geological map of Ethiopia 1972 Co- Meria
1:1,000,000 scale geological map of Ogaden 1972
1:1,000,000 scale geological map of Wabi Shebele Basin,. 1999,1964
In  the reconnaissance phase study  more emphasis was given  on  the collection  of geological maps covering  the basin. Further more, there are a number of studies in  text by  the EIGS and  other sectors (unpublished) that are reviewed and evaluated for the preparation of this report.
In the field of mineral resource investigation, since the Aysha basin is already under study of mineral and water. There are lots of geological, geochemical and geophysical studies performed by the EIGs and EMRDC (Ethiopian Mineral Resources development corporation) in prospecting and exploration of these areas.
2. Geologic information
2.1    Geologic history
lhe precambrian upon which all younger formations were deposited are the oldest rocks in the country. Starting with these sheared and folded precambrian and granitoids, the basement complex of East Africa including Ethiopia were uplifted, then intensively eroded and levelled to peneplain during the palaeozoic interval. These erosive activity had obliterated the overlying
Geology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
masses (except sh.te and  some gtacial deposits of th. Northern  Ethiopia tentatively  of palaeozoic) exposing  the precambrian  on  to  the surface. These metamorphic are much  expected to be rich in metallic minralization including gold (Kazmin. 1972. Mengesha, 1996)
The subsidence from South  East of Ethiopia began  during  the epeirogenic movement. Following this the Indian  ocean  commenced  transgressing  in  the direction  SE to  NW of Ethiopia during Early  Mesozoic time. The spread  of the sea, initially  over the Ogaden, extended  farther north  and west covering  almost part of the Ethiopian  territory  being  accompanied  by  the deposition  of marine sediments and  clastics unconformably  above the precambrian  such  as the Adigrat sandstone (Dibigia and  Genale Doria formation  in  the basin), the Hamanlei formation- entirely  of limestone with  the Mount filtu, Urandab, Gebredare, and  Korahe formations and  other less common  sedimentary  rocks. In  the Late Mesozoic uplift again  started  in  Ethiopia and  the sea retreated  (Regression) from NW to  SE of Ethiopia with  the deposition  of clastic sedimentary units (includes the upper sandstone). As the sea receded  residual sediments of gypsum and  an hydrate precipitated  on  inter-tidal flats or probably  of lagoonal. In  the East and  Se there was in invasion  of the sea again  in  the late Mesozoic interval which  repeated  the same sedimentation sequence (includes Mustahil formation  and  other clastics) and  successive erosion  (Kazmin, 1972). The Mesozoic Era was generally  recorded  in  Ethiopia with  piles of sedimentary  rocks
whose    thickness    vary    accordingly    along    the    axis    of    transgression    and    regression    (NW-SE). (Mengesha, 1996)
Later   on   these   erosion   and   sedimentation   were   interrupted   by   disturbances   with   in   the   earth’s crust   creating   extensive   fracturing   and   fissures   where   in   resulting   widespread   volcanism   with   the outpouring   of   tremendous   amount   of   lava   that   started   to   flow   out   50   called   “Trappean   lava” overlying   the   Mesozoic   sediment.,y   rooks.   The   shield   volcanics   of   goba   area   are   also   the   result of   this   Early   Cainozoic   faulting   and   volcanism.   (   Kazmin,   19   also   taken   place   in   the   plateaux dunng   the   Early   Qoa.eman,   period   with   the   emission   of   large   amount   of   basaltic   lava   from several craters (lesser in magnitude than the Tertiary volcanics. (Kazmin, 1975)
Accompanying    the    rifting    many    isol
a d 
te
faults    were    funned    iater    on    governing    the    course    of
streams and nvets How (the Megado graben fauit system thal is N s trending
.
Seology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
(Kazmin,   1972).   Generally   the   present   topography   of   Ethiopia   is   the   outcome   of   mainly geological processes of the Tertiary period.
Quaternary   sediments   are   accumulated   locally   in   former   lakes,   structurally   controlled   areas, depressions, foot slopes and calderas.
2.2 Regional Geology
The basin is part of the pre-upper proterozoic rocks of the Mozambique belt (Kazmin, 1971 and
1978),  the  Mesozoic  sedimentary  rocks  and  Cainozoic  volcanics  with  some  quaternary  sediments associated in relatively lower areas and plateaux.
According  to  warden  and  Horkel (1984), the Mozambique belt, extending  from Mozambique via Kenya to  Ethiopia is trending  in  N-S direction  being  widely  developed  in  the Hom of Africa including  some parts of Somalia and  Eritrea. Holmes (1951) first defined  as a late precambrian geosyncline later eroded  exposing  the high  grade metamorphics. Clifford  (1970) and  Kroner (1977) described  it as a mobile belt built up  demobilising  the older materials. Warden  and Horkel (1984) finally  suggested  that the extension  of the Mozambique belt in  Ethiopia comprising  a sequence of epicontinental and  miogeosynclinal sediments on  the basement complex. These Precambrian  rocks are associated  with  different types of sedimentary, Volcanic and  intrusive rocks being  metamorphose together with  varying  degrees, predominantly  of the high  grade gneisses and  granitoids. These basement rocks are broadly  divided  into  three major divisions depending  on  their age, lithology, degree of metamorphism and  associated  structures, (see 2.3). They cover the central and Western parts of the basin.
The Mesozoic sedimentary  rocks specially  those of which  are situated  out of the geosyncline or of the Mozambique belt, are almost entirely  the direct product of the sedimentation  processes of the regression- transgression  in  association  with  uplifting  and  subsidence of the old  land. The sedimentation  resulted  both  the clastic and  non  clastic (organic) sediment accumulation, the non clastic having a wide aerial coverage in the basin.
The  Cainozoic  volcanic  activity  has  resulted  and  emission  of  enormous  amount  of  volcanic  piles around the Bale highlands and the adjacent plateaux. The Ethiopian rifting activity later
Geology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
separated  it from the present North  Western  Ethiopian  plateau. In  the Northern  end  of the bastn, the volcanic succession, in  Bale province around  Dodolla, Goba and  Dolomena area, has been divided into four major groups (Berhe et.al., 1987) (see 2.3).
2.3    Stratigraphic Relationship
The age relation  ship  between  the different rock  units given  by  different authors is not reasonably and  explicitly  defined. On  top  of the others, Kazmin  and  the EIGS have done much  work  to clarify  and  show the details thoroughly  from which  the following  stratigraphic positions are presented.
Here are the major rock  units being  grouped  in  a broad  category  (from the older to  the younger) with  their postulated  age and  rock  associations. Other mapping  units could  also  be added  for the detail geological mapping since this is a tentative one.
Major Geological Formations of Aysha Basin
Q, Qb, Qh, Na, Ndb, Nmr, Ka, Jh, Ari,
i. 
Quaternary
Q
Alluvial   and   lacustrine   deposits:   sand,   silt,   clay   diatomite,   limestone   and   beach   sand.
Qb 
Basalt flows, spatter comes and hyaloclastics
b) Alkaline olivine basalt
Qh:
undifferentiated alluvial, lacustrine and beach sediments
ii.        Neogene
Na.   Afar   series:   mildly   alkaline,   basalts   with   subordinate   alkaline   and   peralkaline,   ilicics (rhyolitic done and flows and ignimbrite
Ndb.   Dalah   Formation:   Fissural   basalts   and   hawaiites   with   some   intercalated   detrital   and lacustrine sediments with rhyolitic flows and ignimnte in the upper part.
Nmr: Mabla and  Arba Guracha Formation: Rhyolitic domes, flow and  pyroclastic rocks of dominantly  peralakealine composition  with  subordinate trachyte and  basalt flows interstratified  at the base
iii.        Cretaceous
Seology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
Ka: Amba Aradom Formation: sand stone, conglomerate and shale
iv. 
Jurrasic
Jh:
Hamanlei Formation: oxfordian limestone and shale
v.         Archean
ARI:    Alghe    Group:    Biotite    and    hornblende    gnesses,    granulite    and    migmatite    with    minor metasedimentary gneiss.
3. Local Geology
3.1  Geological setting of Aysha Basin
Geologically,  the  Aysha  basin  comprises  of  the  following  major  rock  formations  from  Geological map of Ethiopia 1:2,000,000 by Kazmin 1972, Meria and 1973 Mengesha 1996).
The precambrian  rock  formation  containing  Alghe group  (Ari,  the Mesozoic formation  of the Hamantei Jh  and  the cainozoic (Tertiary  Quaternary) volcanism and  sediments resulted  to  the formation  of the Trap  and  Aden  series (Amba Aradam,  Mabla and  Arba Guracha Dalaha formation,  Afar series and  quaternary  undifferentiated  i.e alluvial lacustrine deposits and basalt flows).
3.2      The Precambrian Basement
3.2.1 The Archaean Complex
(1500<AGE< 4500My)
1. Alghe group (Alghe gneiss)
The gneisses of the Archean  Complex  have been  grouped  into  five major units, Kazmin  1972  and Mengesh  T. 1996). From these the Aleghe Group  (ARI) consisting  of dominantly  gray  biotite hornblende gneiss, amphibolite and  a maficrich  granulite. This formation  occurs in  the vicinity of Biye Gurgur Town/village in  the Aysha basin  (south  eastern  part of the Basin.( see the basin geological map of 1:1,000,000 scale)Aysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
3.3   The mesozoic Sedimentary Rocks
3.3.1   Jurassic Sediments
(102 <aGE< 152 mY)
The hamnlei formation:-
It    consists    of    fossiliferous    limestone    and    dolomite    with    some    shale,    marl    and    anhydrite intercalation.   It   is   restricted   on   east   and   south   east   of   Aysha   town   and   its   surroundings.   The Hamanlei  Formation  (Jh)  reaches  a  thickness  of  up  to  1350m  in  eastern  Ogaden  (Kazmin,  1972). The  lowest  part  of  the  formation  observed  in  deep  drill  holes  consists  of  limestone  overlain  by thick   beds   of   dolomites   and   anhydrites   and   is   in   turn   overlain   by   limestone.   Fossil   evidence indicates    that    the    series    ranges    from    Liassic    to    Oxfordian    (middle    to    lower    Jurissic). (Kazninl972.   Geological   map   of   Ethiopia   and   EIGS   1996).(   see   the   location   and   geological formation map)
Amba Aradam Formation (Ka)
The Amba Aradam Formation  (ka), formerly  known  as the upper sand  stone (Amba Aradam sand stone) 1  (Kazmin  1972, Mengesh  T. 1992) occurs in  south  of Dewele and  North  of Aysha Town in  the Basin. The formation  consists of sand  stone, shale and  marl. It lies conformably  on  the Jurasire Antalo Formation (jt), where as in the Garamulata (Hararghe) areas.
In the Abay river canyon the thickness ranges from 450 to 600m, in Garamulata, Hararghe
Region the unit is more than 300m thick where as in the Danakil AIPS, the unit is only 150m thick. The Amba Aradam Formation (ka) is probably of late cretaceous age and represents a regressive facies of the cretaceous see (Kazmin. 1975)
3.4. The Cainozoic Volcanic
3.4.1  Tertiary Volcanics
Mabla and Arba Guracha Formation (Nmr).
(14.2-9.7my)
Middle miocene silicic volcanism is confined to the margins of Afar. It occurs in the vicinity of Dewele and South of it and Sanduch between the Amba Arudam formation (kazmin 1972 and Mengesha T 1996). There were probably several centers in these areas which produced thick 
sequences of ignimbrite and rhyolite flows and domes, Rhyolite flows and domes, Rhyolite flows
fteology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
and   domes   and   ignimbrites   of   slightly   commendetic   composition   with   rare   intercalations   of basaltic flows, pumic. The absolute age range of the Mabla rhyolites is from 14.2 to 9.7 ma.
On  the south  eastern  escarpment of Afar and  the eastern  escarpment of the northern  MER (Nazert and  Dire Dawa map  sheets) 200m thick  crystal rich  welded  tuffs are exposed  overlain  directly  by the volcanics of the Nazreth  formation. This unit was named  as the Arba Guracha silicics and has an  absolute K/ar age of 14  to  10  ma (Berhe, 1979). The Arba Guracha silicies pinch  out away  from the type area and  are replaced  and/or overlain  by  basalts of the Tarmaber Formationne or Djibouti.
Dalaha Formation (Ndb)
The Dalaha Formation  (Ndb)) consists of fissural flows of basalts and  hawaiites, with  some intercalated  detrital and  lacustrine sediments, rhyolite flows and  pyroclastics near the upper part. The Dalaha Formation  is well developed  in  the neighboring  Djibouti and  Northern  and  central Afar reaching  a thickness of up  to  800m. The Dalaha Formation  was given  an  absolute k/Ar age of 8.6  my  (varet, 1978). The basalts of Dalaha Formation  are transitional basalts ranging  from rare, picritic type to more frequent iron rich varieties (ferrobasalts).
Afar Series (Na)
The Afar series occurs in  the Aysha Basin  mostly  in  the Western  part and  west north  of Aysha town  and  to  the boarder of Djibouti Republic. Athick  succession  of flood  basalts and  inter calated  alkaline to  peralkaline silicies (rhyolite flows, domes and  ignimbrites) covering  about 2/3 of the floor of the Afar Series. In  the central part of the Afar depression  it attains a thickness in the range of 500  to  1500m. The basalts are in  many  places porphyntic vesicular, and  display  near perfect columnar jointing. The basalts are transitional type that show a distinctive tholeiitic tendency. The tholeiitic nature of the basalts is specially  clear on  the upper part of the series which  is separated  from the lower part by  an  unconformity  and  lower unit gave an  absolute k/ar ages between 4.5 and 0.37 ma (Barberietal, 1975.)
3.4.2 Quaternary volcanics and sediments
Quaternary Basalts (Qb) (0<Age< 1 my)
(ftology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan_______________ __________________________________________________
All  the  Quaternary  basalts  of  the  MER  and  Afar  Depression  which  are  composed  of  basalt  flows, scoria cones and basaltic hyaloclastites (mengesh 1996).
Alkaline Olivine Basalt (Qb)
Pleistocene to  Holocene fissural basalt volcanism in  the MER are mainbly  concentrated  along  the WFB (Wan  Fault Belt). The basalts are clearly  controlled  by  extensional fractures with  chains of scoria cones alligned  fractures and  generally  displaying  fresh  a surfaces. Hyaloclastites, phreatic and  phreato  magmatic explosion  craters are common  in  many  areas in  the south  and  eastern  part of Aysha basin in the vicinity of Biye Gurgurvillage/town with in the Afar (Region-2) Region.
Most of the basalts of this unit in  the MER, Afar depression  and  other related  riffs in  Ethiopia are transtional or alkaline in  nature but some of the recent basalts particularly  along  the WFB show tholeiitic tendencies like those of the axial ranges in Afar.
Quaternary sediments (Q,Qh)
Quaternary  sediments of different genetic types (alluvial, lacustrine beach  sediments) are widely spread  all over Ethiopia. The sediments in  this basin  mostly  occurs in  the west and  south  of 1/3 of the basin. Most probably  the quaternary  sediments of this basin  are lacustrine origin. Lacustrine beds are interbedded  with  Plio-Pleistocene ignimbrites in  the lakes region  and  on  the rift shoulders. The lacustrine beds are mostly  re-deposited  volcanic sands, tuff with  calcareous material and  diatomite.The thickness of these sediments of undifferentiated  continental origin (gravel, sand  silt and  clay) can  reach  at pices 10  to  20m increasing  towards the plateau escarpments to the east (kazmin, 1972).
Road  geology  was  adapted  to  describe  the  various  rock  units  and  associated  features  found  in  the Aysha basin specially structures associated with tetiary volcanic and quaternary sediments.
The   site   description   mainly   along   the   main   road   Dire   Dawa   to   Dewle   through   224   km   (biye Gurgur and Aysha towns).
The main Geological formation along the field reconnaissance route are
fetology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
1.        Quaternary formation
•    Alluvial and lacustrine deposits: sand, silt, clay.
•    Basalt flows, spatter cones and hyaloclastics and Alkaline olivine basalt.
2.         Afar Series alkaline basalts with subordinate
.  Dalah  Formation:  Fissural  basalts  and  hawaiites  with  some  intercalated,  lacustrine sediments, with rhyolitic flows and ignimbrite in the upper part one the formation that I have seen in the Aysha Basin.
4.0 Tectonics and Structure:
Ethiopia can  be divided  into  four major phisiographic regions widly. Known  as the north western  plateau, south  eastern  plateau, the main  Ethiopian  Rift and  Afar Depression. The cenozoic volcanic succession  is spilt apart by  parts of the great East African  Rift System in Ethiopia (i.e The Afar Depression, main Ethiopian Rift and related rifts).
The  main  tectonic  structures  (faults,  folation,  folds)  are  parallel  NE  to  SW  direction  to  the  west of Rift marigin and EW direction in the Djoubuti Republic and Somalia boundaries.
Relatively. These structures are less common in the volcano sedimentary terrain and apparently 
not affected the phanerozoic rocks cmesozoic sediments and cainozoic volcanic). These rocks
are rather flat lying with slight filting forming primary bedding structures and irregular large
massive rock bodies respectively.
Following  the orogenic episodes of the precambrian  and  the transgression-regression  of the Mesozoic, a major epierogenic uplift occurred  in  East Africa together with  the Arabian peninsula, Red  Sea and  the Gulf of Aden. This uplift resulted  the rifting  with  the Development of the Red  Sea and  the East African-Ethiopian  rift system. This extensive fracturing  and shattering in association with faulting permitted the outpouring of silicic matic lava at different time forming the various volcanic piles of different episodes. (EIGS, 1996). The Northern Volcanic zone of the basin are
(Oology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
also  correlated  with  this  tectonic  and  the  subsequent  volcanic  events.  They  are system, rather with a network ofjointing and fracturing forming volcanic blocks.
associated with no significant fault
5.0 Mineral Resources
5.1. Introduction 
,. .
The basement complex consists of variably metamorphosed rocks and gnetss, sehist and 
,
granitoid intrusions. In areas where strong erosive forces had removed the overlying rocks, these basement rocks are exposed to the surface.
Since the mesozoic sand  stone are observed  in  the extreme of Eastern  Parts of the basin. There might be apotential for oil and  gas deposits rocks of this age also  represent major reserves of cement, silica sand and other industrial and construction materials.
Pyrocrastics and other volcanic of the cainozoic time could also be used for construction purposes specially the ignimbrites, trachytes and basalt of the Northern of the basin.
5.2. Mineral Occurrences
In  the  early  times  some  European  experts  had  performed  geological  studies  and  mineral exploration on limited economic minerals.
Then after the Ministry of Mines and Energy and the EIGS carried out the exploration works on various minerals and rocks indicating their distribution over the country. But there is no so much major geologic resources reported in the Aysha Basin. The most important deposit in the basin are Dewele gypsum and sand stone.
5.3 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
In Aysha Basin, since (he area is loo remote and hoi climatic condition, the investors not that much to invest in this basin The mineral resources am also poor in th. basin because rhe aliuvial
sediments, ternary volcanics are the most geologic formation in this study „ea and poor surface an ground water for both human and domastic purpose. So it is necessary ro invito investors toi
Aysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
participate in  this sector there by  offering  them the necessary  items and  infrastructures. This will be mainly  the work  of the Regional Government in  co-operation  with  the central Government for the growth and prosperity of the people and the country.
»I
!□
LEGEND
ARI
Qb |
I
Qh
QUATERNARY UNDIFFERENTIATED
Alluvial and lacustrine deposits: sand, silt, clay,
diatomite, limestone and beach sand
Basalt flows,spatter cones and hyaloclastites
anronfitionql type between alkaline and tnoleiltic
bjAlkalme olivine basalt
HOLOCENE
Undifferentiated alluval,lacustrine and beach sediments
MIOCENE-PLIOCENE
Afar seyies: Mildly alkaline basalts with subordinate alkaline and peralkaline silicic* (rhyolitic dome and flows and ignimbrites).
LATE MIOCENE
Pqlaha Formation: Fissural basalt? and hawaiites with some intercalated detental and lacustrine sediments, with rhyollltic flows and igmmbntes in the upper part.
MIDDLE MIOCENE
LATE PROTEROZOIC
Tsaliet Group: Matpandesity, motadacite,. motorhyolite.chlorite, sericite and graphite phullites, green schist, limestone and qwartzite.
ARCHEAN
Alahe Group; Blotfte and hornblende gaeltspi. graellte and migmatite with minor melasedimentary gneiss.
OTHER SYMBOL
Faults : observed inferred.
BASE INFORMATION
_ _ _ _ _     International                boundary _ _ _ _ _     Basin     boundary
_ _ _ _ _ _ Road
_____
River
domes, flpwe and pyroclastic
i » + m  Rail
J
<
ith subordinate trachyte
• 
Town
o«
m n t»
CRETACEOUS
3
Ambg Ar adorn formation: Sandstone,
conglomerated and shale.
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
OF ETHIOPIA
EARLY-LATE JURASSIC
MINISTRY OF I ATM R
ESOURCES
Hamanlei Formation : Middle-jurassic limestone.shlae and gypsum
AYSHA DRY BASIN G
EOLOGICAL MAP
Dirt
SCALI 1:800.000Aysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
Bibliography
Abbatc E. And Sagrim, 1980 Volcanitc’s of the Ethiopian and Somalian plateaus and major Tectonic lines in Geodynamic Evolution of the Afro-Arabian Rift system.
Almond D.C 1984, The concepts of “ pan-African Episode” and “ Mozambique Belt” in relation to the geology of east and North- east Africa.
Bams S.V., 1976. Geology and oil prospects of Somalia, Meria etal, 1979 Geology of Ethiopia and Somalia.
Black R., 1984. The pan-African event in the Geological frame work of Africa.
Beicip, 1985 Geological map of the Ogaden Malmaison. France, 1:1,000,000
Berhe S.M and Kazmin V 1978, Geological map of the Nazret Area (Nc 37-17) 1:250,000 scale. Ethiopian Mapping Agency. Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Berhe S.M, 1979 Geological Map of the Dire Dawa
Sheet (NC 37-12) 1:250,000 scale, EIGS, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Berhe, S.M Belay Desta Nicolettim. A and Mengesha
1987, Geology, Geochronology and geodynamic implications of the Cenozoic magnetic province in the W and SE Ethiopia. Journal of the Geological society.
Blandfrd W.Y 1968 on the geology of a portion of Abyssinia, qQ Geological society of land.
Gabert g, 1984, structural-lithologic units of proterozoic rocks in east Africa, their base, cover and mineralization in Kalerkx j leds), African Geology, niussee Royal de Afrique central.
Cfcology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
Gass  I.G,  1977.  The  Evolution  of  the  pan-African  Gystalline  Basement  in  Ne  Africa  and  Arabia, Journal of Geological Society of London.
Gebre Yohannes Habtezi, etal, Geological Map of Harar (Nc 37-9) unpublished 1:250,000 scale
Eigs, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Getaneh Assefa, 1984. The mineral industry of Ethiopian present conditions and future prospects
Journal of African Earth sciences.
Greitzer 1, 1970  Stratigraphy, Hydrogeology  and  Jurassic Ammonites of the Harar and  Dire Dewa Area, Ethiopia Thesis submitted  for the Degree-Doctor of philosophy, Hebrew university Israel.
Jelence D. 1966 Mineral occurrences of Ethiopian Ministry of mines, Addis Ababa, Ethiopian.
Kalb,   E.J   1973   A   report   prepared   for   the   Ethiopian   Geological   survey,   Ministry   of   mines imperial Government of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.
Kazmin V, 1971 Precambrian of Ethiopia Nature, physical science.
Kazmin V., 1972 The Geology of Ethiopia, EIGs Addis Ababa.
Kazmin  V.,  1979  Stratigraphy  and  correlation  of  volcanic  of  volcanic  rocks  in  Ethiopia  Note  No. 106, EIGs, Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Mohr  P.A  1962  The  Geology  of  Ethiopia  Univ.  Coil  of  Addis  Ababa  Press  (reprinted  in  1971  by the Haite selastie I university press)
Mohr. P.A 1983. The Ethiopian flood basalt province Nature.
tfeology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
Purcell G.P. 1981  Phanesozoic sedimentary  History  and  petroleum, potential ed  senbeto  chcwa ka; plate Tectonics and  motallogcncsis, some guide lines to  Ethiopian  mineral deposits. Ministry of mines and energy EIGS. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Raaben  V.F  etal,  1979,  preliminary  report  on  the  Evolution  of  petroleum  prospects  of  the  Ogaden basin Eigs. Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
Slobodian   V.P   1984   Detailed   project   report   on   the   results   of   Drilling   the   Shilabo,   Exploratory well Nol Dir. DAWA oil and Gas project.
Tamerat    Worku,    1988.    Sedimentology,    Diagenesis    and    Hydrocarbon    potential    of    the    Karro sediments (late Paleozoic to Early Jurassic), Ogaden Basin Ethiopia.
William O.C 1956 Sedimentary History of the Ogaden district, Ethiopia EiGS, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Bekele    Woldemicael    (1983)-    preliminary    geological    report    of    Delga    chebsi    and    Hakim    Gara limestone (Marble) and Hamariesa granit deposit'(050-5551-10).
Shachnai (1972)- The geology of sheets No 37-12 Nc 38-9 Harar province: progress report.
Nieminen   Kale   ruo   (1968)   asbestos   area   of   Gara   Jabba   including   some   alluuial   deposits   of   Harar province and other interesting areas.
Tibebu    Mengistu    (1973)-    Kadin    resources    of    Weathered    granites    near    Kombelcha.    Eastern Hararge.
Muhlen,   Vonzur   (1937)   on   the   investigation   of   the   geological   known   deposits   in   the   chercher mountain.
Hailu Ebba (1976) Feldspar and calcite Marble in Hararge- Babile and shebele (030-551-01).
Clology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
Tesfai G/Hanna (1975) - Whitestone Ethiopian petroleum company. Reconnaissance geologic
survey of Bedesse- Mechara area (Nc 37-15)
Appendix
A. Bibliography of Geological Maps
•    Geological map of Ethiopia compiled by V.Kazmin (UN) 1972, 1:2,000,000
•     Geological map of Ethiopia and Somalia by Meria 1972, 1:2,000,000
•    Geological map of Dire Dewa sheet (NC 37-12) 1:250,000 compiled by seife M. Berth 1978-
EIGS
•     Geological map of Ethiopia Rift 1:5000,000 compiled by V.Kazmin and seife M Berth 
(1981). Un published EIGS
•     Geologica maps of the wabi shebelle basin 1:1, 000,000 and 1:250,000 compiled by
BECOM-1972 National Water Resources Comminssion.
Appendix
COMMENTS
During  the field  reconnaissance study, there were areas that were areas not covered  due to  local conditions and  same due to  inaccessibility. These areas should  be checked  by  other means such as using helicopters or by means of fly camp.
Unchecked areas
This is mainly to the South east of the basin after Jijiga to wards Ogaden.
Problems encountered
-  In Region-5 data couldn’t be found easily. This is simply because of the lack of organization and also because different offices are not still established at zonal
level.
-  The given 20 days were not enough to take enough time and exhaust even the existing data.
-  Even some woredas were not accessible, too in east extreme part of the basin.
ifeology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan______________________________________ ______________
-  Because  of  rearrangement  of  different  offices,  complete  data  couldn  t  be  found specially that of hydrogeology geology and Mineral Resource.
Appendix-c
1. Introduction
1.1 General
Agriculture dominates the Ethiopian  economy. Export earnings are dependant on  agriculture with accounts for approximately  90  percent of the total. However, the agricultural setor is mostly  at a rain-fed subsistant level and it is characterised by low productivity.
Lack  of adequate rainfall has caused  recurrent draught resulting  in  livestock  holdings and  crop yields, proper exploitation  of the diverse natural resources, which  could  decrease the vulnerability  to  the above problems, has been  limited  mainly  due to  lack  of a clearly  defined integrated resources development master plan.
To  contribute to  the economy  through  integrated  resources utilization, the Ministry  of Water Resources is charged  among  other things, with  the responsibility  of preparing  basin  wide integrated resources development master plans.
As per the duties and  responsibilities vested  on  it, the Ministry  of Water Resources has prepared the development master plan  for five river basins; Abbay, Tekeze, Mereb, Ompo-Gihbe and Baro-Akobo. For the other three river basins, Wabi shebele, Genale Dawa and  the Rift valley, reconnaissance level studies have been  completed. To  this end, the reconnaissance level study of the dry  basins is one of the foreseen  duties of the ministry. To  accomplish  these tasks this study proposal is prepared.
1.2       Objectives of the study
The proposed reconnaissance level study has the following principal objectives:-
1.  Review of all previous studies related to the basins;
2.  Make reconnaissance field visits to all accessible parts of the basin;
tftology and MineralogyI
I
I
Aysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
Establishment of a preliminary data base and information system,
Preliminary analysis of the resources potential and constraints,
Identification of data gaps which are required for the subsequent phases of the
master plan studies;
6. Preparation of a reconnaissance report that describes the activities undertaken.
1.3       Study approach and Methodology
To achieve the above stated objectives, all existing data on the study areas will be collected and reviewed. These includes statistical bulletins, and published and unpublished reports and maps. Information and recent development activities and plans shall be assessed from the respective personnel of the Regional Bureaux of Amhara, Tigray, Somalia, and Afar, That the basins cover partially. The findings obtained  from the above approach  will be supplemented  with observations in the accessible areas of the respective basin. Finally, the collected data will be assimilated and preliminary analysis will be prepared.
Based on the previous experiences, the study team is divided in to six study groups, each having different sectoral studies under it. This is mainly to facilitate easy exchange of information both in the field and in offices during report writing. Table 2 shows the details of the grouping. For the proper accomplishment of the study the following work plan is proposed.
Oology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
activities
1999
Apr.
May.
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
collection of data and reports
I
existing data and reports
Field  visit to  all accessible parts of the study  area including  the Regional and zone offices
■
■
_
reparation of reconnaissance report
Preparation   of   terms   of   reference   for phase II and phase III
Preparation of tender documents
Workshop   at   the   completion   of   the final reports
Incorporation    of    the    comments    and suggestions of the works shop
The Terms of Reference for each study sector is attached herewith. As it is shown in the activity 
schedule the overall field program will take two months.
2. Background information
2.1 Location
The Dry  basins; Ogaden, Aysha and  Denakil, are generally  located  in  the eastern  part of Ethiopia. The Denakil basin  which  is situated  in  the north  eastern  part of Ethiopia is bounded  by  the Tekeze River Basin  in  the west and  Awash  River Basin  in  the south. It forms boundries with Eritrea in the north and Djibouti in the east.
The  Ogaden  basin  is  situated  in  the  south  eastern  part  of  the  country  and  is  bounded  by  the  Wabi- Shebelle basin in the west, and Somalia in the north and south.
The Aysha basin, which  is the smallest basin  in  the country, is located  at the eastern  part of the country  totally  bounded  by  the Awash  river basin  in  the weste and  south, Ddjibouti in  the northern part and Somalia in the east.
fetology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
2.2   Economic situation
Most of the peoples in the basins are either pastoralists or agro-pastoralists. In Denakil basin, the Afar are by  tradition  tribal society  of pastoralist with  some additional wealth  acquired  from trade, the mining of salt and agriculture.
Similarly, agro-pastoral ism is long  standing  in  the Ogaden  based  on  rainfed  agriculture. Some pastoralists try  to  grow crops, whilst still maintaining  a serious interest in  livestock  husbandry. The Aysha basin  is characterised  by  its inhospitable condition  to  rear productive livestock  by postoralists. Hence, they are partially dependent on trade.
In  all the three basins, the rangeland  is not ecologically  homogenous. The higher altitude areas between  1,400  and  1,600  meters are characterised  as semi-arid, receiving  as much  as 500-600 mm of rainfall annually. There are some extensive open  grasslands, often  associated  with  areas which  have been  cultivated  in  the past. In  the lower and  upper arid  zones mean  annual rainfall varies from 250 to over 300 mm respectively.
The reconnaissance phase study expected to provide the foundation on which the subsequent studies are based.
D. GEOLOGY GEOMORPHOLOGY LAND FORM AND MINERALS
-  Existing data collection should include geological. Geophysical land form. Geomorphologic and mineralogical data.
-   The following national  agencies have to  be consulted for data collection and information.
a)  EIGS
b)  Ministry of mines and energy
Stology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
c)  Ethiopian minerals development corporation
d)  National mining corporation.
e)  Ministry of water resources
- All relevant previous studies will be referenced (including location of reports
for
the  study)  and  brief  description  of  reports  for  the  study)  and  brief  description  given  of  their content and significant.
- Make a field visit to appraise the existing situation
-  1:1.000,000  scale  geological  maps  should  be  prepared  utilizing  existing 
information and field investigation.
-  Study on site available documents (regional, zonal offices)
-  Locating the existing available geological and mineral resource maps on the                            map of the studyarea (as geological map index)
-  Listing of existing documents (References)
-  Reconnaissance geological survey in the study area
-  Establish the logistic requirement and framework for the remaining study of the master plan.
-  Identify main geological and geomorphologic structures (from existing studies)
- Drawing of tentative program for further detailed data collection and investigations required.
- Preparation of reconnaissance phase report. Appendices
A.  Bibliography of Geological maps
B.  Comments
C.  General objective of TOR and time Freme
D.  Expected out puts of Geology and Mineralogy study of the Basin.
©Oology and MineralogyAysha basin reconnaissance phase master plan
ABBREVIATIONS
Approx = Approximately
EIGS = Ethiopian institute of Geological survey EMDC = Ethiopi Minerals Development corporation
FIG
GPS
= Figure
= Global positioning in system
Mt        = Mountain
My       = Million Year/s
MER    = Middle Ethiopian Rift WFR    = Wanj fault Belt
Sbology and MineralogyMinistry of Water Resources, Basin Development Study Department
Aysha Basin Reconnaissance Phase Study
THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
AYSHA BASIN RECONNAISSANCE PHASE MASTER PLAY
Volume II:   Natural Resources Study
A- Geology & Mineralogy 
■B- Geomorphology & Soils C- Land use/Cover
D-l; orestrv%
E-Energy
F-Wildlife & Tourism
|Narural Resources Study)Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
AYSHA BASIN DEVELOPMENT
MASTER PLAN STUDY
PHASE I
RECONNAISSANCE
SOIL SURVEY AND LAND EVALUATION
January 2000
Addis Abeba
Soil Survey and Land Evaluation ReportMinistry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. GEOMORPHOLOGY AND SOILS OF THE AYSHA BASIN
1.1  Introduction
1.2  Land Units
1.2.1  Methods of establishment.
1.3. Soils
1.3.1  Review of previous soil studies
1.3.2   Brief description ofsoils'
1.3.2.1 Methodology.......................................................................................................................................................................... '
1.3.2.2   Soils of the Northern Rift and Coastal Zone(D)1
2 SOIL SURVEY METHODOLOGY FOR PHASE II11
2.1 Reconnaissance soil survey1J
2.2 Semi detailed soil surveyL
3. AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONATION1.................................................................................................................................. 1-
3.1 Previous Studies>;
3.2 Agro-Ecological Regions
3.3 Thermal Zones................................................................................................................................................. !-
3.4 Growing Period Zones18
3.4.1  Description of growing period zones in the Aysha basin19
3. 5 Methodology For Phase II Study19
4. LAND SUITABILITY20
4. 1 Introduction,...................................................................................................................................................20
4.2    Land Suitability Methodology................................................................................................................20
4.3   land Resource Assessment and Evaluation..................................................... ........................... ,.......... 21
4.3.1   Methods.................................................................................................................................................................................... 21
4. 3.2 Potential for rainfed agriculture................................................................................................................................................22
4.3.2.1 Climatic constraints............................................................................................ ................................................................................................ 22
4.3.2.1 Soil constraints.................................................................................................................................................................... 22
4.3.3 Potential For Irrigated Agriculture ............................................................................................................... ............................22
4.4. Land Evaluation Methodology For Phase II................................................................................................................................ 23
REFERENCES26
APPENDIX:
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
iiMinistry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, ReconnalssancePhase
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ALUP API AWC BS Ca CEC
CSIRO
Assistance to Land Use Planning Project
Aerial Photograph Interpretation
Available Water Capacity
Base Saturation
Calcium
Cation Exchange Capacity
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
DGP
Dependable Growing Period
°C
Degree Centigrade
dS/M
DRc
ESP
EVDSA FAO
Fig.
GPS
Decisiemen Per Meter
Drought Resistance Crops
Exchangeable Sodium Percentage
Ethiopian Valley Development Studies Authority
Food and Agriculture Organization
Figure
Geographic Positioning System
ha
K
Km
LUPRD
LUT
M
Masi
Hectares
Potassium
Kilometers
Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department
Land Utilization Type
Meters
Meter above sea level
Mg
MGP
Milligram
■ Medium Growing Period
MWR
MSS
Na
OM
P
Ministry of Water Resources
Multi Spectral Scanner
Sodium
Organic Matter
Phosphorus
PH
Soil Reaction (log 10    ions)
H+
%
PET
Percentage
Potential Evapotranspiration
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation ReportMinistry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
SIM TEB
UNDP
WAPCOS WRDA
Satellite Imagery Mosaics
Total Exchangeable Bases
United Nations Development Program Water and Power Consultancy Service Water Resources Development Authority
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation ReportMinistry uf Waler Resources. Av aha Bazin uAvelcjumtinL Mosier PLun. Rf£( onnai;isancernu&£
t
1. GEOMORPHOLOGY AND SOILS OF THE AYSHA BASIN
1.1 Introduction
The land  units and  soils of the Aysha basin  are shown  on  fig  .1  at 1:2,000.000  scale. The data are mainly  drawn  from those used  and  generated  by  the Assistance to  Land  use Planning Project (ALUP), Phase I (1984), its subsequent phases and  4' A summary  of the Agricultural Ecology  of Ethiopia” fi? by  de Pauw (1988). A rapid  reconnaissance field  trip  was also  made for ground checking.
1. 2 Land Units
This   section   brieflv   describes   the   land   units   delineated,   the   method   of   groupings   and   description of each land units.
1.2.1  Methods of establishment
The basic study  and  available mapping  on  landform and  soils in  the Aysha basin  is that carried out nation  wide by  Assistance to  Land  Use Planning  (.ALUP. 1984). project. The ALUP Geomorphology  and  Soils mapping  adopted  the CSIRO approach  were geomorphic units known  as landscape units, which  were delineated  from interpretation  of panchromatic (1.000.000  scale) Landsat MSS imagery. However compared  to  current TM or SPOT imagery the resolution  of MSS is poor and  its advantage in  delineating  land  units has been  called  into question. A basic assumption  in  the preparation  of the map  is that geomorphic units delineated by  manual interpretation  of Landsat contain  recurrent patterns of landforms, soils and vegetation.
To   map   and   classify*   the   landform   of   the   country   geomorphic   divisions   have   been   made   at   3 
levels of generalization more or less in hierarchical order, viz:
•     l andscape, uni is or land systems (level 1). based on broad geomorphic
and or geologic features
•     1 -and unit (level 2) based on a given landform
•     Land facet or site (level 3) based on homogeneous unit in tennis of
landform, soil and vegetation.
At the broadest level 12  major geomorphic divisions were distinguished; which  arc related  to  the geneial Physiogiapnic character of landforms, such  as wetland, high  plateau, hills with  plains vtv. These 12  subdivisions are important in  relation  to  the ordering  of the different map  units in tlte legend, but do  not influence the actual map  codes. Therefore, the approach  aim mainly  at the establishment of mapping  legend, however, there is no  thorough  svstem analvsis supporting die structure of the legend.Ministry ufWuler Rasuurcts. Aysha Basin Develuurr^nl Master PLan. Rewr^ssancuFnasv
Within  the above mentioned  broad  classes of landforms six  farther subdivisions are possible, which  reflect tire genesis of landforms and  two  are occurring  in  the study  area, viz:_Structural(S) and  Volcanic(V) by  lower case small letter relating  to  geomorphic type ( n  moderately dissected  plateau, c =colluvial slopes). The symbols used  to  denote structural and  residual landforms require a total of three characters, the subscripts character identifying  the main  parent material origin  of the landforms are: v=Volcanic, g=Felsic Precambrian  basement, e-Evapcrite, s=Sandstone and c=Calcareous.
Using  the above two  levels 70  geomorphic types were identified  for the country  and  3  occur in the Aysha basin. Finally  these geomorphic units are further subdivided  on  the basis of soil associations which occur within them into final landscape units known as landfacet.
Approximately  380  such  landscape units have been  identified  and  mapped  for the countiy including  Eritrea and  8  of these units occur in  the study  area. Each  these landscape unit is characterized  by  a unique combination  of landfacet considered  to  be fairly  homogeneous in respect of parent material, landform, soils and vegetation.
the ALUP Geomorphology' and  Soils map  is accompanied  by  an  extensive legend  in  which landfacet is described  in  considerable detail. In  general the data were compiled  from the countrywide studies that provided  mapping  of landforms and  soils at 1:1  million  scale, but which were largely  exercises in  imagery' interpretation  with  limited  checks. The maps and  their legends have been  criticized  for being  far too  complex. For these reasons and  for the purpose of Agro- ecological zoning  the ALUP data were further rationalized  by  de Pauw (1988) and  provided  the basis for the landforms and soils data of the present study.
The study  divided  the countiy  into  12  main  Physiographic regions and  mapped  at 1:2.000.000 scale as a basis for agroclimatic zoning. Only  one physiographic region  of these occurs in  the Aysha basin. The differentiation  is based  on  physiography  and  parent material and  c-an  be defined as follows:
Northern  Rift and  Coastal Zoned)): Low altitude plains and  hills (below 1000m) volcanic and rift landforms, mainly  covered  by  shallow soils, and  alluvial*colluvial plains with  soils often affected by salinity’.
The above’mentioned major physiographic region is divided into land units by addition of a i ter capital letter relating to the landform .type, viz: Plateau and plains (P), Hills (H),
a Most°offhXeS ( >
Plahls 311(1
(A), Lava platfonns(L) and Mountains
Coas“ *
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report— 
n
1230000
Fig. 1.1 Land Units and Soils (after de Pauw 1987) Legend
- - - - - - - - Basin boundary
- - - - - - - - International boundary - - - - - - -   Land unit boundary
Not To ScaleMinistry uf Waler Resources. Aysha Basin Qeyelupmenl Master FLun* RecunruusfoncePhas^
Table 1. 1 Description of Land Units and Their Soil Distribution
Soil unit distribution
land 
unit symbol
Land unit description
1 Dominant
Associated
Inclusion
DH!
Moderate relief hills developed on various rocks with plains, low to medium altitude (400-
1200m)
19
21, 24
DL
.
Lava platforms and plains and intensively faulted lava fields with fault scarps and grabens filled with alluvium colluvium, low altitude (below 800 m)
19
21,36
DP!
11
Saline alluvial /colluvial plains , low altitude (below 500 m)
36
24 ---------------- ;
I DP ,
Stony, sandy and saline alluvial fans, low altitude (below 500 m)
23
19
i
1i
;DV
i
Complexes of dissected volcanic piedmont plains, lava platforms, volcanic cones, vents and craters low altitude (below 1000 m)
19 !
17,14  j
1
l
I 1 
j
i
1 .3. Soils
1.3.1 Review of previous soil studies
The only  basic soils map  covering  the Aysha basin  is the ALUP Geomorphology  and  Soils map of Ethiopia. The methodology  behind  the construction  of the legend  and  classification  of rhe geomorphic units has been  discussed  in  section  1.2.1. Following  the delineation  of the landscape boundaries, the existing  and  newly  generated  soils data which  provided  die ground control were used to characterize each land unit.
!?nd   v   -   da-a.   tcpt.'grapluca!   and   geological   maps   also   provided   circumstantial   evidence   to cnaractenze   die   identified   land   units   in   terms   of   then-   soil   types   usimi   the   FAO   classification ^■stem    (1974).    These    data    are    presented    in    the    extended    legend    accompanviris    the    Al    I    T Geomorphology and Soils map.
*
lhe specific features upon which the detailed description of the landscape units were based in ° 1T T3^ 31 e lan.d facets- A land facet may be defined as an ecosystem whin 
some o^/f^r L S1^i v' j'uId -ield data respect of slope, soil, vegetation, parent material and ’?       , f“T’ '' W0““ differ “Shandy from the data relaKd to those radon
hod^rihtdte n'" "'e fMet To be Cbssifie<i“ asisnffle--®'l«ulfeeds. however,
fom™, £7m TP> ’
of 10!“ °r mwe
“f Ite landscape unit of
P •             > use significant land facets were included for description in lhe map legend.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
4The extend  legend  gives a description  of each  significant landfacet, its area, geology, slope range, dominant vegetation  and/or land  use and  soils within  the following  parameters: FAO classification. color, texture, drainage, stones/rock  outcrops, credibility;. depth. pH. organic matter, cation exchange capacity’ and available phosphorus.
The 1:1.000.000  scale ALUP geomorphology  and  soils map  was helpful, during  the reconnaissance field  trip, to  recognize the actual landforms and  soils occurring  within  the unit, and although some discrepancies were noticed.
The above smdv  has been  criticized  by  de Pauw (1988} for its extended  legend  being  large and cumbersome, for not being  easily  understandable and  being  largely  based  on  Landsat MSS imagery interpretation, which did not supported by proper amount of field observations.
The summary of the Agricultural Ecology of Etliiopia (de Pauw. 1988) reapraised the land 
resources section of the AL UP to generate Agro-Ecological Zone comprising combinations of growing period zones (thermal zones and lengths of growing ]
_ 
unique
Tint]is of growim|JC1 |UU> I dil_—Cl >j<_„.•.!j!_>
data.   Therefore,   a   simplified   map   of   Landfonns   and   Soils   were   produced,   v/ni
h i.s essentially a
reworking   of   data   collected   during   the   AL   l’P   project,   fills   resultant aggregating   soil   parameters   based   on   agricultural   uses.   The   study 
sulmraantp m\avap was prepared by* 
y aggregated all the available
data into 36 units, of which 3 major soil units are occurins in on table 1. 2 and 1.3
1.3.2.1   Methodology
the .Aysha basin and are presen led
In the study area there is no detailed reconnaissance or reconnaissance studies on soils.
Therefore, fill! soil surveys will be made during phase H of the project. For the meantime the
study approach is to use the above mentioned de Pauws work as the basis. The land units and 
the soils associated with each land unit were shown in table 1.1 and figure 1.1. fable 1. 2 and
1.3    present   description   and   classification   of   soils   (FAO.   19>'<)   and   range   of   properties   <uch   t- physical and chemical data.
In this manner, for each of the land units defined and mapped the appropriate associations ’has been included. Table 1.1 shows the dominant soil, the associated soils and the minor soils in each land units. The soil is considered dominant, if it occupies at least 40%. associated soil". if they occupy* between 15 and 40% and minor soils, if they do not exceed 15% of the land unit. The soil mapping unit takes its notation from the dominant soil unit
Soil Suive} And Lund Evaluation Report1.3.2.2   Soils of the Northern Rift and Coastal Zone(D)
The Northern  Rift and  Coastal Zone comprises the low altitude plains (below 1000m) with volcanic and  rift landforms,  mainly  covered  by  shallow soils,  and  alluvial colluvial plains wiih soils often affected by salinity. A number of land units are present.
Land  unit DPlr saline alluvial/colluvial plains,  low altitude (below 500m) are composed  soils of various color,  texture,  structure and  drainage but with  moderate fertility  status and  moisture storing properties adversely affected by presence of soluble salts at levels that are high enough to interfere with crop growth. The dominant soil of this units are soils strongly affected by salinity (36) and  inclusion  with  yellowish  or reddish  saline silty  loams to  loamy  sands developed  on alluvium colluvium (24). The units are located around Bri o Gurgur.
Land unit (DP2). stony, sandy and saline alluvial fans, low altitude (below 500 m) are composed of.  well drained  .  deep,  yellowish  brown  to  dark  brown  often  stratified  stony  loams and  loamy 
sands with  moderate natural fertility,  moderate moisture storing  properties major soil unit (23). associated  with  soil unit (19) very  shallow soils with  rock  outcrop.  The unit is located  around Biyo Kobo area.
Land  unit (DV).  complexes of dissected  volcanic piedmont plains,  lava platforms,  volcanic cones, vents and craters low altitude (below 1000 m ) composed of very shallow soils with rock 
outcrop  dominant soils unit(19).  and  associated  with  shallow stony  loams and  loamy  sands (21) and  stratified  alluvial loamy  sands to  silty  loams of levees and  alluvia] fans (27).  The unit is located tc» the south eastern part of the basin.
Land  unit (DL)_.  lava platforms and  plains and  intensively  faulted  lava fields with  fault scarps and grabens filled with alluvium colluvium, low altitude (below 800 m). The dominant »uil& are very  shallow soils wiih  rock  outcrop  (19).  associated  wiih  soils shallow sion\ loams and  loams sands(21) and stratified alluvial clays and clay loams of levees and alluvial fans(26). The unit is located to the north westen part of the basin.
Land unit(DHl). moderate relief hills developed on various rocks with plains, low to medium altitude (400-1200 m). comprises the dominant soils are ven shallow soils with rock outcrop (19). associated with shallow stony loams and loamy sands(21) and yellowish or reddish saline siltx loams to loamy sands (24). The unit is located around Dewele area. The summary of the text is shown in the following tables.
6Ministry   urWaler
A^.a 8u in
S
Mu^r Pj^r.. P^anu^^Phu^
Table 1.2 Description of Soil Units
1 Soil unit no
1  Soil Unit
' Description
(  Soil classilicalion FAO
1988
I
14
Dark greyish brown loams to loamy sands developed on pumice.
Well to somewhat excessively drained, shallow to moderately deep, brown to dark greyish brown clay loams and 
i sandv clay loams often stony with 
• weak structure and pumice close to the 1 surface, high natural fertility’.
Vitric Andosols Eutric Cambisols (often sodic phases)
1 17
1
Shallow  stonv  reddish  I  Well  drained  shallow  stony  sandy  clays  j  Chroma  Cambisols sandy clays to loamy        i to loamy sands with rock outcrop, high , Eutric Cambisols
I
I
sanc s
j
i natural fertility and poor moisture ! Haplic Xerosols
' storing properties due to limited  , Calcic Xerosols
1            rooting depth. 
i Cambic Arenosols
I
I
1
'
(lithic phase)
19
Undifferentiated ven’      ! Complex of rock outcrops,       ver/-stony      ■         Rock Outcrop shallow soils with rock    j soils and ver/ shallow       soils (25 cm).        ' Lithic Leprosols
outcrops
limited moisture storing priorities                     Eutric Regosols
: (Smax <30)
!  (lithic phase)
21             Shallow stonv loams » shallow' stony, dark greyish brown clay • Eutric Regosols and loamy sands               ‘ loams and sandy loams, poor moisture ’ Calcic Xerosols
. storing properties. 
1
Eutric cambisols
’ (lithic phase)
I
23             Stony yellowish                   Well drained , deep, yellowish brown ! Eutric Fluvisols
brown loams to loamy to dark.brown often stratified stony                        • Calcic Fluvisols
sands developed on             loams and loamy sands with moderate . Eutric Regosols
alluvium-colluvium.         ’ natural fertility, moderate moisture                 i IlapHc Xerosols
: storing properties. ’ (
stonv ohase)
24
i
Yellowish or Reddish j saline silty loams to loamy sands developed : on alluvium colluvium ' 
|
Well drained reddish yellow to                       ' Calcic Fluvisols yellowish   brown   often   stratified   saline   ,   Eutric   Regosols silty   loams   to   loamy   sands,   effective   ‘   Calcic   Regosols depth often limited by high salt                     j (saline phase) content, poor moisture storing
properties. 
f
36  i
•|
i
i
j
Soils strongly affected I by salinity
l
1
-- -------------------.----------- l
Soils of varying color, texture.                       • Haplic & Sodic
structure,   consistence   and   drainage   but  ;   Solonchaks
with fertility status and moisture                    i Haplic Gvpsisols                    i storing properties adversely affected by ' (Salic phase)
presence of soluble salts at levels that i
are high enough to interfere with crop 1
_growth 
1
~                          --- —__________ _____ ______________ ______ j
;
'
Soil Survey And Lund Evaluation Report
8Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master Plan, Reconnaissance Phase
Table 1. 3 SOIL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
||So/7
Depth
(cm) 1
Drainage
2
Colour
3
Texture
4
Fertility
5
pH
CEC/clay
TEB
BS%
OM%
AWC
Smax
Salinity dS/m
Sodicity
ESP
14
S-MD
W-SWE
B-DGB
CL-
SCL
H
7-8.5
100
20-50
60-100
2-6
80
40-80
4-15
6-15
17
S
W
u
SC-LS
H
-
-
-
-
-
20
20-40
-
18
S
E
SL-CL
-
-
-
-
-
-
20
30-80
-
19
VS
E
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20
<30
-
I21
S
E
DGB
CL-SL
-
-
-
-
-
-
20
<30
-
I23
D
W
YB-DB
L-LS
M
7-8
40-60
10-25
80-100
0.5-1
70
50-70
-
I24
MD-D
W
RY-YB
ZL-LS
-
-
-
-
-
-
100
40-60
4-15
36
S-D
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
>15
-
Note I                               2                            3                      4                 5
S = Shallow W = Well R = Red C=Clay M=Mod M=Moderat SW = Somewhat B = Brown L= Loam H=High V = Very E = Excessive Y- Yellow S = Sand
D = Deep           M = Moderate       D = Dark          Z = Silt
G= Grey
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
9Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
2 SOIL SURVEY METHODOLOGY FOR PHASE II
The Phase II soil survey will be splited into two parts:
. reconnaissance scale 1:250,000 mapping of the whole Aysha basin ;
• semi-detailed scale 1:50,000 mapping of selected potential areas ;
2.1  Reconnaissance soil survey
The main objectives of reconnaissance soil survey are:
•   to provide basic soils data for the whole basin to facilitate broad planning ,
•   to locate and give initial assessments of areas suitable for intensive
studies;
• to locate and investigate areas, which are unlikely to justify the costs of
more detailed studies such as those suitable only for non-intensive agriculture
or rough grazing.
The reconnaissance soil survey  intensity  is depending  on  soil variability  and  more work  will depend  on  aerial photo  and  satellite imagery  interpretation  for the delineation  of unsuitable areas. 
Satellite Imagery  Mosaics (SIM) at 1:250,000  scales interpretation  supported  by  the existing 1:1,000,000  scale Geomorphology  and  Soils map  prepared  by  (LUPRD,  1984) will be digitized, after adjusting  the scale used  as an  overlay  on  the SIM and  will be used  for plotting  field  data. For selected  problematic area the boundary  will be refined  by  API (1:50,000  scale) used  for the delineation  of physiographic units which  could  be visited  and  typified  in  terms of their soil characteristics.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
10Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master Plan ReconnaissancePhase
The soil mapping  units at the reconnaissance level may  be soil associations,  an  established pattern  of soil units each  related  to  a particular facet of the landscape.  Some mapping  units may be complexes where the soils appear to  bear no  relationship  to  the landforms,  rarely,  individual soils may be mapped where large area are homogeneous.
It is proposed  to  undertake the reconnaissance soil survey  of basin  within  the time scale,  the road and  track  network  as the basic access will be used  with  a combination  of free survey.  The exact location  site will be depending  on  the experience and  judgment of surveyor.  However,  auger boring will be located at regular distance along accessible roads (in principle).
During  the reconnaissance field  trip,  it was attempted  to  know whether the road  network  in  the basin  reaches or not to  the important land  units and  agro-ecological zones.  However time limitation and other miscellaneous constraints it was impossible to cover all units.
About  120  kms  of  road  network  in  the  basin  is  known.  If  every  one  observation  will  be  taken  per 2   km,   this   represents   60   observations.   To   increase   the   observation   density   to   the   standard   level much   number   of   side   traverses   to   be   needed.   Observation   along   potential   sites   will   be   more closely   spaced   depending   on   homogeneity   of   the   soils,   and   it   could   be   an   average   of   between 500-1000m  to  identify  soils  variability.  Soil  augers  will  be  bored  and  described  to  a  depth  of  1.5 meters unless impeded by shallow depth.
Based  on  the  result  of  the  auger  observations  profile  pit  sites  will  be  selected  and  dug  up  to  2 meters, described and sampled.
Hand-held GPS will be used to locate each observation sites on the map.
International   standards   (FAO,   1997)   indicates   that   profile   pits   representative   of   tire   major   soils should be dug to an intensity of at least 2 -3 per major soil units. In principle, the profile pits
should be evenly distributed through out the project area.
However,  areas which  are considered  to  be representative for a larger area with  simiiar relations between  tertarn  and  soil characteristics may  be studied  and  then  win  be extrapo.ated  to  simitar
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
11MinislrV of
Water Resource. 
Rosin Developme
nt Master P'^ Reconnaiss
ance Phase
areas
covered   by 
less
intensive
fieldwork.   At
present
it
is
impossible
to  predict
the
number
of
soil units that will occur .
Assumed  to  be 5%of the total auger observation  will be represented  by  profile pits,  this translates to  about 3  profile pits will be required.  Therefore the total number of auger and  profile pit observation  could  be 63  corresponds to  1  per 68  km2.  This figure falls within  the acceptable ranges viz.  1/1  Okm2 - 1/100km2.  Profile pits will be dug  to  2m and  described  according  to  FAO Guideline for Soil Profile Description  (1988) and  classify  according  to  FAO 1994  Revised Legend.
Soil samples will be analyzed for the following parameters.
•   pH 1:2.5 water suspension ;
•   EC saturated paste , if pH>8 ;
•   Exchangeable cations, Ca, Mg, K, Na ;
•   Derived TEB, BS % and ESP from above ;
•   Available P, Bray I for acid soils and Olsen for neutral and saline soils
•   Organic Carbon (Walkly Black);
•   Total Nitrogen , Keldjhal ;
•   Particle size , pipette or Bougoucos hydrometer method ;
Bulk  density  and  moisture  content  at  Field  Capacity  and  Permanent  Wilting  Point  will  be
sampled and analyzed at selected sites.
Soils data collection  format and  GIS data base to  be used  in  the project must be fully  met all standard  requirements,  and  should  be developed  for the Aysha basin  project and  prepared  by  the Senior soil scientist to be nominated for the project.
2.2   Semi detailed soil survey
Most  of  the  basin  areas  are  flat  land,  with  much  rock  ,  stone  and  sand  surfaces.  Saline/sodic  soils also occur in the study area. The WAPCOS study indicated
that there is no surface water
SoilSuT^y And Land Evaluatio^R^?
12Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan. Reconnaissance Phase
resource   potential   for   irrigation   development.   Ground   water   may   be   used   for   the   development, if its qualit is acceptable. These all need further verification.
Therefore,  the soil survey  plan  for semi-detailed  soil survey  will be depending  on  the results of reconnaissance soils and  water resources survey  after the production  of 1:250,000  scale soils map  to  delineate more potential areas depending  on  the priority,  land  and  the water resources availablity.  These are the basic resources to  determine the extent of areas to  be surveyed  at semi detailed level.
After   obtaining   the   required   data,   the   procedure   for   the   semi   detailed   soil   survey   will   be   as follows.
The   main   distinguishing   characteristics   of   the   semi   -detailed   soil   survey   from   the   reconnaissance will be:
•   The traverse or the transact lines basically may not follow the road 
networks;
•   Auguring depth will be 2m and above where ever possible ;
•   Observation density will be between 50 - 100 ha ;
Pit   density   will  be   more   than   5%   of   auger   observations   and   3-5   pits   per major soil mapping unit will be described ;
•   Deep auguring up to 5 m will be undertaken at a density considered sufficient to describe the soils of a given area, to check sub-surfaces ;
•    soil physical tests like infiltration rates and hydraulic conductivity will be under taken on the most favorable sites.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report----------------Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
They  are  intended  to  be  indicative  only  of  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  main  irrigable  soils. These tests can be undertaken at a rate of one site in triplicate per day.
The  semi-detailed  soil  survey  at  1:50,000  scale  is  intended  to  typify  the  soils  of  areas  considered relatively most suitable for further development i.e. irrigation .
Most of the time semi-detailed  soil survey  will be done by  walking  and  auguring  along  transects. The observation  density  is about 1  per 75ha.  The average achievement per team is estimated  to be 5  auger observation  per day,  since auguring  depth  is 2m.  Deep  auguring,  pit description,  soil physical tests,  camping  and  decamping,  health  problem,  vehicle maintenance etc.  are major time consuming  factors during  the survey.  However,  based  on  experience,  surveying,  mapping  and reporting of 100,000ha will take about 8 months.
3.   AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONATION
3.1  Previous Studies
The agro-climatic resources inventory  for land  use planning  (LUPRD,  1988  a) presented  an  agro- climatic map  at 1:1,000,000  scale,  which  is a combination  of thermal zones and  length  of growing  period  map.  This map  was combined  with  the geomorphology  and  soils map  into  a land resources map  at 1:1,000,000  scale.  The study  of de Pauw (1988) is a reworking  and improvement of the LUPRD project,  resulting  in  a description  and  map  of agro-ecological zones at 1:2,000,000 scale. The Reconnaissance Phase of Aysha Basin Study is based on this study.
The  concepts  of  growing  periods  and  thermal  zones,  and  their  integration  with  land  units  into agro-ecological zones will be discussed in the appropriate sections.
3.2 Agro-Ecological Regions
Agroecological zones can  be defined  as a natural regions characterized  by  a fairly  homogeneous climate,  physiography,  soils,  vegetation  and  animal species that typify  the area.  Precipitation and  temperature are the two  major climatic elements which  play  an  important role in  the
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
14Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
determination  of the biomass density  productivity  and  community  composition,  distribution  of species in  any  agro-ecological zone.  Hence certain  ranges of thermal and  moisture conditions together with  information  on  physiography,  soils and  vegetation  data could  help  to  delineate agro-ecological zones.  For broader planning  agro-ecological zones,  can  be aggregated  into  agro- ecological regions.
By  integrating  data on  rainfall,  potential Evapotranspiration,  growing  periods,  temperature regimes,  landforms and  soil,  de Pauw defined  140  agro-ecological zones,  which  were mapped  at 1:2,000,000  scale,  of which  only  three agro-ecological zones are occurring  in  the Aysha basin 
and appended to this report.
The zones can  be regrouped  into  15  agro-ecological regions,  of which  only  one major agro- ecological region  (Northern  Rift Valley) is represented  in  the Aysha basin,  and  where as its distinguishing  characteristics are ; mainly volcanic landforms with  shallow soils and  some alluvial plains,  often  salt-affected.  Growing  periods inadequate for crop  production  without fill irrigation. Prospects for irrigation may be restricted by very high consumptive water use.
The   rational   for   grouping   individual   environmental   parameters   into   agro-ecological   zones   is   to interpret their interaction interns of agricultural potential and constraints.
3.3  Thermal Zones
The ALUP project delineated  10  thermal zones in  the country.  These were rationalized  by  de Pauw (1988) into  6  zones in  which  temperature and  altitude traditionally  vary  within  fairly  fixed ranges, of which two are occurring in the Aysha basin are indicated in table 3.
The  thermal  zonation  is  in  fact  an  altitude  zonation.  Temperature  can  be  readily  estimated  from altitude  because  the  correlation  between  the  two  variables  is  generally  vary  in  the  country.  This is  done  by  regression  analysis.  The  standard  error  on  the  estimate  of  temperature  from  altitude  is about 1.2° C.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
15Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan. ReconnaissancePhase
Table 3. 1 Thermal Zones (after de Pauw, 1988)
Traditional
Zones
Altitude
(m.a.s.l)
Temperature
(°C)
Bereha/lower-kolla - T1
Kolla (upper kolla) - T2
< 500/800
500/800-1500/1600
>26/27.5
26/27.5 -21.0
The  above  zonation  adopted  in  the  country  is  the  traditional  system  and  it  appears  to  be  very useful for different reasons.
•  There  is  a  good  correlation  between  the  altitude  zones  and  the  broad  crop groups that are climatologically adapted;
•     The  boundaries  are  600-800m  or  about  5°C  apart  which  makes  allowance for the wide range of thermal adaptability of crops;
•   The terms are reasonably standard and well understood by local farmers ;
•   Various   sources   give   fairly   fixed   altitude   boundaries   for   the   different zones,   which   differ   by   a   few   hundred   meters   only   or   a   temperature equivalent of 2°C.
Lists of crops adaptability for each thermal zones T1 &T2 are indicated in table 3.2
Soil Survey And Lahd Evaluation Report
161230000
Fig. 3.1 Agroecological zones (after de Pauw 1987)
Legend
- - - - - - -   Basin boundary
— — International boundary
Agroecological zones boundary
Not To Scale1230000
Fig.     3.2     Thermal     zones (after de Pauw 1987)
Legend
- - - - - - -  Basin boundary
- - - - - - -  International boundary
- - - - - - -  Thermal zones boundary
Not To Scale1230000
z
i i 1
----- -z
---- z
/ /
/
r
1210000
1190000
1170000
1150000
1130000
1110000
220000
240000
260000
280000
Not To ScaleMinistry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
Table 3. 2 Crop Adaptability for Thermal Zones (After de Pauw , 1988)
Thermal zones
Crop group
T1
T2
Cereals
Millet
Maize
Sorghum
Rice
Millet
Maize
Sorghum
Rice
Legumes and oil seeds
Cowpea
Sunflower
Safflower
Sesame
Cowpea
Sunflower
Safflower
Sesame
Haricot bean
Root crops and industrials
Cotton
Sweet-potato
Cassava
Sugar cane
Cotton
Sweet-potato
Cassava
Sugar cane
Citrus
Chili
Coffee
3.4  Growing Period Zones
Length  of growing  period  is defined  as the period  (in  days) during  a year,  when  moisture supply from precipitation  and  stored  soil moisture exceeds half the potential Evapotranspiration  (PET) and  that the mean  daily  temperatures doesn’t come below 50C during  a 10  days period.  During the year when  there is rainfall deficit,  the storage is used-up  to  satisfy  Evapotranspiration requirements. So three different moisture period can be differentiated:
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
18Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, ReconnaissancePhase
• Humid periods with a moisture supply in excess of PET
• Moist or intermediate periods during which PET exceeds the moisture
supply.
• Dry periods during which the moisture supply does not exceed half of PET
Growing  periods  can  be  differentiated  into  normal  growing  periods  and  intermediate  growing periods.
A  normal  growing  period  includes  one  or  more  humid  periods  besides  moist  periods.  An intermediate  growing  period  includes  a  moist  period  only.  During  an  intermediate  growing period it is unlikely that crop water requirements will be fully meet. Yield expectations therefore are smaller than for a normal growing period. A dormant period is a period in which crop growth is interrupted because of low temperature (<50C).
Therefore, the length of the growing period is the time in days in which the moisture supply from precipitation  and  soil water storage exceeds half the value of PET,  minus the length  of any dormant period.
In order to include an agricultural site analysis de Pauw developed the concept of the dependable growing period, which is defined as the maximum growing period to be equaled or exceeded in 4 years out of 5. The aim of growing period analysis is to identify that part of the year in which neither water nor temperature are limiting  to  agricultural production.  Growing  period  length  and onset dates can  be estimated  for different planting  months,  and  by  comparison  the best planting can be selected, maximizing the available growing period.
Matching  of crop  duration  with  growing  period  is the key  to  consistent yields,  in  particular in areas with  deficient rainfall.  It is important to  select crop  varieties with  cycles to  maturity  that are in  the same range as the dependable growing  period.  In  all cases the choice of cropping patterns will need  to  be based  on  a thoughtful consideration  of the reliability  of growing  period length and onset.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
19Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan. Reconnaissance Phase
As an in put to agro-ecological zoning de Pauw has given criteria for the subdivision of the country relevant for agricultural planning, 53 growing period zones have been differentiated on map at 1:2,000,000 scale of which only two growing period zones are identified in the Aysha basin and its description is shown below and its distribution is indicated in fig. 3 .3
3.4.1 Description of growing period zones in the Aysha basin
Areas without significant growing period(N) :
These areas do not have a growing period from rainfall that is adequate to support even a drought resistant crop in years. The rainfall amounts are so limited that the crop water requirements will need to be met almost entirely by full irrigation from permanent water resources. Four types of such zones existing in the country of which only two zones are represented in the basin.
Zone-No Annual PET is extremely high and in the range of 2700-3000 mm.
All climatic factors contribute to the very high temperatures (mean maxima of 40-43 degree Centigrade in some months), very low humidity and very strong desiccating winds.
Zone-N2 Annual PET is very high (2000-2200mm).
In general these areas have somewhat higher rainfall than the other N-zones, and it might therefore be useful to include these, although still unreliable, rainfall amounts in the assessment of irrigation and storage requirements.
3. 5 Methodology For Phase II Study
For agro-ecological zoning study, the methodology developed by FAO will be used. The survey will be made for regional planning rather than national. It will need a higher level of detail in the classification of agro-ecological zones and the delineation of more homogeneous mapping units. Mapping will be more accurate when results on soils, landform, landuse/cover, farming systems and other relevant studies from the reconnaissance surveys are made available.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
20Ministry of Water Resources. Avsha Basin Developmenl Master PLan, RecannaissancePhas'
4.   LAND SUITABILITY
4.1 Introduction
Land  suitability  evaluation  is  a  method  to  compare  the  suitability  of  different  kinds  of  land  for specific purpose. Land evaluation serves as a basis for land use planning.
The objective of land  use planning  is to  influence,  control or direct changes in  land  use so  that the land  is put to  the most beneficial use while maintaining  the quality  of the environment at the same time.
The land  suitability  assessment is based  on  the FAO “ Framework  for Land  Evaluation  (1976). The framework  is a set of principles and  on  the basis of which  national,  regional and  local evaluation  system can  be established.  The guidelines for evaluating  for rainfed  and  irrigated agriculture have been given by FAO (1983, 1985).
4.  2 Land Suitability’ Methodology
The FAO framework for land evaluation is based on the following main basic principles:
•           Land suitability is assessed and classified with respect to specified kind of land use ;
•              Evaluation  must  be  made  in  terms  relevant  to  the  physical,  economic  and  social  context of the area concerned
•            Suitability refers to use on a sustained basis ;
•           Evaluation involves the comparison of more than one land use type ;
In  the FAO system,  there are 2  suitability  orders: suitable and  not suitable.  Suitable land(S) is that on  which  sustained  use of the kind  under consideration  is expected  to  yield  benefits which justify  the inputs,  without unacceptable risk  to  the environment.  Unsuitable.land  (N) is that land 
which  has qualities that appear to  preclude sustained  use of the kind  under consideration.  The order “ suitable “ can  be divided  into  three classes;highly  (S,  ),  moderately  (S2) and  marginally 
(S ).  These
3
suitability  classes
Sb S
:
and  S3   indicate  relative  suitability,  to  reflect  decreasing 
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
21Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, ReconnaissancePhase
benefits or increasing  costs for sustained  production.  Suitable land  is profitable and  suitability classes indicate levels of suitability.  In  more detailed  assessments land  suitability  subclasses serve to  subdivide suitability  classes to  indicate the kind  of limitation  or main  kinds of improvement measures required  within  classes,  eg  83m: marginally  suitable because of moisture deficiency. More than one subclass symbol can be used if appropriate.
The type of evaluation  is related  to  the nature of data collected  in  the field  or intensity  of the survey  and  the results can  be expressed  in  qualitative or quantitative terms.  In  the present study land  evaluation  will be qualitative,  that is relative suitability  expressed  in  qualitative terms only, without specific estimates of outputs (crop  yields),  inputs or cost and  returns.  The classification is based  on  mainly  on  the physical production  potential for the land,  with  economics present at the background.  Qualitative evaluation  are normally  appropriate for low intensity  surveys of large regions and  for a variety  of uses,  resulting  in  the identification  of areas for particular crops, for further project feasibility  studies.  This type of evaluations have a relatively  longtime validity, that is,  the results remain  valid  for a number of years.  Quantitative land  suitability  classification is one in  which  the results are expressed  in  numerical terms which  permit comparison  between suitability’s for different types of use and  form part of the feasibility  or development studies.  The overall procedures in land evaluation include the following steps:
•           Selection and description of land use types to be considered ;
•           Determination of the requirements of each selected land utilization types ;
•             Description  of  land  mapping  units  and  translation  of  the  land  characteristics  of  each  land mapping units into land qualities ;
•           Matching;
•           Presentation of results ;
In  the  present  study  the  above  mentioned  land  evaluation  methodology  will  be  followed  and  will be described in the following sections.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
22________
4.3 Land Resource Assessment And Evaluation
The land evaluation exercise that was undertaken by the ALUP in terms of .and suttab.hty 
agriculture will be briefly assessed in this section. The land suitability assessment rn the presen 
study has to be tentative, since no new data are available. However, the results of potential and 
constraints to agricultural development are briefly discussed.
4.3.1  Methods
The land resource map produced by ALUP provide valuable data on the physical and climatic
data resources of the country. The land evaluation was carried out on these data. The
requirements of different land uses were matched to these physical resources. The physical
resources were the land characteristics and land qualities of the soil management units (effective
soil depth, slope, texture, drainage, erosivity, slope, stoniness, pH and salinity / sodisity) and 
agro- climatic data (Thermal Zones and Length of Growing Period).
The description  of land  utilization  types in  Ethiopia have been  given  by  ALUP (1984d); The land utilization  types (LUTs) were 20  crop  combinations,  based  on  rainfed  crop  production,  selected from an  initial list of 102  crops and  4  other LUTs - namely,  irrigated  agriculture,  forestry, protective forestry and livestock production. The 46 crops were combined into 20 crop
combinations,  so  that each  combination  contains crops,  which  have approximately  similar crop environmental characteristics,  within  each  combination  one crop  was identified  as the representative,  environmental characteristics of which  broadly  characterize those needed  by  the remaining  crops in  the combination.  However,  the word  crop  combination  doesn’t imply  that much  crops should  necessarily  form farming  system or crop  pattern.  Although  such  grouping makes sense in  some aspects,  the actual crop  combinations in  the Aysha basin  may  differ to some extent and should be verified during the phase II study.
The ALUP project prepared a summary of crop requirements for 46 selected crops, based on review of existing literature and consuitation of local experts. These requirements are given as
standard form for 9 land qualities and land characteristics. The level of managementMinistry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, ReconnaissancePhase
considered  is low to  medium,  representing  peasant farmers and  peasant farmers cooperatives respectively.  The crop  requirements,  in  terms of the 9  land  qualities are given  in  LUPRD Land Evaluation  Reports,  Parts 1  to  4.  In  this manner a detailed  environmental requirements parameter description  were made for 46  land  use types.  For the matching  of the crop requirements and  land  characteristics the 20  crop  combinations and  the soil management units were combined  to  give one map  of Land  Potential Map  and  22  land  suitability  for each  of the land use types.
4. 3.2 Potential for rainfed agriculture
The  basin  does  not  have  Potential  for  rainfed  agriculture.  Due  to  the  factors  discussed  in  section 3.4.1.  The  development  potential  of  the  basin  is  discussed  by  agro-ecological  zones  in  chapter  3 and constraints to development are discussed below.
Climatic constraints
The growing period zone of the basin is discussed in section 3. It indicates that within the basin there is no areas where rainfall is adequate to meet the requirements of arable agriculture. The only growing period zones located in the basin is N  and N  which are unsuitable for rainfed 
o2
agriculture .
SoiZ constraints
The soil constraints can be described in terms of physical and chemical properties or group of
properties. The main physical and chemical constraints are fertility, adverse effect of impeded 
and excessive drainage, rooting conditions (soil depth, texture, stoniness), salinity and sodisity. 
These section briefly outlines the main physical and chemical soil constraints of the study area.
Rooting  conditions ‘.-Significant areas of shallow stony  soils occur within  the basin.  The shallow stony  soils are not conducive to  irrigated/rainfed  agriculture due to  their poor rooting conditions and  low water holding  capacity.  In  the basin  shallow soils occur throughout,  but predominate in the land unit DH1, DV and DL.
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation ReportMinistry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
Fertility  :-The majority  of the soils in  the basin  have moderate to  high  fertility  levels,  however, most of them are deficient in  phosphorus and  nitrogen,  with  low organic matter levels.  Therefore crop  responses to  NP fertilizer will be expected  in  the study  area.  Most of the soils in  the basin have PH levels of between 7 to 8.5 . Most part of the basin have soils with pH levels higher than
8,   which are associated with saline/ sodic soils.
4.3.3  Potential For Irrigated Agriculture
Factors such  as water availability,  security,  distance to  market,  economic viability  and  other socio-economic have greater importance in  development of irrigation,  in  addition  to  soil factors. Soil constraints to  irrigation  development are mainly  salinity/sodicity  and  impeded  drainage. Therefore all these should  be considered  and  attention  be paid  to  these problems during  the Phase II study.
4.4. Land Evaluation Methodology For Phase II
4.4.1  General
In the phase II of these study the methodology outlined by FAO (1976, 1983 and 1985) will be
followed. Land evaluation is a method to compare the suitability of different tracts of land for
specified alternative forms of rural land use, taking into account both physical and socio
economic considerations and conservation of environmental resources for future use.
The following basic pattern may be followed during the phase II land evaluation.
Pre- fieldwork
At this phase the intensity of the survey, logistics and field survey program will be calculated, e available data, and matenals from different organizations will be iully collected and
A “ .™ d“ ,O U “ “,ed by
n
LUTS will be identified.
--- -U »= defined. The proposedMinistry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
Field work
The main activities to be carried out during the field survey program are:
.   land   resource   surveys   (soils,   slope,   landform,   etc)   on   which   the   land   unit   and   soil   mapping is  based.  An  area  of  land  has  to  be  divided  in  the  land  mapping  units,  who  are  mapped  areas of   land   with   specific  characteristics  that  are  used  as  basis  for  land  evaluation.  The  relevant land qualities and characteristics will be estimated or measured.
•  studies  of  the  land  utilization  types,  eg.  farming  system  types,  land  use  system  types  and  their inputs  and  outputs  which  may  be  of  economic  or  non-economic  nature,  The  land  use  to  be considered   are   those   that   are   relevant   to   physical   ,   economic   and   social   conditions   of   the study   area.   The   concerned   group   will   carry   out   surveys   which   enables  them  to   identify   the farming   systems,   leading   to   more   detailed   investigation   in   to   crop   types,   cropping   pattern, farm budgets and economic analysis of the areas.
Post Field work
During   this   phase  the  relevant  LUTs  will  be  defined  and  described,  land  resources  mapped  and described, land use requirements determined, matching and presentation of results carried out.
Land Utilization Types (LUTs): The kinds of land  use to  be considered  are those that are relevant to  physical,  economic and  social conditions of the study  area.  Major kinds of land  use on  the area are: irrigated  agriculture (if water resource is available),  livestock  production  and wildlife conservation.
Land Utilization Type (LUT ) is a specific type of land use described and defined in a greater
detail than that of the major kind of land use. In the phase II study the kinds of land use to be considered will be land utilization types and combinations of these (cropping patterns). The level
of detail with which these relevant land use types in the basin are described should match the
level of detail with the land units which are mapped and described.
Land  Use  Requirement,  :  Determination   of   land   use   requirements,   that   is   the   environmental conditions favorable or adverse to each of the selected and defined land utilization types. Crop
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
26Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
requirements are land  use requirements which  is related  to  environmental and  crop  physiology. Land  use requirements are expressed  in  terms of land  qualities,  together with  the ranges of suitability  for the land  characteristics describing  each  land  quality.  Land  qualities and characteristics are properties of land mapping units.
A   land   qualityJs   an   attribute   of   land   which   acts   in   a   distinct   manner   in   its   influence   on   the suitability   of   the   land   for   specific   type   of   use.   Examples   of   land   qualities   are   erosion   hazard, moisture  availability,  rooting  conditions,  etc.  A  land  characteristic  is  an  attribute  of  land  that  can be  measured  or  estimated  and  which  can  be  used  as  a  means  to  describe  land  qualities,  examples of land characteristics are effective soil depth , slope angle, pH, CEC etc.
A   general   listing   of   crop   requirements   was   prepared   by   LUPRD   for   the   small   scale   mapping. However,   for   the   phase   II   study   additional   and   a   more   detailed   crop   requirements   assessment will   be   required   for   land   evaluation   to   be   carried   out   both   at   reconnaissance   and   semi-detailed level.
Description of land mapping  units and land qualities: The land  resource data required  for land  evaluation  are geomorphology,  soils,  climate and  present land  use /cover,  which  will be collected  during  the resource surveys and  will be supplemented  by  the existing  previous studies. The different thematic maps will be combined  by  over laying  into  land  resources map  at
1:250,000   scale.   The   resultant   individual   land   mapping   units   with   specified   characteristics   will then be used as a basis for the land evaluation.
Matching: Land  suitability  classification  involves the comparison  of the land  qualities of each land  mapping  unit with  the requirements of each  land  utilization  type.  This comparison  is part of the matching  process.  These partial suitability's for separate land  qualities must be combined  to come to  the overall suitability  of the land  mapping  unit for land  utilization  type.  The suitability can be made according to current or potential conditions.
Presentation: Land suitability assessment results can be presented in a series of maps, each indicating the suitability of the area under consideration for a particular LUT and an accompanying standard report. The land suitability maps will be prepared at 1:250,000 and 
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
27Ministry of Water Resources, /iysha Basin Development Master PLan, ReconnaissancePhase
1:50,000 scale for the reconnaissance and semi-detailed studies respectively. In summary the outputs of the land suitability classification will be:
• a proper description of the land utilization types and their land use requirements;
• a land suitability map for each land utilization type, showing the
suitability rating of each land mapping unit
• summary tables showing suitability ratings and areas of each land mapping units
28Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan. ReconnaissancePhqse
REFERENCES
1. AACM, 1987: a simple system for defining agro-ecological zones in Ethiopia
2.  ALUP, land evaluation part I -IV
3.  Assistance to Land Use Planning Ethiopia. FAO-LUPRD, 1984:
AG: DP.ETH/78/003.
4.  LUPRD, 1984a: Technical Report 2. Agroclimatic Resources Inventory for Land Use planning Vol 1 and 2.
5.  LUPRD, 1984e: Technical Report 5.3 Land evaluation, Crop environmental requirements.
6.  LUPRD, 1984g: Technical Report 10. Guidelines for land use planning.
7.  LUPRD, 1984h: Field Document 3. Geomorphology and Soils.
8.  LUPRD, 1984i: Geomorphology and Soils Map Legend 1:1,000,000 Scale.
9.  LUPRD, 1984j:Geomorphology and Soils Map 1 :l,000 000 scale Harer sheet.
10. Bruggeman, H.Y., 1988: Landforms and Soils. In de Pauw, E., 1988, Chapter 5.
11. de Pauw, E., 1988: a summary of the agricultural ecology of Ethiopia. FAO, Rome. 1988
12. FAO, 1978: Report on the Agro-Ecological Zones Project. Vol 1: Methodology
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
29Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLan^
Reconnaissance Phase
and Results for Africa. World Soil Resources Report 48, Rome.
13 FAO, 1986: Soil survey investigations for irrigation. Soils Bulletin 42. FAO
Rome.
14 FAO, 1990: Guidelines for soil description, 3rd edition
15.  FAO-Unesco, 1990: Soil Map of the World. Revised Legend with corrections,
16. Omo-Gibe River Basin Reconnaissance Phase Land Resources Study.
Richard Woodroof and Associates, EVDSA 1993 Addis Abeba .
17.  Rift Valley Lakes Basin Reconnaissance Phase Master Plan Land Resources Stud} Final report, HALCROW ,1991 Addis Abeba , EVDSA.
18 Preliminary Water Resources Development Master Plan for Ethiopia
Volume IV , Annex D , Soils and Landuse
19. Word Soil Resources Report 60; Technical Report 20, ISRIC,Wageningen,1994
SoilSurveyAnd Land Evald^R^Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, ReconnaissanctPhase
Appendix:
Agro - Ecological Zones of the Aysha Basin
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
31Ministry of Water Resources. Aysha Basin Development Master PLnn Reconnaissanc'Phase
-----------------  AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONE NR3
Area: 393 sq. km____________________________ ________________ ________ AGRICULTURAL CLIMATE:
Main thermal zone(s): T1
Main growing periad zones(s) : NO________ ______ _________ — PHYSIOGRAPHY:
Main land units: DL 
w
 .
Description  :  Volcanic  lndforms,  usually  very  dissected  an  faulted  with  limited depressions filled with alluvium /colluvium, low altitude (<800 m).
SOLLS:                                                            ’
Main Soil units : 19
Other soil unites: 21,36
Description  :  Very  shallow  soils  predominant;  some  alluvial  soils  which  are  most  lilely salt - affected.__________________________________
VEGETATION/LAND USE:
Proportion cultivated area :             %
Main vegetation types :
FARMING SYSTEMS/ CROPPING PATTERNS
pastoralism. herds mainly composed of camels and goats, although
cattle may be present in unspecified numbers.
DATA/KNOWLEDGE GAPS:                                                                                           "—--------- No Specific information on pastoral systems.
No rainfall series, no relative hummidity data.
SUMMARY OF PHYSICAL POTENTIAL AND CONSTRAINTS--------------------------------------- CONSTRAINTS: growingperiod from rainfall is inadequate to support even a drought -
resistant crop in most years. The crop water requirement needs to be met almost entirely by full irrigation from permanent watersources. Irrigation potential may be limited by extremely high consumptive water use and by presence of very shallow and of saltaffected soils.
POTENTIAL: not immediately indentifable
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report"
32Ministry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, Reconnaissance Phase
r          AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONE NR4
Area: 3,169 sq.km
AGRICULTURAL CLIMATE:------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Main thermal zone (s): Mainly T1
|Main growing period zones (s) N2
PHYSIOGRAPHY:                                                                                                                      — Main land units: DL, DPI, DH1, DV
Description:    Generally    volcanic    landforms,    usually    very    dissected    and    faulted    or (hilly with some salt-affected alluvial/colluvial plains, low altitude (<500m)
SOILS:
Main soil units: 19, 36
Other soil units: 17, 14, 21,24
Description:    Very    shallow    soils    predominant;    some    alluvial    soils    which    are    most (likely salt-affected.
VEGETATION/LAND USE:
Proportion cultivated area: %
Main vegetation types:
FARMING SYSTEMS/CROPPING PATTERNS:
Pastoralism.    Hers    mainly    composed    of    camels    and    goats,    although    cattle    may    be 1]present in unspecified numbers.
1DATA/KNOWLEDGE GAPS:
T slo specific information on pastoral systems. T4o windspeed data
S UMMARY OF PHYSICAL POTENTIAL AND CONSTRAINTS CCONSTRAINTS: Growing period from rainfall is inadequate to support even a d rought-resista-nt crop in most years. The crop water requirement needs to be rrlet almost entirely by full irrigation from permanent water sources. However, hind does not appear irrigable owing to severe topographical limitations and 
d ominance of shallow or salt affected soils. P OTENTIAL: not immediately identifable. 
I
33
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation ReportMinistry of Water Resources, Aysha Basin Development Master PLan, ReconnaissancePhase
AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONE NR6
Area: 749 sq. km_____________________ _______________________ _______________________ AGRICULTURAL CLIMATE:
Main thermal zone(s): T2
Main growing period zones(s): N2_______________________ ______________________________ PHYSIOGRAPHY:
Main land units: DP2
Description: stony, sandy alluvial fans,low altitude (<500m)_________________________________ SOILS:
Main soil units: 23,19
Other soil units: 21,24
Description:Complex  of  well  drained,  deep  stony,  sandy  to  loamy  soils  with  moderate natural fertility and moisture storing properties with very shallow soils.________________________
VEGETATION/LAND USE:
Proportion cultivated area:                      %
Main vegetation types:
FARMING SYSTEMS/CROPPING PATTERNS:
Pastoralism.  Hers  mainly  composed  of  camels  and  goats,  although  cattle  may  be  present in unspecified numbers.
DATA/KNOWLEDGE GAPS:
Investigate  water  resources  availablefor  irrigation.  If  available,  conduct  soil  surveys  to map high potential soils for irrigation.
No data on temperature, relative humidity, radiation and windspeed.
SUMMARY OF PHYSICAL AND CONSTRAINTS
CONSTRAINTS: Growing period from rainfall is inadequate to support even a drought - resistant crop in most years. The crop water requirement needs to be met almost entirely by full irrigation from permanent water sources. Water resources for irrigation may be limited but this requires a separate assessment.
POTENTIAL: Topography and soils may be suitable for irrigation.
—
•ji
i
i J •
Soil Survey And Land Evaluation Report
34Ministry of Water Resources, Basin Development Studv Department Avsha Basin Reconnaissance Phase Study
THE FEEFRAI DF\ fOf'RATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MLXTSTRY OF HATER RESOURCES
AYSHA BASIC RECOUM4ISSA.UCE PHASE MASTER PLAC
Velum
>
' .iturai Resources Sruch
A- Geology & Mineralogs B- Geomorphology & Soils
I .and use'Coveij D-forestry
F.- Energy
F-Wildlife & TourismGJ IQ — 
GJ IQ
2
Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. INTRODUCTION"
1.1 Objectives of the study
1.2 General information of the basin'
1.3 Factors affecting land use and Natural vegetation'
PAGE
1.3.1 Climate.......................................................................................................................................................;
1.3.2 Topography..................................................................................................................................... -: 1.3.3 Population1
2.  METHODS AND PROCEDURES1
2.1 Methods(
Field
procedures<
TFHieEl Ld AmaNtDe UriaSlEs A■ ND LAND COVER MAPPING DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATION7
Definitions7
Classification................................................................................................. ............................................. 8
The      present      land      use      and      land      cover      classification      Criteria      and      reigned9
4. RESULTS
4. i Discription of the present land use and land cover Mapping unitsI o
5. DATA ANALYSIS
6.  CONCILIATION AND RECOMMENDATION
6.1 Conclusions
6.2  Recommendation 7.  REFERENCES.....
16
.... -16
...... 16Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
Thcland use and land cover of the Aysha basin
1. Introduction
3
This reconnaissance study  of the land  use and  land  cover,  presents the result of sector study  which  is conducted  as part of the integrated  regional development master plan study  of the Aysha dry  basin.  The land  use section  gives First hand  (General information on  present major rural land  use and  indicative the extent and  distribution  of different vegetation types in the area.
The study  also  gives information  on  the major land  using  activities,  and  natural cover types in the basin as the result of the land use and land cover study, the present land use and  land  cover map  at ascale of 1:1000000  and  the present existing  datas are presented with the extent and percentage of each mapping unit in the map.
There is no  any  information  on  the present land  use/land  cover in  the regions 5,  wiiich  is making  appropriate resent data collection  of the basin.  This report is prepared  based  on the limited  literature and  the section  own  surveys and  observations incorporated  with  the previous land use and land cover Maps of the LUPRD (1984 odenyo).
1.1 Objectives of the study
The main objectives for this part of the study is:-
-  To assess the present land use and land cover of the basin
-  To collect all existing data from development projects, Regional and zonal offices.
-  To make quantification and mapping of present major rural Land use and to indicate the extent and distribution of different vegetation types in the area.
-   Latter assimilation and preliminary analysis of the information collected, and preparation of a detailed work plan for phase II and phase III studies
Ministry of Water Resorces River Basin Development Studies Department
January 2000Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
1.2 General information of the basin
4
The Aysha dry  basin  is located  (found) in  the eastern  part of Ethiopia which  is bounded  to the Djibouti Republic in  the north  the Awash  river basin  to  the south  and  west and  the Somalia Republic to  the east.  All the areas of in  the basin  are locate in  the arid  and  semi- arid zones of east Ethiopia.
The climate is influenced  largely  (totally) by  its proximity  to  the maritime influence of the Gulf of Aden  and  Indian  Ocean  all the basin  Low Rainfall condition  prevails in  most parts of the basin  areas.  Due to  this the mean  annual rainfall fails to  reflect the available (amount) and  distribution,  and  therefore is un  inadequate guideline for the efficient management of natural vegetation and land use (to agricultural activities).
Information was not available on the altitudnal range of the basin However, from the readings made during the field trip, the altitude at Aysha tawn is 800m and it descends 200m at Dewele tawn. Generally most areas of the basin have low elevation. The slop of most places in the basin ranges 0-8% and in southern part of the basin may have high elevation in some places 15-30% slope.
1.3 Factors affecting land use and Natural vegetation
The Land use and Land cover of an area is affected by
-  Climate
-  Topography
-  Population distribution
Mlnisuy of Water Rworces Kiver tte.n D.,.|opme„, p.
January 2000Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
1.3.1  Climate
5
Climate has an  important influence on  the nature of the natural vegetation,  the characteristics of the soils,  the crops that can  be grown  and  the type of farming  that can be practiced  in  any  region.  The influence of climate on  land  use activity  and  vegetation cover of an area depending on the amount and distribution of rainfall and temperature.
By  the time of field  observation  and  interviewing  the farmers in  the basin  areas,  climate here is with  low total rainfall in  one short wet season,  and  a long  dry'  season.  Due to  this transition  from wetter to  drier cnditions is reflected  in  gradual transition  in  the natural vegetation  from semi-evergreen  trees through  various types of deciduous seasonal trees and  finally,  to  thorn  woodlands and  thickets.  These are clearly  seeh  in  some areas of the basin.
The  basin  located  (found)  in  the  arid  or  semi-arid  zones  of  the  country’  and  the  climate  is hot desert type. Pastoral livestock raising is predominant in most areas.
1.3.2 Topography
The effect of topography  on  agricultural activity  and  vegetation  cover of an  area is manifested  through  slope,  altitude and  soil texture.  By  the time of field  verification, observed  that some sloppy  areas are under natural vegetation  cover,  whle most of gently plains are intensively used for pastoral livestock grazing.
Ministry Of Water Resorces River Basin Development Studies Department
January 2000Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
1.3.3 Population
6
The impact of population  is manifested  through  its distribution,  size and  cultural orientation  and  practices.  The population  of the basin  has some impact on  the cover type of the areas.  Some areas have no  soil cover left due to  the previous pastoral livestock over grazing  or browsing  which  resulted  total erosion  of the soil cover and  exposure of more areas of the bed rock.
2.  Methods and procedures
2.1 Methods
The base map  of the Aysha basin  was prepared  by  digitizing.  and  drawn  the basin boundaries at a 1:1000000  scale in  GIs section.  This base map  was drawn  overlaid  with  a trans parent from the land  use and  land  cover maps,  which  had  been  constructed  for the whole of Ethiopia by the land use planning project (1984 B).
All  the  mapping  units  were  fainally  transfered  to  the  transparent  (base  map)  at  the  same scale.
2.2 Field procedures
The land  use group  of the project was assigned  to  carry  field  visit on  the Aysha basin,  to assess the present land  use and  land  cover of the basin  and  to  collect all existing  data from development project,  regional and  zonal offices,  but there is no  any  information  on the present land  use and  land  cover in  the region,  which  is making  appropriate resent data collection  of the basin.  The land  use group  prepared  the report based  on  the limited literature and group own intensive field verification and observations.
Ministry of Water Resorces River Basin Development Studies Department
January 20007
Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover------------------- ----------------
2.3 Field materials
The land  use and  land  cover maps at scale of 1:1000000  and  topographic maps 1:250,000 scale were the main  principal materials used  to  map  the present land  use and  land  cover of the basin.  Besides these surveying  materials were used  in  the field  like climometer, binocular, altimeter and G.P.S
3.  The land use and land cover mapping definitions and classification.
3.1 Definitions
In  the land  use and  land  cover mapping  a clear distinction  of made between  land  cover type and  land  use.  In  literature,  the definition  of land  use and  land  cover is not unambiguous therefore, some definitions will be used.
Land cover:- Includes the different features covering the earth’s surface such as water, 
forest, other vegetation, sand or barerock and man-made structures. In 
general these can be directly observed in airphoto’s and often on satellite
images.
Land Use:- Refers to the use that is made of various land cover ex, Grazing land, 
agriculture, timber production, fishing or recreation.
Deferent cover types might be used  in  the same way  and  one cover age (type) can  have different uses.  Land  use is mostly  very  difficult too  observe directly  from airphotos,  and even  more difficult on  satellite imagery.  I is generally  inferred  information  extracted from a combination  of image interpretation  with  local and  specialist knowledge field observations and secondary data.
Ministry of Water Resorces River Basin Development Studies Department
January 2000Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
8
In  the field  study,  first the different land  cover types have been  described  and  classified. A legend  is a summary  of different land  use and  land  cover classes represented  on  a map. due to  the scale of the mapping  a legend  may  be pure land  use/ land  cover or a mixture of these mapping units.
3.2 Classification
The classification  of natural vegetation  follows the assistance land  use modified  by KREMU from the physiognomic system of D.J.  Pratt and  M.D.  Gewynne (1977).  Range land management and ecology in east Africa.
The   natural   vegetation   is   divided   according   to   the   ground   coverage   six   different   strata. Tree, high forest, wood land, bush land, shrubland and Herb (heath)’.
A Tree:- is a woody  perennial plant having  a single main  exits or stem (trunk,  bole) commonly  exceeding  3  meters in  height,  and  caring  a more or less definite crown.
Abush:-  is  a  woody  plant,  with  branches  which  are  low  and  dense,  usually  with  multiple stems and commonly exceeding 2 meters in height.
A  shrub:-  Is  a  low  woody  plant  generally  less  than  2  meters  in  high  usually  with  multiple stems growing vertically.
A  Herb:-  Isa  non  woody  plant,  generally  less  than  I  meter  high  (Grasses,  herbs  and mosses).
Ministry of Water Resorces River Basin Development Studies Department'
January’ 2000Land use and Land cover
9
Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance
3.3  The present land use and land cover classification Criteria and reigned
During the field verification and observation we tried to discriminate uniform land cover
types and start with filling in the format for land cover types grouped the major types
cultivated land “ and “ semi-natural vegetation” separately. If there is a change on the
previous mapping units. Land cover types covering less than 15% of the total area will
not be described or checked.
An   estimation   of   the   coverage   of   the   different   vegetation   type   have   been   made   on   the basis of this estimation the land use/ land cover mapping unit checked invegetation
typification format.
Finally land use/ Land cover mapping, the information will be combined into a regend.
For cultivated land the following coverage criteria refer to the intensity of cultivation.
- Intensively cultivated >70%
- Moderately cultivated 40 - 70% ’
- Sparsely cultivated 15-40%
- Scattered cultivated < 15%
the present Land  use and  land  cover mapping  and  legends of the Aysha basin  has (8) or eight mapping  units drived  from 6  (six  major classes and  added  units three (3)at the time of field  observation  which  is not mapped  or sparsely  cultivated  land  ” openg  grassland and seasonal marsh.
With regard to the total study area the following are the mapping units
M?jt,rib55
Shrub land (8)
Bare land (11)
Open Grass Land (9.1) Minim, ol ate. tooues K„et Basin 
Mapping units
Open shrub land (8.2)
Exposed rock surface (11.1) Exposed sand and soil surface (11.3)
SluJt„ Dq,m —
January 2000Land use and Land cover
10
Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance
Seasonal Marsh (10.a) Sparsely cultivated land 4. RESULTS
Exposed sand/Soil surface with scattered scrub and grass vegetation (11.4) Exposed rock surface with scattered Scrub and grass vegetation (11.5)
The results of the present land  use and  land  cover study  of the basin  are presented  on  the 1:1000000  scale map  with  the report and  the extent,  of each  land  use/ cover mapping  unit is found  in  table N2 1.  The main  objective of the land  use and  land  cover study  is to identify  the different mapping  units and  describe the present condition.  Therefore,  a description of each mapping unit is as follows:-
4.1  Discription of the present land use and land cover Mapping units
Onen shrub land (8.2)
The coverage of this unit is low in  its density.  In  this unit both  shrubs and  grasses are found.  This unit covered  about 2660  her of land  from the total basin  area.  The vegetation  is found  scattered  and  in  some areas there are sparsely  cultivated  lands with sorghum during  the rainy  season.  This open  shrub  land  allow free movement of livestock and is predominantly used for grazing and browsing livestock for the pastoral type.
Onen grass Land (9.1 Map unit)
The physiognomic vegetation  type of this unit constitute strata of herbs or grasses only. The vegetation  Occurring  in  these areas of low rainfall perannum various,  from acacia g-O-mmipborawood lands, bush and thicket with a continious cover of grass
MiniS,ry °f Water Resor«s River Basin Development Studies Department'
January 200011
B.sin Master R!«. M*.
The land used by pastoralists in this unit for the extensive grazing of their h“
P—ge is mainly in .be basin of io« and un re.iah.e ramfah. during a
severe dry season.
.  utilization,  because  concentration  of  stock Scarcity of water may result in poor pasture
near watering points during the dry season 1 areas.
results  in  overgrazing  and  erosion  in  these
In this unit trees and shrubs make a considerable contribution to stock feed, especially in the dry season. Goats, sheep, camels, and a lesser extent cattle may obtain a proportion of their food from, leaves, flowers, pods, seeds, twinges and even the bark of a large number of species.
Generally  the main  land-using  activity  of in  these areas is grazing  livestock  of the pastoral types. This mapping unit is not mapped only observation was taken during the field verification.
Perennial swamp (Map unit 10.1a)
This unit is found in the basin areas of in depressions along the rivers and their courses and  on  some alluvial flood  plains.  These areas are wildlife sanctuaries,  especially  for birds. It is also a good grazing ground during severe dry season. The ground vegetation is sparse and presented swamp wood land or thicket and herbaceous swamp vegetation. This unit is ’covered by a variety of vegetation types but generally characterized by the presence of fewer and more widely spaced trees.
The main land-using activities in this unit are wildelife sanctuaries and grazing for the pastoral livestock during the dry season. This mapping unit is not mapped, due to the scale of the map, but observation is taken during the field work.
MiniStty °f Water Resorces River Basin Development Studies Department
January 200012
Dr, Ban.. Master Plan Ree^n^nee
Rare 2 and (map Unit_ll)
More .han W. of.he .Ota. basin is comprised of bareland. with .he ex.en. of 428528b. This uni. is dis.ribu.ed above, .he basin areas predom.nan.ely with exposed sand or so. surface and Rock surface with scattered scrub and grass vegetation. The bareland vv ,c
is a major unit, is sub-divided in to five sub units in the L use/L.cover map.
Exposed rock surface (map unit 1 j.D
This unit consists of recent lava flows in the Aysha basin. It is well known that too heavy or frequent grazing/browsing can result in reduction in the yield and vigor of a pasture, death of some of the plants and consequent development of bare or weedy patches.
Due to  this fact,  in  the unit small patches may  contain  shrubs and  scrub,  which  are occasionally browsed during the rainy season for the short time most of the time this unit do not give any use for pastoralistes. This unit covered 12400ha of land from the total basin area.
Exposed Sand. Soil Surface (map unit 11.3)
These are commonly alluvial fans or depressions. This unit is a bare soil and sand dunes completely devoid of vegetation cover due to over grazing. The exposed sand surface is commonly  found  in  the river channels or river beds where as exposed  soil surface is found  in  areas where completely  divoid  of vegetation  cover due to  overgrazing.  The main land using activity in this unit is grazed and browsed by the livestock of the pastoral types. After the rainy season, because small patches of grasses and scrubs are «rown in 
.h.s unit. But for most of the year these unit are barelands. The total lauds covered bv this unit is 16561 ha from the total basin area.
Ministrj- of Water Resorces River Basin Developrne^^^^
January 200013
The exposed sand surface in the study area, is
-------
2
the hills and run a long distance into .he fertile flat plains- (as sand dunes) ntost of die tim e there units are left as bare hands or do  no.  give for browsers or graizeres of the surroundings.
Vast areas (Land) is covered by this unit about 1044.97km  which .is about 24.23% from the total basin area.
Exposed Rock surface with scattered seasonal scrub land grass_v££etation (Map
Unit 1.5)
These  are  very  large  areas  covered  in  the  basin  where  the  surface  is  predominaniely. rocks. In this unit hardly any vegetation grows, but during the raing season some grasses and scrubs grow in patches of bare lands which are grazed and browsed by the livestock. In these areas clearly seen that, the resulting mismanagement of the unstable vegetation types that form the drier tropical grasslands rapidly destroys the grass cover and causes bush encroachment and erosion. The damage is primarily due to overstocking. This has always  tended  to  occur  in  primitive  pastoral  systems  that  combine  communal  grazing with unrestricted individual ownership of stock. More than 60% of the land is covered bv this mapping unit which is about 2950.70 Kni= or 68.43% of from the total basin area, here in the unit the herbaceous vegetation type cover of the ground surface area and the rest uncovered bare ground surface, the soil is highly exposed to erosion14
Reconnaissance
Land use and Land cover
Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project^
5. Data analysis
Base<1 on .he sn.aU scale of .he map .he presen. .and use and .and units are res.nc.ed and mapped as sta.ed in .he report. The res. onus
cover mapping
are not mapped 
due to the scale of the map but observations were L_.„. verification (identification).
taken by the time of field
.
From .he results obtained the total study area of the basin is estimated (covered) about 431l.S8sq.km.  Thus major class 11  (bareland) occupies about 4285.28sq.km.  which is 99.38% of land from the total basin area.
. The mapping unit (11.1) or the exposed rock surface covered about 12400ha of land which is about 2.88% of from the total basin area. This unit is in the third place in the basin, it is a bare soil completely devoid of vegetation cover due to over grazing and only left Rock surface. Except small patches may contain shrubs and scrub, which are occasionally  browsed,  most  of  the  year  this  unit  does  not  give  any  use  tor  the livestock of the surrounding.
•    The mapping units (11.3, 11.4 and 11.5 ) are totaly occupied about 4161.28sq.km of land which is about 65,55% of from the total basin area. These units are found mixed with  some  open  grass  lands  and  with  acacia  commiphora  wood  lands,  bush  and thicket.  The  land  used  by  pastoralists  in  these  units  for  the  extensive  grazing  and browsing of their herds on the unimproved pasture during the rainy season. In these units trees shrubs, bushes and scrubs or grasses make a considerable contribution to stock feed especially in the dry season. Goats, Sheep,. Canteles and a lesser extent, cattle may obtain a proportion of their foodfront leaves, pods, seeds and twings.
•    With a small area coverage, about 2660ha of laud which is about 0.62% of the total basin, the open shrub land (8.2) is found in the basin. This uni. is open for gazing or
M'.b’ry of Water Resorces Kiv.r Basin Usv.lopmen Studies Oepartmem
t
January 2000Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
15
browsing of livestock of the surrounding. The vegetation cover in this unit is very sparse, where in some places only scrubs are seen, Because of the frequent livestock and human interference.
Table 1
Extent of each land use and land cover mapping unit of the Aysha
Major
Class
Mapping
unit
Land use and cover type
Unit area
(km )
2
% of total
basin
8
8.2
Open shrub land
26.60
0.62
11
Bare land
11.1
11.3
11.4
11.5
Exposed Rock Surface Exposed sand and soil Surface Exposed sand and soil surface with scattered scrub and grass vegetation
Exposed Rock surface with scattered scrub and grass
vegetation
124.00
165.61
1044.97
2950.70
2.88
3.84
24.23
68.43
Sub total
4285.28
Grand total
99.38
4311.88
100%
Ministry of Water Resorces River Basin
Development Studies Department'
January 2000Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
6.  Conciliation and Recommendation
6.1 Conclusions
16
•  In  all  the  basin  areas,  at  present  moistures  stress  is  the  major  senous  problem, specially in the low land flat plains water for domestic uses and livestock production is the most critical problem at present so attention should be given to the water shade management of in the basin with adequate land treatment by conserving the excess run off from various parts of the water shade during the rainy season in the small
dams, in the drier time use .
•     More than 50% of the basin areas are bare lands, which are no significant use for the surrounding  pastoralists,  due  to  the  overgrazing  and  completely  devoid  of  natural vegetation in these areas.
•     Most of the areas in the basin, the open grass land consist of a rather sparse cover of grass with scattered trees and shrubs, many of the latter (tree and shrubs) making an important  contribution  to  stock  feed  but  here  the  grass  cover  is  further  reduced  by poor management and in some areas the grass lands can be sustained on poor quality standing heay during the dry season.
6.2 Recommendation
In  this.short survey  it will be impossible to  describe in  detail the many  types of natural vegetation  and  to  give a full account of diverse and  complex  management problems but all this can be attempted is a broad classification of the main types of natural vegetation,  indicating  their physiognomy  and  their relation  to  climatic conditions together with an account of some of important pasture types occurring in the basin of seasonal rainfall. Over most of these areas the low and un relable17
Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
rainfall, and the oceutrence of sever dry seasons, result in sparse tuffs of grass which in the drier areas. The carrying capacity is at all times rather low, when growth stops mor or less abruptly and the grass dries out rapidly to form very poor quality standing heay. This marked seasonal variation in lack of dry season feed, poses a major management problem.  The  concentration  of  stock  near  watering  during  the  dry  season  results  in overgrazing  /over  browsing  and  erosion  in  these  areas.  Therefore  this  is  unstable  sub climaxes  and  shrubs  which  has  to  be  combated  by  management  and  improving  the pasture lands in the basin areas, it is essential to manage, develop and make to use in balance land use system.
•  The  people  in  the  basin  areas  are  engaged  in  livestock,  production  only.  But  the recurrent  droughts,  low  rainfall,  and  Land  degradation  or  overgrazing/browsing  has accelerated  the  depletion  of  natural  vegetation.  This  caused  shortage  of  forage  for livestock.  Natural  vegetation  like  indigenous  trees,  are  getting  scarce  from  time  to time.
In order to regenerate and to make stabilize, the natural vegetation aforstation programme should  be formulated  and  immediate intervention  is essential to  cope with  this hostile situation,  in  order to  conserve this valuable natural resource for the well being  of the Society.
Famally  if should  be stressed  that new aerial photographs,  satellite imagery  and lopomaps of the area are required for any more detailed field work. Provided that the baste present (ex,sung) land use and land cover mapping units will be clearly defined and mapped, revised interpretations can be made.
Ministry of Water Resows River Basin
^^^Studies DepartmenT
January 2000Aysha Dry Basin Master Plan Project Reconnaissance Land use and Land cover
18
7. REFERENCES
Anderson, 1976
Jr Hardy, E.E, J.T, & Witmer, R.E. A land use and
Land cover classification system for use with remote sensor data Washington, USGS. Prof, paper 964.
FAO1984b   Assistance to Land use planning, Ethiopiavegetation and natural regions of Ethiopia and their significante to land use planning, based on the
work of sture E.Mark lund and victor odenyo. Rome. Technical Report 4
Huffnage l.H.P 1961 USDI/BR.
1964
LUPRD 1984B LUPRP, 1984
Agriculture in Ethiopia Rome, FAo
Land and water resources of the blue nile basin, 
Ethiopia us Department of the interior, Bureau of Reclamation.
Land use and land cover maps of Ethiopia. 
Assistance to land use-Planning project
Rome Assistance to land use planning project.
Production regions and farming system. Technical Report 3
LUPRD,      Rome 1984 Assistance to Land use Planning project. Physiognomic Vegetation types
Ministry of Water Resorces River Basin Development Studies Department
January 20001230000
1210000
1190000
1170000
1150000
1130000
1110000
160000 180000
200000
220000
240000
260000 280000
Land use and cover map of Aysha
Open Shrubland
Exposed Rock Surface
Exposed Sand Soil Surface
Exposed Sand Soil Surface With
Scattered Scrub and Grass Vegetation Exposed Rock Surface With Scattered Scrub And Grass Vegetation
- - - - - - -   Basin boundary
- - - - - - - - International boundary
scale 1:800000n           p- Basin Development StudyDgBgnfflg^ Ministry ofWater-Rgsourcfe-^in^-^
AvshaBasin Reconnaissance^ Phasg-Stu_
raf  federal deaiocr. me republic of Ethiopia
MINISTRY OF WATE
AYSHA BASIN REC CJNN-LISSA.SC E rrL .
A^^^fpH4SE MASTER PEAR
Volume II:
I----------------------- 1
1
Natural Resources Study A- Geology & Mineralogy B- Geomorphology & Soils C- Land use/C over
D-FOrCStiX
E-Energy
1-Wildlife & TourismMinistry of Water Resources Basin Qwlwment Studio
1
1 Introduction
/. / General.
1.2 Objectives of the Study
1.3 Study Methodology
1.4 Major Limitations
2 Overview of National Forestry Sector.
2.1 The Resources and its Management
2.2 Policies and Legislation
3 Description of the study area
3.1 Location6
3.2 Climate and Population6
4 Vegetation Formation of Aysha Basin
4.1 The Woodland Savannah Region
4.1.1 Acacia Woodland Formation
4.1.2 Steppe regions
4.1.3 The Halophytic Vegetation
4.2 Natural Gum and Incense in Aysha Basin
4.3 Over view of Agro Forestry Practices in the Basin.. 4.4 Ongoing and Planned afforestation efforts
5 Major development potential and problems 
5.1Major Problems
5.1.1 Lack of research and extension
. 7
2
....2
 2
4
4
..5
6
8
14
5.1.2 Lack of well developed infrastructure network
5.1.3 Culture and tendency to maximise herds..................... 5.1.4 Traditional range management practices
5.2 Major area of Intervention
5.2.1 Development of fodder bank
5.2.2 Establishment of nursery
5.2.3 Capacity building
5.2.4 Creation of environmental awareness 6 Reference Materials
18
Aj
-bUidv Repcirf
ilii
Development Studies DeoartmtriL
Table 4.1.3.1 Aerial extent of the wood land savannah vegetation zone/formation Figure I Climatic Climax Vegetation of Aysha Basin
17
Basin Intrrmtrd
Plan
iiMinistry of Water Resources Basin Development Studies Depgr(m 'lL
(
1        Introduction
1.1      General
The longevity of the service that a given resources can deliver to the nation is shortened largely because of human induced attributes like improper land-use scheme, deforestation, ox ergrazing etc...  In  this manner,  the once huge and  diverse natural resources of Ethiopia has been mismanaged and over-used for several decades.
The prognosed and the already sensed impact of such resources degradation on human welfare should be tranquillised. To attain the latter an integrated and sustainable resources development planning is highly required both globally and nationally.
To  contribute to  the promotion  of sustainable utilisation  of resources through  an  integrated development planning, the Federal Government of Ethiopia has given the responsibility to the Ministry of Water Resources.
As per this duties and  responsibilities vested  on  it,  the Ministry  of Water Resources has accomplished six river basins integrated resources development master plan study taking water resources as the nucleus. For Abay, Tekeze, Mereb, Baro-Akobo and Omoghibe river basins the development master plan  is already  completed,  while for the other three river basins ( Wbi- Shebelle, Genale-Dawa and Rif-valley lack basins) the study is at a reconnaissance level.
To achieve its ultimate goal of nation wide resources development master plan, in addition to bringing the above reconnaissance studies and Awash basin surface water master plan study to the master plan level, substantial work is anticipated from the Ministerial office
A i j/ig Dasin Inteeraled Development Master Plan. Reconnaissance Level Study, Forestry Sector Sr„dy Report
lMinistry of Water Resources. Basin Development Stud'K Department
This study of Aysha basin is part of this effort. In a comprehensive term the objectives of this forestry sector study is fundamentally, preparative analysis of problems and potential pertaining to forestry in the basin.
1.2       Objectives of the Study
•    To identify and quantify the forest resources potential, constraints and to map the climatic climax vegetation of the basin;
•    To asses ongoing and planned afforestation programmes;
•    To asses the role of forestry in the range management of the basin;
•    To indicate future development opportunities and problems.
1.3    Study Methodology
This study is an out come of 45 days field visit and review of both national and regional level studies.  The latter comprise Ethiopian  Forestry  Action  Plan,  Abay  Basin  Integrated. Development Master Plan, Tekeze Basin Integrated Development Master Plan, Climatic Climax Vegetation Map (1:2,000,000 scale) and different unpublished and published reports. Better information  and  wider visualisations have been  ensured  through  discussion  made with  the Woreda and Regional Agricultural Bureau staffs.
1.4    Major Limitations
As indicated under section 1.3, above the output of this study is planned to be mainlv dependent on secondary information as it is clearly indicated in the TOR. The generation of detailed data is beyond the task of this study. In contrast to this certainty, there is no as such data base in the Basin.  The woreda’s institutions which  are accountable for the theme under discussion  is weakly organised and staffed.
<hsha.fasin liuexrmd Iwmiml Maitfr Plan. Rt o
C  nnai."an„ l.evd Snub, Fortstrv Sever Slud? Rmr,
2Ministry of Water Resources. Basin Development Studies DwgrtrnenL.
Even the woreda Agricultural office is none existence at woreda level. Information with respect to the Aysha woreda can be collected from the shinille Zone, if it exists at all. The latter is located in Dire Dewa which is about 190 km away from the Aysha woreda capital.
As a result,  the attempt made to  detect information  with  respect to  degree of resources degradation,  extent of development endeavour,  development potential and  constraints in  the basin  was worthless. What is given in the following sections are mainly an extract from the national climatic climax vegetation maps and simple by pass observations made during the field visits.
It is worthwhile to establish these institution in appropriate places if any development activity in the woreda/Aysha basin is to be taken care of in future perspectives.
Rusin Inttfrgtrd Development Master PlanMmislrv of Water Resources. Batin Devflvp^' StuditS PeggrtnisaL
2        Overview of National Forestry Sector
2.1      The Resources and its Management
With more than 5.7 million inhabitants and surface area of about 1110 million ha, Ethiopian is the largest African  country  interms of population  and  ninth  in  terms of area.  The dramatic increase in  both  human  and  livestock  population  with  out counter measure in  resources conservation  and  development,  resulted  in  the inequilibrium of demand  supply  relation.  This must be one of the driving force behind the present degraded state of forest resources.
Studies indicate that, once about 35% (42 million ha)1 2 of Ethiopia was covered with forest. More recently (1989) estimates indicates that the forest resources coverage remained with 2.7%' ( EFAP 1994). The now existing actual figure of the resources must be by far less than this particularly due to the impact of recent forest fire in diffrent localities of Bale and Borena.
As EFAP 1994 indicates, the supply of wood and wood products in Ethiopia is estimated at an 
3
annual incremental yield of some 14.4 milliom m s in 1992. Of this total during the same year
3
13.8 million m s was available as wood product while the difference as source of animal feed.
The demand ( both for industrial, construction and fuel wood) in year 1992 is however estimated at 47.5 million m s. This shows a big gap between demand supply.
Hence,  wood  scarcity  obliged  the people to  burn  crop  residues and  animal dung  .  The world bank  energy  department estimates that burning  of dung  instead  of using  it as fertiliser is responsible for the loss of 1-1.5 million tones of grain per year ( Doris knuth, 1987). The efforts
' With inclusion of savana woodlands, the estimatin authomatically riss to 66% of the country. 2 wth the remaing 5 milliom hactar of savanah land a total of forest and
country area.
forest and wood land makeup some 7% of the
Basin
lfVfl Fonsln,Seelnr Rf_
4Ministry of Water Resources Basin DmLqP'WI Stvfas
3
made to conserve resources through establishment of NFPAs ( 58 NFPAs ) all over the country couldn’t cope up with the ever increasing demand for wood products. This is rnarnly due to lack of management plan and protection.
2.2      Policies and Legislation
The policies and  legislation  which  is presently  operative in  the country  is what has been published by the then Forest and Wildlife Conservation and Development and amended by the Transitional Government of Ethiopia on 28 March 1994.
Latter although MoA has prepared (in 1996) a draft forestry policy, it is not yet publicised and operative. The draft policy states the major policy objectives to be , to promote sustainability' in terms of providing  variety of forest products,  protection  and  conservation  of ecosystem and replacement of imported goods and thereby reduce hard currency expended in this respect.
Despite the right given to the Regional Governments so as to formulate own policy within the framework of federal government interest, so far there is no effort made in this respect. Even the above said legislation is not operative in the study area. This must be mainly due to lack of
man power and giving less priority to the secretor.
To  promote  a  sustainable  and  environment  oriented  development  activities  formulation  and implementation of well defined policies and strategies should have a prior attention.
’ This figure doesnt include the resently established RFPA
dxshc Pam twat'd Dtvtlonmfm Mauer pian R.rnnWissan
lt   IXtll/h,
„ ,„
-Forestry Sector Study Rtnort
5Ministry of Waler Resources. Basin PrVtlaWIt Ull'dir f DtOOrltntnL
3       Description of the study area
3.1     Location
Being the smallest basin in the country, Aysha covers a total area of 2223 Km2 (Preliminary- Water Development Master Plan for Ethiopia 1990). The basin is located in the Eastern part of Ethiopia,  and  fully  bounded  by  the Awash  basin  from North-west to  South-west.  Somalia Republic in the East and South- east and the Djibouti Republic in the North.
Unlike most other basins in  the country,  Aysha basin  is fully  located  in  Somalia National Regional State and known as the dry basin or some times as the eastern basin because of its hvdrological peculiar characteristics and  geographical location  in  relation  to  the country respectively (Preliminary Water Development Master Plan for Ethiopia 1990).
3.2     Climate and Population
The basin  acquire fully  one Woreda (Aysha) in  Shinille Zonal administration  of SNRS.  As information  from CSA 1997  attests,  a total of 46605  population  lives in  the basin.  As the relation of the above basin area and total population shows, Aysha basin is one of the sparsely-
2
populated area of the country with density 21 persons per Km .
Aysha basin climate is broadly of Bwh4 type. The annual average temperature ranges between 27-30 C° . The annual average rainfall similarly goes lower than 450 ml. In most cases the area is characterised by windy, dry and hot weather. The rainfall pattern is dominantly influenced bv the moist wind coming from the Indian Ocean. As literature indicates, in most circumstances the annual evapotranispiration exceeds the annual rainfall by 10-20 %
4 Bwh= hot arid climate
^ t(rPI(ir, Km,.„lti„nncv Lew, ^.clnr Sluth,
6Ministry of Water Resources, Basin Development Studies Department^
Like that of Ogaden basin Pastoralism is the leading element of in the household economy of the society.  This is mainly  because of the none complementary  interaction  of biophysical elements like temperature and rainfall as indicated above.
More over, the country wide growing period zoning shows that, a substantial size of the basin fells in the N Agroclimatic Zone, which has the shortest growing period and as a result even drought resistance crops cannot be grown  and  irrigation  is entirely  obligatory  (Climatic and Agro  Climatic Resources of Ethiopia Meteorological Research  Report series V pol.  7,  No.l January 1996, NMSA).
duha Basin Imwated D^tnnm nl
.
pf(n
7Ministry of Water Rr'^rrrs Kasin
OW'"^
4        Vegetation Formation of Aysha Basin
4.1     The Woodland Savannah Region
It has been  indicated  on  climatic climax  vegetation  map  of Ethiopia that the Woodland Savannah region consists of about five sub formations. This comprehend Junipers wood land, Acacia wod land. Mixed deciduous woodland. Steppe regions and Semidesert regions. Of this the Aysha basin is endowed with Acacia wood land and Steppe regions
4.1.1   Acacia Woodland Formation
Normally this formation claims a wide and diverse agroecological settings characterised by an altitude between  250- 2300  masl,  rainfall of about 7200-1400  mm/annum and  the growing period lasting 0-10 months . In the basin however the physical components of the ecosystem is more or less homogeneous (see part climate and population).
The soil in  such  vegetation  zones are fairly  diversified  and  characterised  by  the more arid condition of the area and vertisols with grasslands cover of vast areas. In the case of the Aysha basin  the majority  (40%) is characterised  by  extensive coverage of rock  out crops (personal estimate).
The vegetation is mainly located in the areas around southern tip of the basin i.e. East ofAdigala and South of Lasarat as a transition between the Junipers woodland and the steppe region (see annexed climatic climax vegetation map of the basin).
Due  to  increased  aridity  .the  flora  have  developed  different  xeromorphie  -adaptations.  The ligneous vegetation in the more arid and long dry season areas of the basin shows a typical
Borin
p evtlwnKIII MaUfr Plart tfmjaaissa^tYel Sludv ForesirvMinistry of Water
deciduous   character.   The   development   of  small  sclerenchymatic   leaves as well as the development of a pubescent cover.
another adaptive trend
To   protect   against   browses,   the   acacia   woodland   species   have   a   thorny.   character.   Another attempt to escape browsing and grazing is the development of aromatic features.
The  Acacia  woodland  which  occupies  the  wide  range  of  altitude  in  the  basin  characterised  by major species like A.etbica, Acacia seyal, A.mellifera, Balanites aegyptica, A.senegal, A.caffra
4.1.2   Steppe regions
Steppe regions is the main  vegetation  zone in  the basin.  It is characterised  by  rainfall of <400 mm and  altitudes between  100-1400  masl.  Like that of similar vegetation  units in  Ogaden  basin Commiphora  africana,  C.abysinica,  C.  opobalsamum are important species composition  of this zone.
The ligneous species consist of deciduous slirubs that branch within 1 m of the ground. They have small leaves, are usually thorny resin or gum bearing, and often aromatic. The aerial extent of each zone is given in table 4.1.3.1 blow. Accordingly the steppe region is found to be of highest proportion while the acacia woodland occupies the smallest area.
4.1.3   The Halophytic Vegetation
This vegetation formation is a typical characteristics of lowland area where there is low rain fall The classif,cation is mainly based on their edaphic preferences. In this respect the halopatic vegetation is to mean plant communities which have well developed adaptation io salinity. In
art, to. i.mM               n„Ministry of Water Resources Basin PmIqpW''!
DfWW'lL
Aysha   basin   it   constitute   the   smallest   proportion   in   relation   to   other   vegetation   unit.   This vegetation formation is mainly located around Biyoanod, North of^^Aa and West of De
It is distinguished  by  adaptation  to  xeromorphic environment and  composed  of greygreen, succulent,  fleshy-leafed  herbs that are physiologically  adapted  to  stand  high  salt levels without problems of water regime. Similar plant communities exists in Ogaden and Denakil basins.
In  this community  normally  species like Halopeplis perfoliata.  Arthrocnemum glaucum and Suaedci mnoica consists the major composition.  In  Aysha basin  however no  information  exists in  this respect.  The dominant soil type as a media for growth  of this community  comprise calcisols and gypsisols.
Table 4.1.3.1 Aerial extent of vgetation zone/formation
Vegetation zone
area in (ha))
Percentage of
each zone
1 Acacia woodland
227678.8
52.8
Steppe region
124891.2
28.96
Halopatic
vegetation
78617.76
18.23
Total
431187.76
100
Sources; FAO/UNDP 1989
Avsha Basin
Al
10Ministry of Water Resources Basin DmI(W'W( StudtfS O^QrtmenL
4,2    Natural Gum and Incense in Aysha Basin
A none volatile viscous exudes from many plants and trees, which either dissolve
contact with water is collectively known as Gum. They may be considered to be highly 
polymerised carbohydrates. A good examples of water soluble gums includes gum arabic from
A.arabica and A . Senegal (Alemaya University Of Agriculture 1997)..
North-eastern  Africa has three genera of Brurseraceae, of which  Boswellia and  Commiphora occur in  Ethiopia.  The Burseraceae in  Ethiopia are abundant and  often  co- dominates with acacia across vast stretches of eastern  and  southern  lowland  arid  bushlands of Ethiopia.  Attempt made to quantify the basin wide gum and incense resource is restrained by lack of information .
With  the  assumption  of  the  acacia  woodland  as  the  potential  gum  and  frankincense  bearing  tree species ecosystem, a total of 227678 ha of gum and incense potential exists in the basin.
4.3    Over view of Agro Forestry Practices in the Basin
The term agroforestry  is an  indication  of type of land  use which  involve various combinations of field  cropping  with  forest management,  or forest with  range management or field  cropping, forest and  range.  Agrosilvoculture.  Silvopasture,  Agrosilvopasture are indicatives of this combinations respectively.
As field  observation  and  literature indicates,  the ecological setting  doesn’t allow the Agrosilvocuhure . This is mainly  because very  short growing  period  in  the basin.  The majority of the population  are hence,  driving  their livelihood  from pastoralism.  In  this respect the woody vegetation, be it a tree or a shrub, is the sole sources of browse. The meagre lush undergrowth
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FonslrvMinistry o f Water Resources. Batin PfvflwMl
PfpartntenL
(under shade of the tree) serve as a source of feed for grazers
Silvopasture.
. The combination is termed as
In  comparison  to  other vegetation,  the contribution  of woody  vegetation  to  animal fodder sources seems high  because of the arid  and  semi-arid  characteristic of the area which  inhibits the growth  of annual grass.  Yet burning  of the rang  is the main  traditional management practices, which  results in  the flash  growth  of grasses after short rain  and  at the same time this will initiate the germination of most legume tree species, typically acacia species.
Although  the traditional range management system has its own  value in  the community,  its long term impact shouldn’t be under estimated.  Particularly,  at the end  of the day  such  system leads to  a homogene ecosystem,  mainly  of acacia community  or grass land.  Hence pertinent range management practices is envisaged.
4.4      Ongoing and Planned afforestation efforts
As discussed  above,  overgrazing  and  mis management of the vegetation  in  the basin  is one of the major challenge in  the basin  This is already  sensed  by  the community.  Shortage of animal feed,  degradation  of range land  through  overgrazing  and  envision  by  unwanted  tree/grass species and  extension  of the arid  regions into  the semi arid  region  is the main  indicatives of such environmental challenges.
In  opposite to  the down-fall of vegetation  resources,  rhe demand  to  satisfy  human  need  is increasing  vigorously.  This calls for urgent action  in  area of afforestation  and  ecosystem management, particularly to meet the human need.
duh« Basin ItumurM                  Matter pla„
LevrlSlUiil,
Sector Study RrnortMinistry of Water Resources Basin D^tapmcnt SH«feS DW'taC'iL
So  far,  in  the basin  the response to  such  environmental degradation  is not reported  at all.  Even there is no  nursery  in  the basin  .  Some of the underlying  problems identified  in  this regard includes:-
• 
Shortage of rainfall/scarce moisture in soil system;
• 
Communal ownership of land;
• 
Lack of trained man-power;
• 
Mobile nature of pastorals.
• 
Shallow soil depth in most part of the basin (leptosols dominates
The field  visit indicates that,  in  the basin  there is no  trained  man  power in  the fields of forestry neither at woreda nor at zonal level.  Therefor most forestry  development activities through  out the basin are almost at a stop.
di'A; B  in
af
Mosler Pln„5        Major development potential and problems
5.1    Major Problems
5.1.1  Lack of research and extension
In addition to lack of trained manpower there is no research centre in the Region in this respect. Thus, the information gap regarding the forest resources and its minor as well as major product
is the current major problem that challenges the decision makers and the technical people.
5.1.2 Lack of well developed infrastructure network
Like other part of the Regional State, infrastructure in the basin is not well developed. Among others road and market out-let are important to mention. In addition to the problem discussed 
above institutional location at Dire Dewa is another major problem and this signifies the poor status of accommodation, water, power and telecommunication. For better future development effort development of infrastructure is envisaged.
5.1.3   Culture and tendency to maximise herds
In the basin as and in the region as a whole, besides milk, meat and cash, livestock are sources of prestige and power. The grazing lands are communal. This limits the individual responsibility for proper care of range land. As a result, the tendency to maximise their herd size is high. With this the benefit from communal resources can be maximised. This resulted in overgrazing, overstocking and burning of the vegetation.
Avsha Basin Inflated Devdoom^t
Pfa. 
LtVtl
14Ministry of Water Resources. fain QjvdW'Wt
f>tWW2L
5.1.4   Traditional range management practices.
Lack  of environmental awareness contributed  to  poor range management practices and  as a result destruction  of vegetation.  Above all,  the burning  of the bush  and  shrub  land  to  have better grass and  browsable shoots for their livestock.  This will in  long  run  however affect the biodiversity.  A good  indication  of such  exercise is the domination  of fire resistant species in some parts of similar ecosystems like Ogaden basin .
5.2 Major area of Intervention
Although  the diverse vegetation  resource in  the region  gives ample development opportunities, the following  are the major areas of future development intervention  identified  during  the field visit made to Aysha basin.
5.2.1   Development of fodder bank
As indicated  before,  pastoralism is the main  economic activity  in  the basin  and  woody vegetation  contribute much  to  feed  resources.  The erratic and  scarce rainfall,  however,  limits this opportunity.  It is to  mean  shortage of feed  contribute much  to  the vulnerability  of the stock to  mortality  and  morbidity  in  drought prolonged  years.  To  ease the uncertainty,  development of
fodder     ba.*     is     fondamemai.     in     this     respect     panieuiar     anention 
can       be       siven       species
Opuntua ficus indica.
5.2.2  Establishment of nursery
As information indicates, there is no well developed nursery site in the basin so as to suppiv
8  to afforestation activities. Although the latter is found to be constrained by lesser
15survival rate as a result of shallow soil depth (dominantly leptosoils), and shortage of moisture, 
Ministry of Water Resources. Basin Development Studies Department
attention could have been given to drought resistance tree species.
5.23 Capacity building
Lack  of trained  man  power is one of the major challenge in  problem profile of the basin.  The present poor development effort is manifestation  of the former problem.  If reliable forestry development action  is to  be promoted  in  the basin,  the regional government should  give the first priority to the theme under discussion.
5.2.4   Creation of environmental awareness
Overgrazing  and  burning  of range land  seems an  indication  of poor environmental awareness among  the rural community.  Unless and  otherwise this drawback  is scrubbed  off from the living system of the community, any development effort will be futile.
„
161230000
1210000
1190000
I
.J_____ 220000
240000
CLIMAX VIGETATION MAP OF AYSHA BASIN
CLIMATIC CLIMAX VEGETATION
WOODLAND SAVANNAH REGION
Acacia woodland
STEPPE REGION
GRASSLANDS HALOPHYTIC VEGETATION
- - - - - - -   Basin boundary
- - - - - - - International boundary
scale 1:800000Ministry o f Water Resources. Basin Ptyf/wntnUtViilfS DeparlmeilL
6 Reference Materials
1          Azene Bekele Tessema 1993. Useful trees and shrubs for Ethiopia. Nairobi : Regional Soil Conservation Unit, Swedish International Development Authority
2           EFAP 1994 Volume 11 The challenge For the Development. Task Force Report no.3 Addis Ababa. MoNRDEP
3          EFAP 1991 Livestock and Fodder Producton. Task Force Report no. 3 Addis
Ababa. MoNRDEP.
4          EVDSA 1990, Preliminary Water Development Master Plan for Ethiopia. Addis Ababa Ethiopia
5       FAO/UNDP 1984 Climatic Climax Vegetation Map of Ethiopia.
6 Ministry Of Water Resources 1998, Abay River Basin Integrated Development Master
Plan. Forestry Sectoral report.
Ministry  Of  Water  Resources  1997  .Tekeze  River  Basin  Integrated  Development  Master Plan. Forestry Sectoral Report. Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
8 Ministry Of Water Resources 1998, Wabishebele River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan (Reconnaissances level study). Forestry Sectoral Report. Addis Ababa Ethiopia.
MuDtamPf>rlgpmm M ,
a lr, Plan t^nn^nce L^ts,.^ Fnrr^
f
18Ministry of Water Resources, Basin Development Study Department
Aysha Basin Reconnaissance Phase Study
THE FEDER. IL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
AYSHA BASIN RECONNAISSANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
\ olume II: Natural Resources Study
A- Geology & Mineralo«*v B- Geomorphology & Soils C- Land use/Cover
D-Forestry
F-EnergU
ildlife & Tourism
[Natural Resources Sru<±~^/. / General-------------------------------------------  ___________________________________________________ '
1.2. Objectives------------------------------------------------ ---------------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 2 1.3. Methodology and Approach
2.1 InBtracodkugrcoutionnd Information----------------------------------------
2.1 General--------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- ------------ j
2.2 Fuelwood Demand in Ethiopia and Data Used for Aysha 3
2 I Fuel wood Demand in Ethiopia.................. ............................
________________________________________ 2.2           2 Data Usedfor Aysha Basin Study-------------------------------
1
3. Status of Institutions and Effectiveness of Regional and Federal Policies
4. Why do People Choose Between Different Energy Sources?
5. The Resources Base-
7
______   ______________________ Q
10
5.1 Fuelwood Supply -
5.2. Crop Residues------
5.3. Animal Dung
5.4.  Modem Energy —
10
12
---------------------------------------------------------------- 14
6 Estimation of Aysha Basin Household Energy Demand
6.1 Current Status-------------------------------------------
6.2           Projection of Aysha Basin Energy Demand
7. Demand Supply Balance of Fuelwood Energy in-Aysha Basin           8
8 Major Problems and Issues
8.1 Lack of Information-------------------------
8.2 Shortage of Man-power--------------------
8.3 Poor End Use Efficiencies-----------------
8.4 Lack of Regional Level Energy Policy
9. Feature Areas of Intervention
9.1 Promotion of Biogas Technology-
9.2 Alternative Energy Sources----------
9.3 Afforestation---------------------------
9.4 Capacity Building---------------------
10 Reference Material
17
—77
17
17
18
19
19 19 19
20
21
s h          B as i n
—-  P o n n a s s i a n c c s
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ILIji n S t |i (tx B i o m a
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-S-S—E n e r a y
g r a t e d Ministry of Water Resources. R i v e_r—R 8 $ L XL
p c v e I o p m c n I—S 1 v d i c a
Department.
Table 2.2.2.1 Findings of Different Household Energy Demand Supply Studies------------------------------------------------------ 6
Table 5.1.1 Woody biomass energy’ potential of the Aysha Basin.-------------------------- - ------- --------------------------------- / 0
Table 5.3.1 Total Livestock population in Aysha basin---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Table 5.3.2 Estimated Energy Value of Dung Produced in Aysha Basin-------------------------------------------------------------- 13
Table 6.2.1 Projected Energy Demand of Aysha Basin---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 151 Introduction
/.J General
It is apparent that the current down-fall resources can only be conserved in the long-run, if it s sustainable forms of use that satisfies the needs of local population and at the same time strengthen national economy is practiced.
These became the impulses for Ethiopia to  start a basin  wide integrated  resources development master plan studies and thereby, to contribute to the aversion of the current state of biomass energy resources base and use relation.
Thus. Ministry of Water Resources has prepared an Integrated Development Master Plan tor Jioy. Tekeze, Mereb, Baro-Akobo. Awash1 and Omoghibe basins. For the others like Wabi- Shebelle, Genale- Daxva and Rift valley lack basin a reconnaissance level studies have bee completed.
To achieve its ultimate goal of nation wide resources development master plan, this study of Aysha Basin, has been proposed to be under take by the permanent and contact staffs of the Ministry. The overall objectives of fuelwood/energy sub-sector of this Reconnaissance level study  is a preliminary  assessments of the state of fuelwood/energy  resources endowment, constraints and indicative intervention strategies.
1.2.  Objectives
• Reviewing and synthesizing all previous national and regional studies pertinent to Biomass energy in Aysha basin,
Only surface water development master plan has been prepared for Awash 
Basins the master plan study is an integrated resources development
River Basin, while for the remaining five
Ay s h a B a s i n
_R Q Q Q >1 11 a s § I a n I,; y 5___ Le vol I n t c Q r a t e d P.1 a II Study Biomass E n e r g y
M a s ( e r• Perliminary identification of constraints, and potential for fuelwood/energy 
sectoral development;
•   Examine basin wide institutional capacity, policies and legislation in light
of promoting sustainable supply of biomass energy,
•   Preliminary evaluation of current fuelwood/energy situation in the basin.
7.3.  Methodology and Approach
Review of documents and  reports is the most leading  overall methodology  to  write up  this report.  This comprise mainly,  Ethiopian  Forestry  Action  Plan.  CESEN/MME 1986.  Statistical bulletins, Federal Energy Policies, maps of different scales.
After synchronizing  all the information  gathered  and  visualization  made during  the field  visit coupled  with  basic assumptions,  the study’s data base and  information  system has been developed .p evClonme_n
M i n i s I rjv______ o_f—W a I LL
R e  -S AL  u r c c s Den
River BasiJL a r l m c n k
2. Background Information
2.1 General
The main  sources of energy  in  most developing crop  recidues and  fuel wood.  The latter is mainly 
countries   are   biomass.   These   include   dung, drived from natural woodlands, tree on farm
land, tropical high forests and to small degree fuel wood plantations.
The major factors which  affects the energy  consumption  level include the availability  of wood,  climatic condition,  cooking  habit and  end-use efficiency  of given  community  groups and ecosystem under consideration.
In  areas with  abundant supply,  the annual per person  rate is between  1.5m and  2.3m , compared  with  level as low as 0.5m3.  Food  and  Agricultural Organization  1984,  however, indicated  that climate is not a major influence on  the fuelwood  consumption  in  semiarid zones of Tanzania,  where the rate fluctuate from 1.8  to  0.5m.3 rather the accessibility  plays a major role (Desai 1990).
2.2       Fuelwood Demand in Ethiopia and Data Used in Aysha Basin Study
2.2.1 Fuelwood Demand in Ethiopia
Like that of other underdeveloped  countries,  traditional sources provide a bulk  of energy  in Ethiopian  rural and  urban  communities.  This comprise,  the woody  biomass which  obtained from different land  cover unit ranging  from high  forest to  the farmland,  crop  residues and animal dung .
Al,hough  (here is no  basin  specify  studies on  fuelwood/ energy  consumption  recent studies in some pans of rhe country  shows that the regional values deviates from the national average (Afar and  Tigray  around  1.42  and  1.4m1 /head/annum respectively  where as the national average is around 1.22m /head/annum).
3
A v s li a D e v e I
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3Ministry of Waler Resources.—K i V U—fMSL-U-
p t v e I o p m c n I—s 1 u 11 1 e s
P e n a r I m c n t .
The devation of national averages from above indicated region specific studies
indications of variability in resources base and socio-economic situations. Amo g 
things like feeding habits and the farming systems contributes much.
According  to  EFAP task  force Report on  fuelwood  and  Energy  1992,  the total energy consumption  in  Ethiopia in  1988/89  was about 690428TJ (which  is equivalent to  47.6 million  tons of fuel wood) with  over 94% being  contributed  by  indigenous sources,  while the remaining  5.9% is supplied  from imported  energy.  Out of the total indigenous energy  supply the contribution  of fuel wood  is about 74.5%,  followed  by  agri-residues (14%) animate energy (9%) process residues (0.7% and hydro power 0.7%
As stated  in  the same report,  energy  consumption  for the household  sector is characterized  by three main  types of end  use,  namely  baking  and  other cooking.  The latter includes wat cooking  and  coffee making  and  water heating,  and  lighting  with  consumption  share of about 49.37% and  14% respectively.  The remaining  1% goes for ironing  and  other household activities.
So  as to  avert the ongoing  impact of population  pressure on  resources sustainability,  EFAP mission  has identified  development potential -and  formulated  intervention  strategies.  Among others,  urban  fuel wood  plantation,  agroforestry,  afforestation  are the major areas of intervention identified and proposed.
2.2.2   Data Used for Aysha Basin Study
Literally   speaking   about   99%   of   the   basin   energy   sources   comes   from   biomass.   However, there is no data base on the potential, constraints and contribution of each of them.
Thus,  the major strategy  used  to  estimate the resource base of each  traditional energy  sources is mainly  based  on  the national averages and  other relevant studies.  The details of each  is given under respective chapters.
A_y S h a 11 a s i n R
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4
-B-Q r iAs indicated  befor factories like availability  and  accessibility  to  the resources,  living standard,  type of economic activities,  climatic factors etc...  are important factors that governs the level and types of energy in a given community.
Because of such  and  such  variability  indicated  above,  globalization  of energy  demand  and supply  analysis is liable to  error.  Thus,  detail household  survey  is strongly  recommendable to come up with a reliable estimate of such issue.
In  the case of this study,  the latter activity  is constrained  by  the objective and  the given limited  duration  of study.  Thus,  the only  option  to  compute the basin  wide household  energy consumption  is adopting  the national average or the value of other regions which  has similar climatic zones and  level of development.  For better comparison  findings of different studies in the country are reviewed hereunder.
As the below table indicates,  the values are within  a range of l-1.42m3/yr./head.  Although most of studies out-put are very  closer to  each  other,  the Afar Forestry  Action  Plan  study  per head  demand  value is selected  rather than  the National averages for the following  main reasons:-
•    The Aysha Basin and the Afar National Regional State have similar
climates ( Bereha and Kolla climate types).
•    The level of economic development and the livelihood both in Aysha
and Afar are very much similar in comparison with other region.
• The living standard and are of similar type (in both cases pasturalism
dominates).
The   resources   base   mainly   vegetation   (both   has   wide   areas   of   bare land ). livestock and agricultural resources and climate have similarity.
Bare land designated in this repon as land units with sand dunes, saline surface soil and rock outcropes.Depart m c ill
Table 2.2.2.1 Findings of Different Household Energy Demand Supply Studies
Nr
Author
Year
Demand
(head/year
(in m3)
1
Adis Bah
1992
1.09mJ
2
Energy Authority
1989/90
1.24
3
MoA
1990
1.01
4
CESEN
1986
1.27
5
World Bank
1984
1.21
6
EFAP
1994
1.19
7
TFAP
1994
1.4
8
AFAP
1997
1.5
Hence,  the average per head  consumption  of the Afar Forestry  Action  Plan  is selected  in estimating  the Aysha Basin  energy  consumption.  The value will be computed  against population of the basin estimated by CSA 1998 and projected to 1999.
11 11—11 a * » n D-tf tflon.m c n
63.        Status of Institutions and Effectiveness
of Regional and Federal Policies
Although  the Aysha basin/ al respective reg.onal level (Sotnalta National Regional State) neither energy  policy  nor legislation  exists,  the Ministry  of Mining  and  Energy  of the Federal Governments has however, prepared a national level energy policy. As
policy the main objectives of this policies are.
.  To  insure  and  encourage  a  gradual  shift  form  traditional  energy  sources  use to modern energy sources;
•   To   set   a   general   guideline   and   strategy   for   the   development   and   supply   of energy   resources   and   to   increase   energy   utilization   efficiency   and   reduce wastage;
•     To  ensure  a  reliable  supply  of  energy  at  the  right  time  and  at  affordable price,      particularly      to      support      the      agricultural      development      lead industrialization strategy adopted by the government;
•      To   stream   line,   remove   bottlenecks   encountered   in   the   development,   and utilization   of   energy   sources   and   to   give   priority   to   the   development   of indigenous   energy   resources   with   a   goal   towards   attaining   self-sufficiency and   at   the   same   time   to   ensure   that   the   development   and   utilization   of energy is being in pace agreement to the environment.
The policy  prioritized  among  others,  taking  appropriate measures to  achieve a gradual transition  form traditional energy  to  modem fuels,  to  publicize standards and  codes which will ensure efficient use of energy,  developing  human  resources and  establishing  competent energy  institution  and  to  pay  due and  close attention  to  ecological and  environmental issues during the development of energy projects.
A. v s 11 a—5 j II_____________R c c 0 n n a
D_e_.v c I o n in i- n i Master
-L-a.i g d
7As a main policy issues, traditional and modem energy resources development in the
direction of country wide afforstation program and modernization of agro-residues use in 
sense of reducing its negative impact on soil fertility has been stated. For modem energy resources development of hydro-power, geo-thermal, coal, solar, gas and explora
promising areas has been elaborated.
Comprehensively  as a policy  measures conducting  research  on  all aspects of energy development and utilization to increase the reliability of energy supply, to arrest deforestation and control environmental pollution resulting from energy use and undertaking research to increase the energy of traditional stoves and develop more efficient use practice has been addressed.
Comparing the objectives of this study in light of integrated development master plan visa vice the federal energy policy, the latter complement the former and visceral. Particularly on issue of looking  for alternative energy  sources,  sustainabllv  supplying  the household  with sufficient energy at affordable price and promoting utilization of efficient cooking stoves and slow transition from traditional energy to modern energy sources, reflects more or less the ultimate purposes of this study.
Either  to  implement  the  federal  government  policies  or  to  formulate  the  regional  energy policies, institutions and man power capacity is minimal. Even at a regional level an energy Bureau has almost no energy experts . The feed back at zonal and wereda level is lacking. Even rhe offices of other relevant sector in woreda are located at Diredewa. which is far awav from Aysha woreda. Therefore, it is imperative to create and strengthen an energy institution which is interested with policy formulation priority setting and coordination of alt energy
sector development activities.
84.        Why do People Choose Between Different Energy Sources?
Being  an  essential component on  any  development inputs enery  sources can  be broadly divided  into  modern  and  traditional energy  sources.  Traditional energy  sources are those which  occupies the lowest position  in  hereunder indicated  energy  ladderf Dung.  Fuelwood and crop recidues), where as the modern energy sources are these located at the top of the ladder ( Electricity, kerosene and gas). The question is the reason behind choosing between these sources. As discussed in Mereb Basin Integrated Development Master Plan, the choise of energy sources is mainly affected by:-
•    Custom and price. Availability and convenience
•    Cost of device
Based on the above factors an ideal energy ladder can be constructed. The starting step in the system is fuelwood and the community moves up or down the energy ladder based on above stated factors. Since Aysha basin is not well availed with the modem energy sources and the options of crop residues and dug is limited by know how and the climate the community
A- > ' It d—Ha.     —He I’ u. n ii a i a n
LLy \ v I Q..D m v n I M a s i c r Plan
ILi
9LLCP a -M - '
r
cr1 '
5.        The Resources Base
5.1      Fuclwood Supply
This supply option mainly comes from woody biomass which can be collected from Forest land,  Farm land,  Revarine vegetation.  Swampy,  Marshy  area etc...  The annual sustainable energy  productivity  of these land units differ considerably. This is estimated based on the annual biomass productivity  of a given  area (AIY)3,  total area,  standing  stock4.  In  Aysha basin there is no study conducted with respect to AIY and the proportion of AIY that goes to fuelwood energy. This has limited to have a basin specific reliable woody vegetation AIY.
The present sustainable energy  production  capacity  of woody  -biomass resource is consequently, estimated based on the type and extent of Basins land use land cover estimated by  the land-use expert and  optimal fuelwood  productivity  of this land-use land  cover unit estimated  by  the Master Land-use Plan  Studies 1986.  The details of this potential by vegetation unit category is given in the table hereunder.
Table 5.1.1 Woody biomass energy potential of the Aysha Basin.
Vegetation unit
Open shrub land
Exposed rock surfaces
Exposed sand and soils Exposed sand and soils(ESS) tSSwith scattered grass and scrub
Total area in
(ha)
Energy in
mJ/vear/ha
2660
0. / m 7 hay r
J
12400
0.005 m/hu\r
16561
6 m/foa/yr
104497
0 m‘7ha/yr
104497
I^Total -------------------- -- ---------------------- -----
0 m 4iaAx
. 240615
Sources:-  Mission  estimates,  based  on  the  fuel  wood  productivity  per  year  per  hectare
estimated by National Land Use Plan 1986 and different land
use land cover type of the basin.
' The (tons A/IhaY/ iyrs t)he.   mean annual increment of air dried above ground woodv biomass growth 4  The Standing Stock is the air dried, above ground woody biomass in tons per hectare
lli-Aj; Li’4>-JU.iUL.l_.5.LiLSJ a-.u__S.ldi
n s K c r wr t[) LLP AJ- L m                        .
As indicated above in the basin there is no cultivated land The dominating land uni p 
shrub land and bareland of different catagories.
Thus in the basin 70% of the land unit is grouped under bare land, which could be eith abundant rock-out crop, sand-dunes or salt flat. The woodfuel productivity of such land cox er unit is estimated at nearly zero. The domination of this land cover unit and even its whole coverage in some localities puts the issue of fuelwood supply under question.
The most productive area with regard to woody biomass energy in the basin are the open shrubland  followed  by  exposed  rock  surface.  The sum of all land  units woody  biomass productivity makes the basins' woody biomass energy productivity to be 328 m /yr
Shortage of rain fall and high evapo-transpiration makes the option of supplementing such a low productivity  of woody  biomass through  plantation  forest makes deem.  Similarly,  the community is not environmentally aware with regard to such intervention. As a pre-condition to this, the nursery site in the potentially suitable areas are not established at all.
Charcoal is a secondary  fuel derived  from fuel wood.  The region’s supply  potential is therefore, already included in the data for fuelwood. To produce one ton of charcoal abut five tones of wood is required (Abay Basin integrated master Plan Study 1998).
5.2.   Crop Residues
Next to woody biomass, animal dang and crop residue makes a significant contribution to the household energy sources. The proportion of its contribution varies from place to place . In Ethiopia the higher values are on the high land areas where there is sever shortage of fuel wood and the climate fevers cultivation of annual crops..
In the lowland areas like
large scale or small scale
Aysha basin, where the moisture regime doesn’t allow to exercise crop production the opportunity is highly constrained. Additionally
A. y s h a Busi n Ioomeny
-U-iuulilx-JK
r-j
1 1n c I .1 D C V c .1 V P 111 j: n
u .1 V >
kLLlUjLAJLX—k}JL_W_iL lJCL_ ILfi S_Q_UX.CXJL—.JO A-C J_. .1) -L>Jj DXP-ILr-ULt ILl-
the costume of utilizing crop residues as sources ot energy may not well adapt
high land area.
The efforts made to quantify potential in the basin is limited by the unavailability c
data.
5.3.  Animal Dung
Cattle dung  is the most widely  used  traditional energy  sources by  Ethiopian  households. According some studies the total cattle population of Ethiopia in 1995/96 was about 31.756 Millions. The contribution of this huge resources to the energy sector is, therefore, high (9 /o). In the same manner, livestock raring is the key element in the economy of Aysha basin. This indicates the potential for the dung  availability,  though  no  information  is available with regard to the extent of its consumption by the rural households.
Estimate of dung productivity of a certain animal is dependent on specific site of biomass, water supply and seasons of the year. Productivity per TLU neither at regional nor at the basin level exists . Even at a national level the estimate is an average of few specific site trials.  Additionally,  mobile characteristic of pastoral community,  lack  of basin  specific livestock population and herd composition, limits the precession of efforts made to quantify this resources specific to the basin.
On table 5.3.1 below the data base of the livestock population which served as a base for quantifying dung resources is indicated.Table 5.3.1 Total Livestock population in Aysha basin
Livestock group
Total population
TLU
Dung (Kg)
Cattle
37750
26425
26425000
Sheep
13008
1300.8
920.9664
Goat
50799
5079.9
3596.569
Equine
3775
1510
1510000
Camel
21904
21904
21904000
Total
127236
56219.7
49843517.54
Source:-  Ministry  of  Water  Resources,  Dry  Basin  Integrated  Master  Plan  Development (reconnaissance level) Studies Mission estimates 1999.
Based on the national average per TLU  productivity
?
5  6  7, as indicated below, the total dung 
productivity in the basin is estimated to be 49843517.54 kg at 11.10 moisture content. When this is converted to energy value it is equal to 164484 Gcal/yr.
Table 5.3.2 Estimated Energy Value of Dung Produced in Aysha Basin
Livestock
group
Dung (Kg)
Energy (Kcal)
Energy(Gcal)
Cattle
26425000
87202500000
87203
Sheep
920.9664
3039189.12
3
Goat
3596.569
11868678.36
12
Equine
1510000
4983000000
4983
Camel
21904000
72283200000
72283
Total
49843517.54
164484
Source:-  Ministry  of  Water  Resources  Dry  Basin  Integrated  Development  Master  Plan (reconnaissance level) Studies Mission estimates 1999.
5 a cattle is .7 TLU. Camel I Tlu, Shoat 0.1 TLU and equaines 0.4 TLU
" One TLU of large animals produce about I tonne of manure per year and one TLU of small animals (shoals) can produce about 0.708 tonnes of manure at 11% moisture content.
7 There is 3300kilcal/kg of dung at 11% moslure level
A_x_bJi.ii._B_iuL_Lii—Rjuluji.d a. s > i.iULXais .Ljul d 1 n t5.4.     Modern Energy
The concept modern energy is used usually to express energy sources other than biomasss energy (dung, woody biomass and crop recidues). Broadly speaking modem energy includes oil products (kerosene, diesel and gasoline) and electricity. This sources of energy contributes on one way to the household energy need and on the other hand for energy requirement in transport sector, industrial sector, large scale agriculture heat and power, at a national level. The basin is however supplied with none of these .
6         Estimation of Aysha Basin Household Energy Demand
6.1      Current Status
Energy is required to perform a specific task. The task performed is technically known as an end-use. The major end use types identified to exist in the basin includes mainly backing, cooking, home lighting, ironing, beverage making and food catering.
A complex model of demand supply can be developed based on the different option of energy sources and corresponding end uses. In the case of this study however this option is limited by shortage of information. Thus, information given hereunder are in its aggregate form ( not an end use oriented). Accordingly, based on the population of Aysha woreda estimated by CSA 1998 and projected to 1999 with an average growth rate for urban and rural population of 2.15 %/ annum and the estimated household wood equivalent energy demand (see part data base) the energy demand in Aysha basin is roughly estimated at 14501 Gcal/annum.
6.2     Projection of Aysha Basin Energy Demand
Although   rural  urban  migration,  energy  consumption  per  capita,  energy  conservation, alternative energy sources are key variable to be used in projection of energy demand, in this
tkXJi Xft—Bjls i .u—Ks i a n
LX_I M a M u. -LLu-l.i jjL
|_ c_y
ju
1 4case, variables like population is taken into consideration with the following majo
assumptions:-
1    If the current population grow rate of the region will remain 3.2 (average of 2.23 for rural and 4.11 for urban)
2    No significant change in the energy consumption pattern Table 6,2.1 Projected Energy Demand of Aysha Basin
Year
Projected Population
Fuelwood(m3)
Energy(Gcal)
1999
48631
69055
14501.63
2000
49676
70540
14813.42
2001
50744
72057
15131.91
2002
51835
73606
15457.24
2003
52950
75188
15789.57
2004
54088
76805
16129.05
2005
55251
78456
16475.82
2006
56439
80143
16830.05
2007
57652
81866
17191.90
2008
58892
83626
17561.53
2009
60158
85424
17939.10
Source:-  Ministry  of  Water  Resources  Dry  Basin  Integrated  Development  Master  Plan (reconnaissance level) Studies Mission estimates 1999.
Ju —ILiUi J_n._ J< jlxjq
v. c I o p m e nl M .1 s i e r
A-i-LiL  JUL  AL.S__  Lev 
-ii l a jis_i u _d >i_._          J-L L
J.JUUULX5 JLsliL R e
-U-I: n c r r \________
1 5M.-1-0 r y—n_X_______ Water Resources. River Basu). Department-
D e v c I Q-P rn e-^-
Studies
7. Demand Supply Balance of Fuelwood Energy in Aysha Basin
Since there no  is indicative information  as to  the extent and  type of energy  source only consideration  is given  to  woody  biomass energy  balance.  Accordingly,  the supply  analysis indicated in section resources base the total energy available from woody biomass to be some 68.8  Gcal/annum.  Computing  this against the demand  estimate of 1999  given  above( 14501.63) Table 1 the balance will be roughly-/7-/32 Gcal/annum.
A_x. Ul_ii—IL a. s I n K c c o n 11 a n i_a_n -L-tf.,1 0 P ni L‘ n. I___ Master PI an.
1 68          Major Problems and Issues
8.1      Lack of Information
Although  shortage of information  takes a key  position  in  the problem profile of the region (Somali Region) the circumstance is more discouraging  in  the case of the Aysha basin. Before any  development effort an  assessment of resources both  in  quality,  quantity, distribution, potential and constraint would help in prioritizing the area of development. This challenge can be mollified in a short run if and only if the regional government can prioritize the exertion to derive a region specific data base.
8.2      Shortage of Man-power
Currently the energy sector of the Region as well as that of the basin is almost under staffed. As information from Mining and Energy Bureau indicates, only one energy experts exists at regional level.  This contributed  much  for the presently  existing  unorganized  information  and lack of development efforts in the Region in general and in the basin in particular. Thus, to mitigate the problem the region should focus to capacity building.
8.3      Poor End Use Efficiencies
The average efficiency  of utilization  for all fuel types and  stoves in  the household  sector at federal level is.estimated to 8.5% which is in other words means that over 90% of the energy consumed is un-utilised, being thrown away into the atmosphere. The problem can be sever in the case of the basin. The Region should able to promote the concept of energy saving and introduce the technique.  This may  include the closed  stove system with  optimized  inlet and out-lest air.
D c V e I op m c nt
1 78.4 Lack of Regional Level Energy Policy
Although  the federal government energy  policy  has been  issued  since 1994.  the more this policy  goes into  region  specific issues,  its practicality  can  be somehow reduced.  This is caused  mainly  due to  the variability  in  resource endowment,  culture,  economic and  social factors.
To this end, the need to prepare the regional energy policy should get a prior attention for promotion  of the sector.  Particularly,  this is of peramount importance to  prioritize energy development option based on the trend of economic status, resource endowment, purchasing power, culture and tradition of the society.
___ B_iLjJjL_KjL£_L» JLlMULk LotJLJO. J XJLJL .11 I Q
O_v.kJL.Lcui.jill n .1____ Mju>JL<i—ILLn_n—Sj u jLy_________ILuuu a s y_
UJ. XjL
.CV.c. $ il j— R slp.al r. i
1 89.
Feature Areas of Intervention
So as .0 reduce .he ex.snng and .he foreseen fueVenergy problem bo.h a. .he regional leve
and specific <0 .he basin .he goeermnen. should primarily focus a. data base• 
capacitv building, .hen based on existing developmen. po.enual and preva. mg pro 
deeelopmen. oprrons of.be energy secror should be prioritized. These area of development
may include:-
9.1     Promotion of Biogas Technology
The region can promote the concept as well as the biogas technologies in areas where there is enough  year round  water supply.  In  this way  the existing  huge dung  resources can  be sustainable exploited  and  there by  the currently  existing  tension  on  fuelwood  consumption can be mitigated .
9.2     Alternative Energy Sources
Alternative energy  sources like solar and  wind  energy  are the most important areas of intervention  in  such  remote areas where development of the bioenergy  and  hydropower is affected  by  inaccessibility  and  costly  nature of the projects.  Thus,  searching  for alternative energy sources will alleviate the problem if not once and for all,
9.3     Afforestation
Although  the unpredictability  and  shortage of rain  impose major problem in  the case of afforestation options, the region should exert all possible efforts in this area of intervention to be benefited  from multipurpose natures of afforestation,  in  this respect attention  should  be given to the salinity and desert adapted tree specie.
kx L-O-Pv I) I M a
I a n s L u
a;JL
-lk L H-llLaL
1 99.4      Capacity Building
The current status of energy sector indicates that the region should work much to bring off the required standard of energy institution. Hence the Region should give major emphasis to the area of capacity  building  which  will contribute ultimately  to  the basin  data base and development activities.Depart meji L
10 Reference Material
1            Afar Forestry Action Plan 1998. Fuel wood Energy Report
2             Ethiopian Forestry Action Programme (EFAP) 1994 Final report, Challenge for the Development, Addis Ababa Etiopia
3             CESEN 1986,. Bomass Energy Resources, Technical Report 1 Addis Ababa Etiopia
4 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environomenta Protection 1994 EFAP Volume 3 Issues and Action
5             Ministry of Water Resources 1997 Abay Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Study Report, Volume Population Supporting Capacity Models
Populaton and housing Census of Ethiopia 1996 Result For Somalia RegionMinistry of Water Resources, Basin Development Studv Department Avsha Basin Reconnaissance Phase Study
X
THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF H ATER RESOURCES
AYSHA BASIN RECONNAISSANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
Volume II: Natural Resources Study
A- Geology & Mineralogy B- Geomorphology & Soils C- Land use/C over
D-Forestry
E-Energy__________ F-Wildiile & TourismFEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
AYSHA-DEXVELE BASIN INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN
RECONNAISSANCE PHASE
WLIDLIFE AND TOURISM
February 2000FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
AYSHA - DEWLE BASIN INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN
RECONNAISSANCE PHASE
PART 1
WILDLIFE
AYS,U BAS,N“KDEV“
2FFBRUARY. 2000
DEVELOPMENT STUDIESDEPARTMENL.
MtNTSTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS
4
1.    INTRODUCTION
2. THE STUDY AREA
6
6
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
Location
and
Area
Climate  and
Land
Form
Soils Vegetation
Cover
Land Use
6
6
6
7
7
Population
.... 8
3. SITUATION ANALYSIS...
3.1.      Past History
3.2.
Current Situation.
3.2.1     Wildlife Habitat. 3.2.2     Wild Fauna
3.2.2.1      Abundance
3.2.2.2
3.2.23
3.2.2.4
Wildlife Distribution..
Wildlife Diversity........... Wildlife Endemicity...
3.2.3    Wild Flora
3.2.3.1 Plant Endemism
4. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION
..8
..9
.9
.9
...9
10
11
11
12
12
5.
6.
WILDLIFE UTILISATION
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
14
15
7.    THE INTERACTION BETWEEN WILDLIFE AND THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT. 16
7.1.      Climate.....16
7.2.      Population Pressure........................................................................................................................ 17
7.3.       AGRICULTURE........................................................................................................................................................... 17
7.4.      Poaching
7.5.      Depredation.................................................................................................................. ......... ...........
7.6.      Burning..................................................................................................................... ..... ...................
7.7.      Wildlife Population Dynamics;......................................................................................................... ■
8.     SPECIAL FEATURES OF THE AYSHA-DEWELE BASIN....................................................................\
9.     CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION............................................................................................ ;
13
aysiia basin resources development master plan study, reconnaissance phase.
wildlife and tourism.
3FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
1. Introduction
Ethiopia is a country endowed with a huge and untouched natural resources °             ~ water resources can standout prominently due to its importance to e exts. 
development of other resources and its unique character of trans emng e lm
interventions from one area to the other.
Though the country is provided with this immense resource, the spatial variability m
its distribution is the main challenge to policy makers and development agents alike There is a big discrepancy in the distribution of population, land resource potential
and water. The largest water resource of the nation is located in the Western ha
where only 30% of the population live and the land available for development is relatively small. The remaining half of the country with the balance of the population 
and a very extensive land resource for development is highly constrained by scarcity of water, as only 11% of the nations water resource is found there.
In addition to this, there is also temporal variability whereby water is highly available in some seasons and scarce or non-existent in others. In most cases, its availability coincides with  rainy  seasons during  which  the requirement for its abstraction  is minimum.  Accessibility  of water is also  another issue of importance.  Most of the rivers originate from the central highlands of the country where population pressure is high  and  the requirement for additional water resource is at a peak.  Almost all of these rivers cut deep into their course and are flowing far below the surface, hence making them available on the surface entails extra cost and comprehensive design and management.
The need  for an  Integrated  River Basin  Development Master Plan  had  therefore, emanated from this unbalanced distribution of natural resources particularly water, the current alarming  state of environmental degradation  and  the need  for sustainable utilisation of resources to meet the demand of an ever increasing population.
An Integrated River Basin Development Master Plan is a comprehensive and broad guideline for natural resources development to  stimulate social and  economic progress, drawing particular attention to the sustainable Use of the water resources These Integrated  Development Master Plan  Studies involve the preparation  of a complete outline of development possibilities of natural resources, laying dawn broad framework  of prioritised  development areas and  interventions. In doing so the plan would  take in  to  account the achievement of optimum output from the limited available natural resources without causing  adverse impact on  the environment the resource base and the society.
The Aysha-Dewele Basin  is one of the 12  River Basins of Ethiopia.  The Basin  is known to have no perennial river draining the area. It covers part of the country that has the lowest socto-econonuo  development and  an  arena of recurrent drought and frequent famines. The development of the Basin is highly constrained by X
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE-------------------------------------------------- WILDLIFE AND TOURISM. A'SSANCE PHASE*
4FEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT
STUDIES department
availability of water, which can be availed through 
Inter-Basin Transfer Schemes, Water Colleclton and Storage, Ground Water.
m '°j™bstraction of
These schemes though seem promtsing ar. limited by their
requirements and lack of sustainability. The rmplementat.on ofthese
require long term planning and studies for their economic, so 1 nrot>lems of the feasibility and may not be a solution to the prevailing socio-econom p inhabitants. Taking into consideration the fact that he
economic development of the basin can be ensured on y °ug schemes, resorting to other sectors that respond to the imme lae pro 
comP^X '
society without significant additional pressure on the resource base is indisputable
option.
One of such  sectors is Wildlife and  Tourism,  which  is known  to  bring  about a dramatic change to  the socio-economic development of the basin  in  addition  to satisfying the aesthetic and moral responsibilities of the society. But a great deal of striving is required to conserve, develop, promote and convert the sectors to income generating scheme.
Objectives of the study
The  main  objectives  of  this  reconnaissance  level  investigation  of  the  Wildlife  and Tourism resources of the Aysha-Dexvele Basin are:
•   to collect as much available secondary data as possible from different Federal and other Offices dealing with the development of the sector in one form or another.
•    to  make  a  reconnaissance  field  visit  to  different  parts  of  the  basin  in  order  to undertake   a   visual   resource   assessment,   gather   available   secondary   data   and information from Regional and other Offices and accessible primary data from the field.
• to identify infonnation gaps for the subsequent phases of the Master Plan Study.
to prepare a Reconnaissance Report that conform to the Ministries indicated phase with the necessary maps and annexes.
standard for the
Methodology
Apart from some attempts made to interview the eldprc Or>ri cc- •
Zone of the Somali National Regional State and  effort d offlcials of the Shinile
along the roads, the content of this report Is^ntir^ d 
* identify resources
obtained  from different Federal and  Regional Non  o  ependent on secondary  data
Offices involving  with  the sector.  Literature review of^d0™601? Internati°nal
into the resources of the basin has been made and ineo 
this study. 
made and ,ncorPorated into necessary parts of
SUFVeys conducted
AYSHA BAS1N FORCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PUWSTWyTeEonnT^------------------------------------------
WILDLIFE AND TOUR^M
NCE PHASE-
SFEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
2.      The Study Area
2.1.    Location and Area
Aysha Dewele Basin is located in the Eastern part of Ethiopia uhere
boundary is formed between Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia Repu ic. e
bounded in the West; South and Southeast by a watershed divide me o e
Dewele and Awash Basin. The Northern and Eastern boundary o t e asm is m
up of the Ethio-Somalia and Djibouti international borders.
The exact location of the basin ranges from latitude 10° to 11° N latitude to 42 "43 E longitude. The basin has a total area of 2223km , which is totally found in t e ini e
2
Zone of the Somali National Regional State.
2.2.    Climate and Land Form
The Aysha - Dewele Basin  is located  in  the extreme eastern  lowlands of Ethiopia characterised by its arid climate. The weather of the area is very hot, dry and calm. The temperature ranges from 18.2°c to 31.3 °c, with the daily average of 24.8 c.
Rainfall is very erratic, unreliable and extremely low. The mean annual rainfall of the basin  ranges from 185-325mm.  The inhabitants of the basin  reported  an  extended failure of rainfall, which in some cases may happen for a continuous period of 3-4 years.
Flat plain with scattered valley cut by seasonal floods characterises the land form of the basin. It is only in the Eastern part of the basin between the towns of Aysha and Dewele that one can  observe some hills here and  there.  The basin  has a low altitudinal range, which extends from 400 to 1200masl.
2.3.    Soils
In  general,  the basin  is characterised  by  low altitude plains with  volcanic and  rift landforms,  mainly  covered  by  shallow soils affected  by  salinity.  Rock  outcrops, intensively  faulted  lava fields with  fault scraps and  grabens filled  with  alluvium covers the Northern part of the basin. Stony, sandy and saline alluvial fans of variable moisture storing  capacity  do  exist at places. The major soil types that occur in the basin  are: Lithic Leptosols,  Eutric Regosols,  Haplic and  Sodic Solonchaks Haplic Gupsisols, Eutnc Fuvisols, Calsic Fluvisols, and Haplic Xelosols.
2.4.      Vegetation Cover
The vegetation cover of the basin is to large extent similar to that of the Ogaden Basin except for a large tract of bare land extending over a length of about 25km alone the
Dire Dawa - Djibouti highway. 
&
The Soulhen. pan of the basin is covered by a dense wooded bush land or shrub land 
and sparse grass undergrowth. W.th a decrease in rainfall as one move to rhe other end 
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE WILDLIFE AND TOURISM. NA1SSANCE PHAiE-
6MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
FEBRUARY. 2000
of the basin, the trees of the wooded grassland becomes progressively scattered and grass undergrowth patchy.
2.5.    Land Use
The unreliable and extremely low rainfall of the basin excludes crop production as a system of land use. The basin is inhabited by nomadic pastoralists who systematically utilise the extensive rangeland  of the basin  to  graze their livestock  seasonally.  In addition to this, the vast bare land found in the Eastern part of the basin is not under any form of use. The remaining part of the basin is covered by scattered and patchy vegetation mainly consisting of bush and shrub.
2.6.    Population
The Aysha - Dewele basin is exclusively inhabited by a single clan, Issa, of the Somali Nationalities.  The basin  is sparsely  populated  due to  the low Population  Support Capacity of the resource base and the inhospitable harsh weather characteristic of the area. Even, the existing population are largely mobile staying in the basin only during wet seasons. There are only two urban centres that are poorly developed, Aysha and Dewele.
The  total  population  of  the  basin  is  56,  605.  The  current  population  density  is  26 
persons per km", and will keep on increasing at an alarming rate in the coming years.
AYSHA BASlN resolrces development master plan st-UB7
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM
7FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
3. Situation Analysis
There is no any comprehensive study conducted on ^t0 status of the wildlife resource of the Aysha- Dewe e as . 
^mpt made to barricade
investigate  .he  resource  base  of  .he  basin  was  no.  successful  due  to  .he  bam created by the seasonal flood that blocked the main road.
In addition <0 this, .he Zone Department of Agriculture has no Wildlife and Forestry, and thus could not provide any form
Offices
resource base. To make matters worse, the Zone Admmtslrat.ve and Sector Offices are located tn Dire Dawa town that is found outside the region and far awayitom the basin. There is no functional office at Woreda level, which limited the information to be availed to hearsay.
During  the field  trip,  visual assessment along  the road  was made and  discussions conducted  with  elders and  Woreda Council Representatives.  It is based  on information  obtained  in  such  a manner and  extrapolations from similar ecological conditions that the description  of the situation  of wildlife in  the basin  have been attempted.
3.1.Past History
According  to  information  obtained  form elders,  the past history  of wildlife of the basin was very glorious, the basin being covered by a mixture of trees, shrubs and bushes with a grass undercover.  Areas around  seasonal flood plains and along the river channel were covered by a wide variety of vegetation, which remain green for part of the year. The settlement pattern was very sparse, which reduced the pressure on the resource base by both human and livestock to the level that is required to check the domination of one form by another.
The whole basin was also known to be inhabited by a large number of wildlife, big and small. Large Ungulates were common everywhere throughout the basin, and were in balance with the corresponding large predators who were significant in controlling their population from increasing beyond the carrying capacity of the area. There were no significant conflict between these animals and the human interest in the basin.
In the last three decades, several situations that threatened the sole survival of these antmals had been witnessed. There is a dramatic increase in the human and livestock population  as a result of natural growth  and  immigration  from other parts of the country. There was tremendous destruction of the natural habitat to make room for settlement, for opportunistic cultivation along the river courses, source of fuel and construction material. The. limited resource available in the basin became scarce and was followed by vicious competition with the wildlife.
TT    °C    “Tn    alS0      VMy      fast      as      a      resi,“    of    the    repealed    boarder
conflict with  the  Somaha  Republic  and  the then  notorious illegal
trade  across the
boarder  with  Somaha  and  Djibouti.  There  was  also  a  change  in  the  climaric components. Increased unreliability and variability of rainfall, aridity of foe weXr
8FEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
and the subsequent deterioration of the natural environment was highly favoured by the change in climate.
All the above stated circumstances imposed a limitation on the distribution and diversity of wildlife resulting in a decrease in P°P^ ™
’
’
retreat  into  isolated  pockets  of  others  and  extinction  of  theRemaining^wildlife* 
Currently, except for some common species of wi le a
basin
everywhere, it is rare to spot many of the wild animals that are used to roam the basin.
3.2.         Current Situation
3.2.1    Wildlife Habitat
The Southern and Western part of the basin is relatively well covered by vegetation than the remaining area. The density of vegetation tends to increase around seasonally flooded areas, along the seasonal river channels and the sides of hills. The vegetation is generally dominated by Acacia woodland with a fair under growth of grass. Acacia commiphora is common  in  this area.  Some Ungulates and  likely  some predators inhabit this area.
A bare land devoid of any vegetation cover dominates the central part of the basin. This area is unlikely to support any form of wildlife due to the absence of the required resources. However the presence of small forms of wildlife could be suspected.
The Eastern and Northern part of the basin is covered by sparse vegetation that grows over a dominantly volcanic type of soil. The vegetation of this zone appears green and stunted basically due to aridity and moisture stress. Wildlife that can withstand aridity and extreme desiccation can exist in these areas.
As far as human population is concerned settlement pattern is very sparse due to the unfavourable environment offered by the area. There is no cultivation in the basin and the existing populations are largely nomads using the area as a wet season grazing 
land. This dispersed settlement pattern favours the availability of a wide varietv of wildlife.
There is a refugee camp amidst the basin. The pressure the presence of these refugees exerts on the surrounding environment is so critical that no standing vegetation can be
observed in the vicinity of the camp. 
3.2.2     Wild  Fauna
3.2.2.1 Abundance
impossible. Bui, still
.
X
Wi 'dlif' “
ecological condition and the given socio-economic devetopmeJ'hZbX^^
” s'“
9FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTME.---------------------------------
to  narrate  some  issues  of  importance  that  can  serve  as  a  springboard  for  future investigations that could be carried out in the area.
During  the field  visit some three Soemmering  G^e11®’ *  "^p^cies of birds (not
Warthogs, Squirrels and Rabbits have been spotte / identified) were seen along the road across the asin- interviewed at Aysha and Dewele towns also confirme e p of certain species of ungulates whose description fits that o a
inhabitants of the basin r pcence in large number
Dick Dicks
These inhabitants also reported the presence of Leopard, Lion, Hyena, Baboon, Fox and other small forms of wildlife.
According to the result of Wildlife count undertaken in Jijiga and Shinile Zone of Region Five, Somalia, there are numerous Gerenuk, Gazelle and Foxes in the Shim zone. This programme of counting was aimed at inventorying and evaluation o t t e size and distribution of wildlife in the two zones and at the preparation of a better conservation and control strategy. But the objective of the study was not successfully accomplished  due  to  several  reasons  the  main  ones  being  ascribed  to  bad  security situation and inaccessibility.
The widely scattered settlements and the sparse density of the inhabitants as well as their livestock do not make the basin an uncomfortable habitat to wildlife. There will also be no solemn competition for feed and water as is common in most arid areas and the level of poaching  is not alarming.  The distraction  of the habitat is not also widespread and restricted to areas of settlement and refugee camps.
Another ecological factor that favours the improvement in the status of wildlife is the harsh environmental condition manifested by the basin. With extreme aridity, dryness, severe scarcity of feed and water, the basin is not attractive to potential competitors, precluding habitation and/ or frequent visit by human being and their livestock. The economic activity  of the basin  is largely  nomadic pastoralism mainly  due to  the limitation imposed by the natural environment. This system of production allows the use of the area as a wet season grazing for their livestock, the fact that give wildlife a chance to roam freely during the off-seasons.
All these ecological and  socio-economic conditions of the basin  are in  favour of
—.
“ ,ha*Canbe resis,ed by
3.2.2.2  Wildlife Distribution
,o ,he
r
ai
wirxjs i,?ainiy
The km W8. of the of thp:x^rt Ahna,ure of ,he “imai i,Mir-
-have'a^tetrimemtal so vemed by habitat
understanding    of    their    habitat    preference    in    tnrf    r    ,    1S      lmPortant       in 
,„
0
and also assists in the development and mana eme”,Vf thTresoum"''’" "
g
5 PUrP°SK
A,s“
10FEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT^
The Western part of the basin with relatively better coverage °f
^ese areas
of trees, shrubs and grasses seems very attractive to ungu ates an 1              information
that the Gazelles, Warthogs, and Dick D.cks have been spotted. obtained from elders also confirmed the presence of many wi am Ostriches, Francolins, Guinea fowls, Pigeons and numerous lr s can 
information
.
the main road. This area can also undoubtedly harbour small forms of animals such as Reptiles, Insects and Amphibians.
A wide tract of bare land, which is not inhabited by man and is not frequented by livestock, dominates the central part of the basin. The absence o any vege a ion 
the area is an indication of the lack of feed and water, which could be a uniting ac or
to the distribution of wildlife in the area. But one cannot rule out the existence o different animals adapted to the local condition.
The Eastern and Northern part of the basin has sparse vegetation on volcanic soils and is relatively well settled. Though the rough terrain of this part comprising of hills and valleys is conducive to  the distribution  of wildlife,  the limited  vegetation  available cannot support many  animals.  This area is very  favourable to  the proliferation  of Reptiles and detailed investigation in to this and other forms of wildlife is urgently required.
The establishment of a refugee camp  in  this area can  also  limit the distribution  of wildlife to inaccessible pockets and hillsides where the condition of the vegetation is better and the peace tranquil.
3.2.2.3  Wildlife Diversity
The ecological settings of the basin are homogenous throughout the study area and similar conditions continue in to the neighbouring basins. The absence of
heterogeneity in the basin has influence on the diversity of wildlife. The limited information available on the type of wildlife that inhabits the basin cannot enable establishment of the level of diversity.
The local variability that is exhibited in the Eastern and Northern part of the basin though limited can enhance the diversity of small forms of wild animals provided that the environment is protected from further deterioration.
3.2.2.4  Wildlife Endemicity
There is no endemic wildlife recorded in the .basin. The presence in the basin of ngulates endemic to the Hom of Africa is not yet ascertained, but the manifestation 
of similar ecological condition and the geographical location of the area which is very close to the mentioned sites, can lead one to suspect their possible existence.
The proximity of the basin to the North-eastern and and Danah.i Basins respeetiveiy. wbaTS"
africanus) is known to ex st and the uniformity that i« 
, Ass (£?»««
.hat     of     the     basin     can     increase     the     susn     Z     rft     'habitats     wiB. 
study area. 
suspicion of the presence of these animals in the
11FEBRUARY.
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASfNS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
In the evolutionary process of adopting themselves to t e uniquen environmental condition prevailing in the basin, some animals might ave un physiologic and phenotypic differentiation that can lead to t e at Endemicity. Such evolutionary changes are highly pronounced on  *P  orm
sa
wildlife such as Reptiles. A detailed investigation into the level of Endemicity o wildlife in the basin is a timely task the regional government should undertake.
3.2.3 Wild Flora
3.2.3.1 Plant Endemism
The unique Biophysical characteristic of the Aysha Dewele Basin have dictated the formation of plant species that are restricted to the area, resulting in high level of endemism.  The Ogaden  proper in  the South-eastern  Ethiopia is very  rich  in  arid species and  has a tremendous diversity.  The study  area being  an  extension  of the Ogaden proper and sharing the same ecological settings is suspected to exhibit similar level of Endemicity. This can be ascertained by the location of the basin, which is found within or adjacent to the South-eastern Escarpment and Eastern Slope Centre of Plant Endemism.
These conditions are very  encouraging  to  undertake a detailed  Botanical and Taxonomic investigation  in  to  the basin  that can  possibly  yield  ample number of endemic species.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE.
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
12FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
4.       Wildlife Conservation
Currently there is no any area set aside in the basin for the purpose of conservati wildlife. There is neither the policy, programme and strategy nor does a ega o 
that is responsible for the protection of the resource. The Region ureau 
Agriculture, the sole organisation that is responsible for the conservation, pro ec ion 
and development of the wildlife resource is not currently making appreciab e e ort o 
this end and does not have the financial, personnel and other logistic capacity at its disposal to accomplish the task.
The main reasons behind the absence of conservation measures in the basin could be the lack of information that could have served as a basis for formulation of policies and  programmes and  establishment of appropriate conservation  measures.  This necessitates the launching  of a comprehensive wildlife survey  in  the basin  that is aimed  at identifying  the potential resources and  areas of scientific and  research importance.
The Aysha-Dewele Basin  has got some positive merit,  which  can  make it a competitive candidate to be nominated as a priority conservation area. The basin has a common boarder with Djibouti and the Republic of Somalia. The establishment of conservation areas along these boarders and creation of a safe heaven to wildlife can facilitate easy in-migration of animals from these countries in addition to retaining its own animals from fleeing the area.
The basin can also serve as a migration corridor or a retreat pocket for animals of a high wildlife potential areas of the neighbouring Awash and Ogaden Basins.
The unique features the basin  shares with  northern  Danakil,  i.e.  the availability  of animals and  plants adapted  to  salinity  and  aridity,  which  could  serve as a life insurance species m case of catastrophe associated  with  sea level rise and  the ^sequent overflow of the hinterland  by  saline water.  These situations and  the
strate ic
o         position 
of   the   basin   can   warrant   the   establishment   of   some   sort   of
conservation measure appropriate to the area.
AYSHA BASIN RES0LRCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER
- ---------------------
wildlife and touwsm ANCE phase
13FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
5.       Wildlife Utilisation
Wildlife has several uses to the society living in the immediate environment, the
nation and the international community thousands of kilometres away. The use o wildlife can range from aesthetic and ethical to sustainable income generating sector involving a wide range of community.
The presence in the basin of a wide variety of vegetation is by itself a national heritage and  a store of wealth.  The vegetation  cover of the basin  is being  utilised  by  the inhabitants for a variety of purposes. The main feed of the livestock in the basin is derived from the grasses, bushes and shrubs growing in the area. The fruits, pods and roots of some plants are also  serving  as an  ingredient in  the human  diet or as an emergency food in times of famine.
Since the basin is located in remote part of Ethiopia, where health facilities both for human and livestock are inaccessible or unaffordable, the role wild plants play as a medicament for different ailments is very significant though it is obscured in the air of secrecy. Many plant species in the basin are believed to have such medicinal value and their proper identification requires unveiling of this social taboo.
Fuel wood  for energy  source,  poles for construction  and  making  of utensils is harvested  from the vegetation  of the basin.  The sale of fuel wood  and  charcoal, though environmentally destructive is a source of income to many of the inhabitants.
The value of the live tree serving as a shade and a shield from wind in such a harsh environment both  for human  and  livestock  should  not be underestimated.  Protection against wind and water erosion is also the most important contribution this vegetation is making toward conserving the natural environment.
Hunting of Ungulates for subsistence purpose is common. The available information cannot lead to the establishment of the level of poaching and preference of species. Except Warthog  whose consumption  is prohibited  by  the religion  of Islam,  the dominant religion in the basin, all other edible animals are being hunted. There is no indication of hunting for trophy and as cultural practices. The collection of Ostriches egg for medicinal purpose is wide spread.
The non-consumptive use of wildlife is not recognised in the basin. Its reco<mition as one system of wildlife utilisation requires a dramatic change in the living standard and outlook  of the society.  The development of this type of utilisation  has a positive impact on the consumptive use of wildlife.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE pmacp WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
14FEBRUARY. 2000_____
MINISTRY OF WATER
RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENTSTUDIESDEP^glMEfl-
6. Threats to Biodiversity
Global Warming  is currently  an  alarming  issue of international imp  increase in  the this global wanning  is associated  with  decrease in  tbe "^pecieTcan  be at stake, 
unreliability of rainfall, the survival of many p ani an Both animals and plants tend to survive under certain ’eve
aridity and moisture
stress. However, they succumb to further increase in the ^el°f stress, permanent or temporary disappearance of some spec
imminent.
The fate of the Aysha Basin is not far from this circumstance. The5
is increasing from time to time and there is an expansion of desert like cond 
case
.g
of ^jifron
toward the eastern highlands. The areas affected by this condition are P^cally 
devoid of any vegetation and has totally lost its life support capacity. The mpact ot
this movement of desert like condition is therefore considered as the severest threat Biodiversity of the basin.
The presence of large number of refugees in the basin in an area between Aysha town and  Biye Gurgura,  poses additional threat to  the Biodiversity.  Indiscriminate poaching  of wild  animals for subsistence,  clearing  of vegetation  for settlements and collection  of firewood  for fuel are some of the types of pressure being  exerted  by refugees on the resource base. The practice of hunting being practised by local people puts additional strain on the wildlife of the area. This is also enhanced by the wide spread presence of illegal firearms and ammunitions on the hand of some individuals.
The seasonal use of the basin  as a wet season  grazing  site for the livestock  of the nomadic pastoral community, who keep more animals than the system can carry has contributed  much  to  the deterioration  of the ecosystem.  The traditional rangeland management system of the pastoralists involves burning  of the vegetation  for the purpose of encouraging  lush  growth  and  tick  control.  This fire,  which  inmost cases can  go  out of control and  inflicts a huge damage both  to  the plant and  animal community has also its own share of the blame. The impact of this practice of burning on  the wildlife habitat,  the young  of mammals and  birds,  crawling  animals and  the disabled who are not fast enough to make a successful escape is deleterious.
Removal  of  vegetation  m  any  of  its  form  from  the  surface  exposes  the  topsoil  to different  types  of  erosion  mainly  to  the  impact  of  rainfall  splash  and  wind  The resulting increased run-off, and kinetic energy of wind and the subsequent water and wind erosion can cause physical removal of the soil, reduce the mineral available to 
*
vegetation growth and increase the silt load of river beds which in t. 
? to
negative impact on  the stability  of the river banks and  the survival of aquatichfe * 
other  interested  parties  in  planning  the  most  efficient  and  2  r  T*  dev'lopment   and the problems and minimise the impact of any development onlhem.5'™''61'5 ‘° S°1V'
15FEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
7.     The Interaction between Wildlife and the Natural Environment
The most interesting and challenging aspect of the na
strong and complex interaction that exists between its 10 ic
both individually and among communities. The survival of one or
abiotic components constituent of
the natural environment is directly or indirectly dependent on the condit on of he others. Man, being the prime user of these natural resources, his ultimate surv. 
closely connected to the availability and sustainable use of these reso • 
extent, man has the power and will in his hand that can enable him decide the
the natural environment.
Population of both fauna and Hora is very dynamic, swinging from one extreme to the other, the swing being variable in magnitude based upon the seventy of the impacts determining the phenomenon. There are several issues and components of the natural environment that can dictate the shift of one or more variables to any direction, the level of change being  limited  by  natures in-built and  man  made mechanisms. The understanding and appreciation of these interactions can serve as a basis for planning the sustainable use and management of the resource base.
7.1. Climate
The Bio-physical characteristics of an area is directly or indirectly influenced by the climate. Climate is the major determining force behind the availability, abundance, distribution and diversity of wildlife in the basin. When one looks in to the food chain of organisms in the basin, the basic component is the availability of green vegetation in  the required  condition  upon  which  herbivores shall depend  for survival and reproduction.  The sustainable growth  of vegetation  on  the other hand  is highly influenced by climatic factors particularly rainfall. The variability of rainfall in the basin over time and space has resulted in local differences in the type and distribution of vegetation, and in-tum wildlife.
Drought, taken as resulting from extended dry condition is a recurrent phenomenon in the basin. The occurrence of drought is directly related to the availability of feed and water. The local and external migration and eventual death of wild animals of the study area, the temporary as well as permanent disappearance of some vegetation and the consequent adaptation to drought conditions or development of resilience against prolonged water stress m all forms of life are characteristic of wildlife of the basin triggered by dry conditions.
Extreme aridity has also exposed the wildlife of the basin to pass through the process of natural selection resulting in the statuesque continuation of some, undergoing of adaptive evolution by others and local or total extinction of the remaining.  °
The role climate plays in shaping the wildlife and other components of the natural environment is very crucial that understanding of the processes and i t J
between the two can enable those closely involving with them establish a mXTsm
±
AYSHA BAS“CESDEV~^
16FEBRUARY. 2000 M.N.STRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUD1ESDEPARTMENT.
by which the direction and magnitude of change can be predicted so tha corrective measures can be taken on time.
7.2. Population Pressure
Banking facilities.
The livelihood of both the human and livestock population is directly or indirectly dependent upon the faunatic and floristic resource of the basin. Widespread hunting of ungulates, over grazing of the pasture and deforestation is the impact of population pressure. This is further exasperated by the presence of large number of refugees in
the basin.
7.3.    Agriculture
In addition to the excessive removal of vegetation by livestock which exposes the soil to the impact of rainfall splash and other forms of erosion, the effect of trampling and disturbance of the soil while uprooting grasses is increasing the rate of loss of top soil. Though  not extensive,  the limited  cultivation  being  practised  is not conservation oriented.  The already  vulnerable ecology  of the basin  is under deterioration  by unregulated use of the land with less return from investment.
Clearing of vegetation for agricultural development, disturbance of the soil and the subsequent expansion of settlement in an area that could have been important wildlife habitat is not only diminishing their feed resource base, but also is forcing them to retreat in to inaccessible isolated pockets.
7.4.    Poaching
17FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
speeding up the rate of disappearance of wild animals.
7.5.      Depredation
Human being is naturally granted with the ability and power to control and make a wise use of the resources contained in the universe. In striving for surviva an in an attempt to  satisfy  his greed  sentiment,  man  uses and  over uses the resources he is endowed with, the extreme cases of which can recompense him with a backlash from the side of the victims.  One of such  requital actions is the- manifestation  of Depredation.
Depredation  is the main  negative and  direct impact of wildlife on  the interests of human being. Depredation could be a sort of retaliatory response on the part of the wildlife or a claim they are making on equitable share of the resource base.
Three forms of depredation has been identified in the basin:
Crop Raiding: this type of depredation is not as extensive as that is happening in other parts of the country,  but the net effect is so  grave when  weighed  against the poor harvest they  are making.  Some bird  species,  Monkey,  Baboon,  Porcupine and Warthog  are the main  culprits responsible for these actions.  The contribution  of insects and small forms of wild animals in this respect should not be undermined.
Livestock raiding: Small Ruminants, Cattle and Ass are the main victims of this type of Depredation. The killing of livestock by wild animals is mainly the repercussion of human  interference.  The consequence of such  action  can  irritate the owners and justifies any  form of revenge against wild  animals.  Hyena and  Lion  are the major wild animals involving in such depredations.
AYSHA BAS,NR^U,“LL0H"
18FEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPART.-----------
7.6. Burning
II1C Idil£C vy i iviv.
---------------- u*
settlement and to drive wild animals out of their habitat.
all types of animals and disabled ones are the main victims, crawling <uiu»a.B reptiles will not survive any form of burning. The lush growth of grasses following 
burning and rejuvenating trees attracts large herd of livestock and their herders in to 
*
.
. i i’_______________x___ orc in tn
the wildlife habitat, an intruder with whom the wild animals are not comfortable.
7.7.      Wildlife Population Dynamics
Population  growth  is  not  a  static  phenomenon  or  does  not  show  a  uniform  growth against  time  as  is  represented  by  a  straight  line  on  the  graph.  Population  of  both flora and fauna is dynamic changing frequently in response to the change in other factors determining their state. In any ecosystem, there exists a definite food chain, which   consists   of   Primary   producers   (Green   vegetation),   Secondary   Producers (Herbivores), whose survival is entirely dependent on the availability and accessibility to  primary  producers.  The  last  group  on  top  of  the  food  ladder  is  the  Predator (Carnivores),  which  in-tum  feed  on  Secondary  produces.  The  last  category  i.e. Carnivores composed of predators such as Lion, and / or Scavengers such as Hyena.
In  an  equilibrium environment there will be a perfect match  between  the three components of the food  chain.  In  this closed  system,  there is no  net export of nutrients,  as a loss from one component shall be trapped  by  the other In  reality however, such a system hardly exists, due to the effect of extraneous factors such as climate and human interference.
19MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
FEBRU/KRY, 2000
problem that had  erupted  in  the Fadis  Woreda could  possibly  be  transferred  to the basin.
Another important incident with  this respect is the over harvesting  of predators through  hunting  for adventure and  trophy  or death  due to  disease or hunger.  The reduction in number of predator can minimise the natural check on the population of herbivores,  ensuing  in  their overstocking  of the habitat.  The increase in  population beyond  the carrying  capacity  of the ecosystem can  induce out-migration,  create conflict with human interests and can cause massive death of starvation.
This is a negative feed back mechanism where by the population checks its own over growth. By the combined impact of these, the population will either go back to normal or will be over checked from where the cycle starts again. This situation happened in the past when the military used to kill lions and other predators in the basin.
The reduction in the number of both herbivores and carnivores as a result of hunting and  disease can  result in  under utilisation  of the vegetation.  The absence of these animal who used to check the domination of certain species in the-ecosystem, give a competitive advantage to  dominating  species over others their by  invading  and increasing their domain. This situation can lead to a fierce competition for nutrient water and light. The consequence of such invasion of ecosystem by some species has implication on Biodiversity. The problem of bush encroachment in different parts of the basin and the subsequent disappearance of dominated species is the result of such phenomenon.
The role of climate and human intervention in shifting the stable symbiotic existence of these organisms to any direction is crucial. The control over climatic components influencing the ecosystem is far from reach in the near future. Man with his ability of control over some components of the ecosystem and the obligation bestowed in him to make sustainable use of these resources for his own benefit and preservation of these heritage for future generation should make every effort to understand and manipulate the resource in a proper manner.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHaSF*" WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
20MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
FEBRUARY, 2000
8.     Special Features of the Aysha-Dewele Basin
The Aysha-Dewele Basin is one of the hottest parts of Ethiopia known to exhibit sever aridity and desiccation. Prolonged drought of over a consecutive period of 3-5 years is common according to the information obtained from local officials. The area is also a former sea basin that left the legacy of high salinity in the soils, which are mainly volcanic and sandy.
The vegetation growing in the area has gradually adapted themselves to these extreme conditions of salinity  and  aridity  by  undergoing  some anatomic and  physiologic modifications. The animals of the area are also resistant to extreme heat and moisture stress and  depends on  these plants for survival.  They  are also  highly  mobile,  the strategy they employ to buffer extreme situations.
There is a growing concern and even frustration among the international community toward the increasing global warming and the consequent sea level rise that might end up  in  over flooding  of the terrestrial areas.  The conservation,  development and detailed understanding of these salinity and aridity adapted plants and animals could be a guarantee for survival in  face of such  catastrophe.  The protection  and development of these areas is an issue of global importance and the value of the basin as a provider of live saving species is so significant that special emphasis is urgently required.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
21MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
FEBRUARY. 2000
9.   Conclusion and Recommendation
The wildlife potential of the Aysha-Dewele Basin  is fair both  in  abundance and diversity.  The habitat is not highly  disturbed  in  places and  settled  moderately.  e animals and  plants of the basin  developed  resilience against salinity, aridity, water stress and high pressure of grazing and browsing.
The main  threats to  the existence and  development of wildlife are absence of any conservation measures and laws with an appropriate enforcing body; proliferation of arms,  indiscriminate poaching  by  the inhabitants,  refugees and  returnees and competition for scarce resources with livestock. The combined impact of these threats is reflecting on the condition of wildlife in the basin in a form of reduced abundance and diversity, local or total extinction and habitat deterioration.
If the basins population  are to  benefit from this immense and  diverse wildlife resources and at the same time conserve and preserve this national heritage for the future generation, an immediate step that reverse the current status should be taken. The following points are forwarded for due consideration by the concerned body:
-Identification and delineation of important wildlife habitats and corridors to and from water as well as feed resource base.
-Detailed investigation of the wildlife potential including the inventory of mammals, birds, reptiles, small forms of wildlife and plant species.
-Preparation  of conservation,  protection  and  management plans,  policies and programmes and  their subsequent implementation.  These plans,  programmes and policies should give more emphasis to the prevailing ecological and social conditions. All effort has to  be made to  participate the local community  in  all levels of management including benefit sharing.
-Identification and special protection of globally important areas and species with co operation of other national and international organisations.
-Confiscation  of illegal arms or their legal licensing,  restriction  on  movement of refugees,  strict control over contraband  trade and  banning  of illegal hunting  are
recommended 
°
s
AYS,,A BASIN RES0URCES development master plan siudy. reconnaissance phasT
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM
E
22FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
AYSHA-DEWELW BASIN INTEGRATED
DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN
RECONNAISSANCE PHASE
PART 2
TOURISM
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
Table of Content
1.       Over View
2.        Tourism Potential of the Aysha-Dewele Basin
2.1.    Current Status of Tourism in the Basin.......................................................................
2.1.1.      Natural Attractions 2.1.1.1.       Wildlife
2.1.13.     HotSpring
2.1.2.       Historical Resources2
25
76
2.13.      Archaeological Attractions
2.1.4.     Cultural attractions.....................................................................................................................2®
3.        The importance of Tourism to the Socio-economic Development of the Basin30
4.        Status of Tourism Facilities and Services in the Basin31
4.1.    Communication31
4.2.    Hotels, Restaurants and Lodgings31
4.3.    Financial Institutions..................................................................................................... 32
4.4.    Water Supply32
4.5.    Electricity32
4.6.    Education32
5.       Main Constraints to the Development of Tourism33
6.       The Attitude of the Local Community34
7.       Conclusion and Recommendations
24FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
1. OverView
The environmental support capacity of the Aysha-Dewele Basin at its current state of development is not capable of satisfying the ever-increasing deman o e as
growing population. The fragility of the natural environment does not allow a higner
rate of removal of resources than is being utilized. Recurrent drought o owe y 
famines and manifestation of human tragedy is part and parcel of the inhabitants.
Reversal of such  situation  requires a dramatic increase in  the productivity  of the resources available for sustainable utilization.  This,  on  the other hand,  is hig  y constrained  by  the availability  of water.  The unreliable and  erratic rainfall in  t e basin imposed a nomadic way of life on the local population, a system the can allow them systematic mobility over a wide territory to spread risk.
The productivity per unit area of nomadic pastoralism in terms of total energy is by far lower than that of crop production under normal circumstances. The conversion of the existing  production  system into  the latter involves a nearly  impossible task  of changing  the unreliable environment into  reliable one.  This task  with  a given technology,  available financial and  technical capability  and  the expected  economic viability weighed against priorities in the list of the Regions’ development options is unlikely to be realized in the near future.
But,  until circumstances permit,  the promotion  and  development of different economic sectors that can improve the socio-economic status of the inhabitants with no or less pressure on the already deteriorating resource base should be one of the direction policy makers in the regional government should follow.
One such development option with no or minimum additional demand on the natural resource,  but believed  to  bring  about a remarkable improvement in  the socio economic development of the basin  with  out causing  any  adverse effect on  the environment is Tourism. Tourism is a modem, environmentally friendly industry that can substantially change the livelihood of those directly or indirectly involved in it. In  addition  to  increasing  foreign  exchange earnings,  boosting  government revenue, stimulating indigenous industries and encouraging the development of infrastructures’ facilities and services, the role tourism plays in establishing friendship, solidarity and fraternity among the international community is discernible.
The absence of any  effective government body  in  the basin  and  the less emphasis given by the Zone Bureau of Trade, Transport and Tourism to the sector is reflected by the lack of any type of information on the tourism resource and its potential for
future development. 
r
AYSHA BAS,N ^SOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHasF WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
25FEBRUARY, 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
2. Tourism Potential of the Aysha-Dewele Basin
2.1.      Current Status of Tourism in the Basin
Tourism, in any of its form is non-existent in the basin. There is neither any  *udy 
s
conducted so far in tourism industry nor does any plan to undertake the same in t e near future.  The main  bottleneck  to  this being  the shortage of information  on  the resource,  lack  of appreciation  by  regional decision  makers and  absence o  experts purely dealing with the development of the sector. Due to these reasons, the tourism industry is not making any contribution to the overall development of the region as well as the national economy.
The basin has a good potential and opportunity for development of the sector. The necessary supporting infrastructures, facilities and services are in their lowest level. The remoteness of the basin  from the seat of the Zone Officials can  possibly discourage many private investors from involving in promotion of the sector. But due to  the fact that tourism is not a basin  limited  economic activity, joint actions and activities with the neighboring basins and regions can highly improve the situation.
2.1.1.  Natural Attractions
2.1.1.1.  Wildlife
The Aysha-Dewele Basin is suspected to be home to abundant and diversified wildlife species, some of which are endemic to the' Hom of Africa. The basin as a whole can be considered as a conducive habitat for different kinds of wildlife. Though detailed investigation into the wildlife potential of the basin have not been conducted, some previous studies and discussions held with elders of the basin indicate the presence of several Ungulates throughout the basin. One can also suspect the habitation of the area by different kinds of reptiles and small creatures from the ecological settings of the basin.
The flat terrain of the basin along with openness of the vegetation can provide a better visibility to. those tourists who are interested in watching and camera shooting 
different wild animals. The presence of huntable species that can promote sport
hunting, the leisure many Europeans and Americans are increasingly searching for requires the identification of such species before allowing hunters into the area based up on their population dynamics and other important criteria. Chase, capture and 
release of some species is also a very attractive sport in some parts of the world and needs promotion in the Aysha-Dewele Basin.
The unique features exhibited  by  the wildlife of the basin  are very  attractive to ecologists and other scientists who are interested in undertaking investigations into the relationships and adaptive evolution these animals and plants have gone through 
before attaining their current status. 
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHaCf’ WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
° 26rvrr
FEBRUARY. 2000
ministry of water resources, basins development studies department.-------------- -----------------------------
2.1.1.2.  Land Form
The whole part of the study area can be considered as a channels of the seasonal flood, which are very W1
sudden and powerful overflow. In places, one can see hills particulla - extremes,  which  are  bare  and  covered  by  rock  outcrop.  e   J
is frequent occurrence of sand dunes of variable size, shape an a e.
their
particularly in the western
s  there
o
The scenic value of the landforms of the basin is astonishing and
viewer with unlimited visibility into the horizon. The presence hllls ^re th 
with the surrounding plains can serve as a command ground for Kunsts interested m zooming the environments. Visibility of wildlife, accessibility to any p 
and provision of variable landscape of uplands, extreme lowlands, wide gorges an 
sand dunes arc the beauties of land formation offered by the basin. Surfing ove unexpected foods is also a challenge and a sensational source of entertainment tul
anxiety.
The hilltops can also be converted to a perfect camping site. Organization of rallies involving wild drive across the valley to a single destination through different routes can be a fun as well as a gallant to adventure drivers.
2.1.13. Hot Spring
The geographical location of the basin which is very close to the Great Rift Valley of Ethiopia and the Geological features of the area characterized by seismic movements favors the existence of several Hot Springs gushing out of the crest of the earth. Hot springs are sought after by  those suffering  from different ailments.  Bathing  and washing  in  a Hot Spring  and  swimming  in  an  adjacently  constructed  pull or its conversion into a fountain to serve as an open air bath is a strikingly attractive leisure.
Though there is no any information on the number and location of hot springs in the basin,  individuals interviewed  expressed  the presence of numerous Hot Springs in different parts of the basin. Detailed investigation into the availability and touristic as well as other values of these resources are urgently required.
2.1.2.   Historical Resources
The Afar and Ogaden areas are claiming to be the historical Punt Land which once was making  a very  strong  commercial engagement with  the Arabian  countries particularly  Egypt.  Remnants of these old  commercial activity  are possibly  found hidden  some where in  the desert and  are awaiting  exploration.  The Aysha-Dewele Basin, located between the two should necessarily belong to this historically glorious
tadMdTals C‘n CaPt'Vate a,‘entiOn °f ma"y his,orians “d toUsled
A detailed assessment of the history of the retnnn                       u
excavations could possibly reveal^ld trade
by SOme arch
,           “ol°8ical
and   utensils   and   other   evidences   which   can   heln   eskbP^mT   Centers’   eTulPment
of the basin. This is a good indicXn 
t S hlstoncal back ground
and  Historians interested  in  tracking  and  establishing  thlUeS f°F ^b^^g’Sts
There is also  a lot in  this for adveXXXdem S this magnificent old  trade route, 
historical route. 
ekrS that 316 fond of tracking through this
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STLOY™^^
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
PHASE
27MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
FEBRUARY, 2000
An old railway that runs from Dire Dawa to Djibouti, almost as old as a century an constructed  during  the  Reign  of  Emperor  Minilick  bisects  the  Basin.  T  e  ai  way was  constructed  by  the  French  Government  and  the  term  of  agreement  an  e historical  background  into  its  execution  is  not  clear.  The  first  Railway  station  into and the last out of Ethiopia is located in the basin at a boarder town of Dewe e.  e century old station facilities and the unimproved railways are reflections of a g orious
past of the Reign.
2.1.3.    Archaeological Attractions
The geographic location and geological formation of the Aysha-Dewele Basin is very close to  the Afar plains.  The archaeological importance of the Afar plain  was recognized after the discovery of the world famous fossil findings of ancient human “ Lucy  and/ or Dinkinesh” and  “ Ramidus” dating  back  3.5  and  4  million  years respectively.  Archaeological studies can  lead  to  the understanding  of evolutionary processes and steps passed by a certain race.
The proximity  of the basin  to  the Afar plains where fossil sites of great scientific research value have been identified puts more value on its significance as a possible source of the link that could fill the gap in the evolutionary process of human being. Like the Afar area, Aysha-Dewele was also serving as a sediment trap for the last millions of years. The only difference between the Afar plain and the study area is the location of the former in the Rift Valley system which is subjected to continuous earth  movements revealing  embedded  fossils and  artifacts,  where as the plains of Aysha-Dewele Basin  with  a moderate volcanic activity  and  the consequent earth movement might have obscured its treasures underneath the sand.
This area of great archaeological potential is a very  attractive opportunity  for archaeologists and  Paleontologists who  are catering  after the mysteries behind  the evolution of human being. The gaps in the evolutionary process of man is still hidden somewhere from the sight of scientists.  There is no  logical reason  as to  why  the Aysha-Dewele Basin  which  is found  very  close to  the Afar plains and  exhibiting similar ecological characteristics can not be considered top priority areas for the set purpose.
2.1.4.   Cultural attractions
Culture is riot a randomly  adapted  practice that a certain  society  possesses by  a coincidence. Rather it is a product of a life long struggle of people for survival in the given socio-ecological condition. Culture is also a source of historical backoround of a certain community in an area as it can still retain threads of evidences that" can <rive some clues. Every society has its own culture and traditions that are unique to itself. The affinity  that materializes between  different societies can  also  result in  the exchange of customs and traditions.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE.
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
2828MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.____________________ FEBRUARY. ----------------------
The social and economic structure of the Somali Nationalities had been studied by different organizations and interested individuals. Most of these studies are, however, biased  toward  the traditional resource management practices and  organizations responsible for them and  concentrated  mainly  on  other clan  groups.  The culture of Issa which  is not well covered  by  detailed  sociological investigations due to  their relative isolation and misconception about their behavior is still unclear to many.
Detailed Anthropological investigation in to the background of the Issa Clan of the Somali Nationalities and  their authentic culture is still open  to  anthropologists and sociologists. In addition to this, there are some practices of the society that are very unique to themselves and are believed to attract the attention of tourists.
The majority  of the inhabitants of the basin  are nomadic and  semi-nomadic pastoralists. These parts of the community are constantly moving from place to place in search of feed and water for their livestock. Though their movement has got its own  pattern  under normal circumstances,  contingent mobility  is also  a norm in response to  abnormal and  unexpected  conditions.  The traditional hut making mechanism of the society  is designed  to  abet such  unexpected  mobility.  The assembly  and  dismantling  of the huts,  the determination  of the campsites,  hut arrangement hierarchy,  and  many  other aspects of the society  are governed  by traditional laws and  customs.  The procedures and  rituals of their decision  making process is very delicate and interesting to outsiders.
The cultural practices of the society are highly influenced by their exclusive religion, Islam. But, there are some aspects of their culture, which are found intermingled with the religious practices. The extent of the influence of religion on the culture of the society  and  vice versa is still open  to  social anthropologists.  Yet some cultural practices such  as wedding,  dressing,  food  preparation,  household  arrangements, utensils and the like are unique to the community of the basin.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE' WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
29MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
FEBRUARY, 2 COO
3.       The importance of Tourism to the Socio-economic Development of the Basin
Several resources of the basin  that are believed  to  have tourist potential are not properly  identified,  categorised  and  preserved.  The identification  of some resources such as archaeological and anthropological attractions require a full fledged scientific investigation and research whose findings and conclusions are the main benefit to the region. The inhabitants of the basin can also benefit from promotion of these findings directly  and/or indirectly,  from employment opportunities,  and  from provision  of services to the scientists and others who are involved in the study.
On  top  of these benefits accrued  by  the community  from the above mentioned activities,  generation  of foreign  exchange earnings,  development of indigenous handicrafts,  promotion  of infrastructures and  services and  encouraging  increased private sector investments are some of the benefits of tourism.  Other than  these economic benefits, tourism plays important role in introducing different communities living  in  different parts of the world  and  in  establishing  friendship  and  solidarity among them.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE.
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
30FEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT
4. Status of Tourism Facilities and Services in the Basin
The future development prospect of the tourism sector in the basin is dependant up on the endeavor of the regional government in  creating  a conducive environrnen  or private investors so as to enable them accomplish the share of their responsi 1 1 y in promoting the sector. Currently there is no any facility and service that con orm o the standard required by the international tourists.
4.1.      Communication
Road Transport: the basin is connected to the city of Dire Dawa by a gravel road that bisects the basin and runs to Djibouti. The Zone capital, Shinile, is also accesse by the same road, which branches off to the west on the outskirts of the town of Dire Dawa. The two towns of the basin, Aysha and Dewele, are located along the main road that crosses the Basin. Apart from that, the land features of the study area can provide easy access to any part of the basin. The only danger that one should take care of is the possibility of being trapped by sand.
Railway: the Dire Dawa-Djibouti Rail way passes through the basin making a direct connection between the Zone capital Shinile and other two major towns. The railway has been  providing  service for nearly  a century.  There are both  public and  cargo freights from and to Djibouti every day. The terminal station out of Ethiopia is also located in the basin at Dewele, where the exchange of passengers and cargo between the Ethiopian and Djibouti trains take place.
Air Transport: there is no airport in the basin. The closest airport that could provide service to the study area is the Dire Dawa airport that is located some 230 km from the center of basin. Dire Dawa airport is a well-maintained international airport that can land big airships. It has also a very efficient staff and a comfortable terminal.
Telephone: Shinile is the only  town  that is served  by  digital automatic telephone connections.  It is possible to  make a direct call to  any  part of the country  and overseas. The other major towns are connected by radio communication network.
Postal Service: the postal service in  the basin  is very  poorly  developed.  The only postal office.that is providing a relatively proper and well-organized service is the one that is located in Shinile.
4.2.      Hotels, Restaurants and Lodgings
There is no any hotel in the basin that can provide services to international as well as local tourists. The only alternative in this respect is to organize a camping site or to undertake a return trip from Dire Dawa, where there is sufficient service Srd facility that can satisfy the requirements of international tourist. The second option however does have a negative implication  as it can  severely  cut the revenue that can  be generated  from tourists.  Encouraging  private investor to  fully  participate in  the construction of Hotels and provision of services should be on top of the agenda of he
Regional Bureau of Trade, Transport and Tourism. 
AYSHA BASIN ^SOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE' WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
me agenda of the 31FEBRUARY. 2000
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
The quality of service to be provided is also another issue deserving mentioning. The attendants and receptionists as well as the cooks should be trained in their respective specializations.  All forms of entertainment for visitors of all ages have to  be considered.
4.3.      Financial Institutions
There is no Bank in any of the towns that are found in the basin. The inhabitants of the study  area are making  use of financial institutions of the Dire Dawa Administrative Council,  where all types of transactions can  be performed.  The availability  of Banks in  certain  area is mainly  dependent on  its economic development, and so is the fate of the basin in this respect.
4.4.      Water Supply
29 towns out of 54 in the Somali region are provided with piped potable water. 87 deep wells, numerous shallow and hand-dug wells are also main source of water to the remaining towns and villages. The main problem in the area of water supply is the frequent breakdown of the system that exposes the inhabitants to the use of unsafe water  bought  from  water  dealers  at  a  higher  cost.  This  shortage  of  water  is  also  a problem  of  Jijiga,  the  political  center  of  the  regional  government,  and  this  situation does have a grave consequence on the realization of the tourism potential of the basin.
4.5.    Electricity
Shinile is the only town served by hydroelectric power for 24 hours. The remaining towns are also  supplied  by  diesel generator for some part of the day  the period  of supply being variable from town to town depending upon the economic and political importance of the place.
There is no  major health  problem that can  seriously  threaten  the development of tourism in the basin. The occurrences of diseases such as Jardia and amoebae that are common health problem in most part of the country due to the shortage of adequate & safe water is undoubtful.  Malaria due to  unexpected  rain,  pneumonia & upper respiratory  infection  (URI),  conjunctivitis and  trachoma has been  confirmed  from the Regional Bureau  of Health  (RBoH).  No  serious outbreak  was reported  in  recent years. Malaria, which is the nightmare of most tourists, is not common in the basin.
As far as health facilities are concerned, there are 4 Hospitals, 11 Health Centers, 77 Clinics and 1 Nurse Training Institute, all of them providing the required services to the inhabitants of the basin. The regional health service coverage is about 25 % only, and that of the basin could be even worse.
4.6.    Education
LikC h'* — -
‘
32MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES. BASINS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
FEBRUARY, 2000
5. Main Constraints to the Development of Tourism
The Aysha - Dewele Basin  is believed  to  have a very  promising  tourism potential which  needs to  be properly  identified,  developed  and  promoted.  The conversion  of this potential resource in  to  economic returns can  possibly  alleviate the extreme pressure currently being imposed on the already fragile and depleting resource base. At present, this huge resource is not making any contribution to the socio-economic development of the basin, mainly due to one or a combination of these constraints:
The Somalis National Regional State in general and the basin in particular is wrongly taken  by  many  as the most insecure part of Ethiopia and  considered  risky  area for foreigners to travel to. In fact there are some clan disputes and banditries involving in robberies and  some times assaulting  the passer-by.  This mis-information  about the stability of the area is discouraging tourists, as tourism, a very luxurious activity in all of its form does not involve taking such risks.
The absence of information on the tourism potential of the basin. No effort is being made to identify potential sites and promote them for future development. The single pamphlet prepared  by  the regional state and  being  disseminated  does not carry  any information about the tourism resource.
The absence or under developed tourist infrastructure, facilities and services.
The remoteness of the basin from major tourist centers in the North and lack of any direct connection to these areas.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCF phaqp WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
33MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES, BASfNS DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEPARTMENT.
FEBRUARY. 2000
6.       The Attitude of the Local Community
The free movement of tourists with  in  the given  area is highly  influenced  by  the attitude of the local inhabitants toward their visitors, who in most cases could be of different color, appearance, culture and outlook. Any indication of bad motivation or negative attitude toward  tourists could  end  up  in  a disastrous consequence,  whose impact can reflect on the development of the sector. On the other hand, the hospitality and  a respect a certain  community  have toward  foreigners is a very  encouraging gesture to  the improvement of the sector.  In  addition,  this hospitality  of a certain society to newcomers is also a potential source of tourism by itself.
During the field visit made to the basin, some officials of the region and many elderly inhabitants interviewed  unequivocally  stressed  the positive attitude the local communities have toward  outsiders.  This has been  confirmed  by  some expatriate experts working  in  different Non-governmental Organizations who  appreciated  the friendliness and benevolence of the Isa people.
But this is not meant to  deny  the hostility  of the community  toward  those who trespass the limits of their tolerance to any form of provocation. Being a conservative and self-respecting society, Isas’ do not tolerate religious and ethnic provocation and the sense of hypocrisy bom out of the feeling of superiority by others. This calls for precautionary measures that should be taken while making a visit to the area.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
34FEBRUARY. 2000
MTNISTRY of water resources, basins development studies department.
7. Conclusion and Recommendations
The  contribution  of  the  tourism  sector  to  the  national  and  regional properly utilized is already ascertained. Despite the available resource, 
P
given  by  the  policy  makers  is  frustrating.  The  main  body  respon  ible  fo  the identification, development and promotion of the tourism indus ry 1 
g
Bureau of Trade, Transport and Tourism. According to the discussions made
Bureau Officials during the field visit, no tangible activity is being made in this
respect and nor does any qualified personnel available in the region.
The development of the tourism sector is partially dependent upon timing. The ear ler their promotion,  the better competitive advantage they  shall have over other comparable attractions. The following suggestions are therefore fonvarded as part of the areas requiring due emphasis by the concerned bodies:
-An  all-inclusive investigation  into  the tourist resource potential.of the basin  that includes systematic and  proper identification  of all forms of - attractions,  their registration and development.
-Creation of an attractive working environment for researchers and private investors in  areas of studies and  development of infrastructure,  provision  of services and facilities.
-Facilitating accessibility to tourist potential areas of the basin by constructing roads, improving water and electric power supplies and other services, provision of security guarantee to all visitors.
-Promotion  of the tourism industry  by  disseminating  information  about the main attractions with  their accessibility  and  the corresponding  availability  of the required services and facilities. This promotion activity can be conducted through all means of communication  such  as preparation  of brochures,  pamphlets,  posters,  mass media, web sites and through overseas federal diplomatic and other related offices such as the Ethiopian  Airlines.  In  conjunction  with  this,  the launching  of counter-information that can rectify the misconception by international and local tourists about the security situation of the Somalia National Regional State should be given top priority.
-The tourism industry is not receiving the attention and appreciation it deserves from the Regional Policy Makers. The absence of any tourism expert all over the region is a good  justification  for this.  Deployment of the necessary  manpower that can improve the current state of the sector, improvement of the organizational structure of the Bureau responsible for development of tourism by liberalizing their activities from
development and conservation policies and programmes. 4 fonpUtataoTS
AYSHA BAS'N RES°URCES DEVEL0PMEWMASTEK ^  SIUDY. RECONNAISSANCEPHASE
N
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM.
35ministry of water resources, basins development studies department.
FEBRUARY, 2000
policies  and  programmes  and  their  immediate  implementation  are  one  of  the  prime measures that the Regional Government should undertake.
-Sustainable conservation of the resource is guaranteed only through full participation of the local community at all levels of development. The management strategy of the resources,  therefore,  should  be geared  toward  ensuring  that the lions share of the benefit accrued from the tourism sector be directed toward the local community in a form of infrastructure and  service development,  capacity  building  and  promotion  of handicrafts.
AYSHA BASIN RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN STUDY. RECONNAISSANCE PHASE.
WILDLIFE AND TOURISM,
36

Summery

Aysha Basin Study Summary

Aysha Basin Reconnaissance Phase Study Summary

1. Overview

The Aysha Basin is located in eastern Ethiopia, covering approximately 4,000 km² in the Somali Regional State. It's characterized as a dry basin with arid climate conditions, low rainfall (185-325 mm annually), and high temperatures (average 24.8°C).

Key Characteristics:

Location: Between 10°10'N to 42°15'E
Altitude: 400-1200 meters above sea level
Population: ~46,605 (1997 data), mostly pastoralists
Main economic activity: Pastoral livestock production

2. Geology and Mineralogy

The basin contains diverse geological formations from Precambrian to Quaternary periods:

Geological Formation	Description	Age
Archaean Complex	Alghe Group (biotite-hornblende gneisses, granulite)	>1500 My
Mesozoic Sedimentary	Hamanlei Formation (limestone, shale), Amba Aradom Formation (sandstone)	Jurassic-Cretaceous
Cainozoic Volcanic	Afar series (alkaline basalts), Dalaha Formation (fissural basalts)	Tertiary
Quaternary	Alluvial deposits, alkaline olivine basalt flows	Recent

Mineral Resources:

Limited mineral resources reported, with Dewele gypsum and sandstone being the most notable deposits. The basin has poor surface and groundwater resources.

3. Soils and Land Resources

The basin is part of the Northern Rift and Coastal Zone with shallow soils often affected by salinity:

Land Unit	Description	Dominant Soil
DH₁	Moderate relief hills with plains	Very shallow soils with rock outcrop
DL	Lava platforms and faulted lava fields	Very shallow soils with rock outcrop
DP₁	Saline alluvial/colluvial plains	Soils strongly affected by salinity
DP₂	Stony, sandy alluvial fans	Stony yellowish brown loams
DV	Dissected volcanic piedmont plains	Very shallow soils with rock outcrop

Agro-Ecological Zones:

The basin falls under zone N (no significant growing period) with extremely high PET (2000-3000 mm/year), making rainfed agriculture impossible without full irrigation.

4. Land Use and Vegetation

The basin is predominantly bare land (99.38%) with sparse vegetation:

Land Cover Type	Area (km²)	Percentage
Open shrub land	26.60	0.62%
Exposed rock surface	124.00	2.88%
Exposed sand/soil surface	165.61	3.84%
Exposed surfaces with scattered scrub	1044.97	24.23%
Exposed rock with scattered scrub	2950.70	68.43%

Vegetation Formations:

Acacia Woodland (52.8%): Dominated by A. ethica, A. seyal, A. mellifera
Steppe Region (28.96%): Commiphora africana, C. abyssinica
Halophytic Vegetation (18.23%): Salt-tolerant species in saline areas

5. Energy Resources

The basin faces severe energy shortages with traditional biomass being the main source:

Energy Sources:

Fuelwood: Extremely limited supply (328 m³/year total production)
Animal Dung: Estimated 49,843 tons/year potential
Crop Residues: Minimal due to lack of agriculture
Modern Energy: Virtually non-existent in the basin

Energy Demand vs Supply:

Current demand (1999): 14,501 Gcal/year
Woody biomass supply: 68.8 Gcal/year
Deficit: -14,432 Gcal/year

6. Wildlife and Tourism

The basin has limited but potentially significant wildlife resources:

Key Findings:

Habitat consists mainly of arid savanna and steppe vegetation
Wildlife populations have declined significantly due to drought and human pressure
Potential exists for conservation and eco-tourism development
Special features include unique arid-adapted species and geological formations

7. Major Constraints and Recommendations

Key Constraints:

Extreme aridity and water scarcity
Poor soil conditions and limited vegetation cover
Lack of infrastructure and institutional capacity
Limited data availability for planning
Traditional pastoral practices leading to overgrazing

Recommendations:

Develop water harvesting and storage systems
Promote drought-resistant fodder production
Establish nurseries for arid-land species
Improve energy efficiency and explore alternatives (solar, biogas)
Strengthen institutional capacity and data collection
Develop wildlife conservation and eco-tourism potential
Conduct detailed studies in subsequent phases