Arjo-Dedessa Irrigation Project Summary

THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUDLIC OF ETHIOPIA
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
Arjo-Dedessa Irrigation Project Feasibility Study Report
VOLUME - II
Natural Resources
Annexure - 4 Forestry
Annexure - 5 Energy
Annexure - 6 Catchment Development
WATER WORKS DESIGN & SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
fMTEHCOMTIHEMTAI COHSl'ITRHTS AMD HCHM9CRRTSIHOLR PVT LTB.arjo-dedessa irrigation project FEASIBILITY STUDY REPORT
CONTENTS OF THE REPORT
SERIAL
NO.
1
2
3
VOLUME NO.
PARTICULARS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
MAIN REPORT
Part I - Report
Part II - Maps & Drawings 
ANNEXURES
VOLUME -1               SURVEY AND INVETIGATION (ANNEXURES - 1 to 3) 4               Volume -1 (a)             Topographic Survey, Geomorphological Studies &
Geological & Geotechnical Investigation Part I - Report
5 Volume -1 (b)
6              VOLUME -II
VOLUME - III
Part II - Appendices
NATURAL RESOURCES (ANNEXURES - 4 to 6) Forestry, Energy & Catchment Development Plan
WATER RESOURCES (ANNEXURES - 7 to 11)
7 Volume - III (a) Meteorological & Hydrological & Hydrogeological Studies
Dam & Appurtenant Works
8              Volume - III (b)
9
10 Volume - III (c)
11
12 Volume - III (d)
13
Part I - Report Part II - Drawings
Irrigation & Drainage Part I - Report Part II - Drawings
Hydraulic Structures Part I - Report
Part II - Drawings
VOLUME IV
AGRICUTLRUE (ANNEXURES - 12 to 18)
14
Volume - IV (a)
Soil Survey & Land Evaluation
15
Volume - IV (b)
Agricultural Planning
16
Volume - IV (c)
Livestock, Fisheries, Agricultural Mechanization &
Agricultural Marketing
VOLUME-V
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO - ECONOMIC ASPECTS
(ANNEXURES-19 to 25)
17
Volume - v (a)
Environment. Health & Socio-economic Aspects
18               Volume - v (b)            Organization & Management. Physical Infrastructure, Resettlement, Financial & Economic AnalysisAnnexure - 4
FORESTRYArjo-Dedessa Irrigation Project Forestry   May 2007
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLE
ANNEX......................................................................................................................................................................................
1        INTRODUCTION
1.1         Forest Resources in Ethiopia
1.2         Policy, Regulatory and Institutional Framework I              2.1 Forestry/ and Environmental Policy. 
1.2.2      Land Use Policy/Proclamation..
1.2.3      International Conventions
1.3  Forest Resource in Oromiya Region
1.3  1   Deforestation 
I              3 2           Effects of Deforestation
133 Forest Resources Management Systems.
13 4     State Forests
13 5     Community Forests .
13 6 Individual Forests and Tree Planting
13 7     Area Enclosures Jor Ecological Restoration
1.4        Objectives of the study
I 4 I      Main Objective
I 4 2     Specific objectives
1.5        Scope of the Study
1.6        Methodology
1.6           I              Literature Review
I 6.2 
Field Assessment
I 6 3 
Fisil to Institutions
I 6 4 Plan for Forest Conservation and Development
2.               BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA
2.1         Location
2.2        Topography
2.3 
Land use system
2.4 
Forest < over of the study areas
2.5 
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION
2.6 
The impori anc e of irees is watershed managemeni
2.7 
Effect of forestation activities on Ecology
2.H Demand andsi ppi y for forest resoi r< es
2.8           I              Forest resources
2              8 2           Forest resources supply
2              8 3 Fuelwood demand and consumption
2 8 4 Mam problems in the catchment areas PROPOSED MANAGEMENT PLAN
3.1         Types of Fores t Management Plan
3.2         Conservation forestry
j 2 I Objectives of the working circle
3 2.2 Components of the activities
3.3         AGHOFORESTRV/PRODI (TION FORESTRY
3              2 1           Objective of the Agroforestry
3              2 2 Components of the activities
3.4  Forestry for Rec reation and Tourism
3.5         Mi i tipi f.-Use Forestry
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3.6         Species Composition
3.7         Species Selection
3.7  Summary oe Activities
3.8  Summary of Investment
List of Table
Table 1.1 Land-use and land covers in Ethiopia, Oromia Region and three Zones of the Pro.
Table 1.2 Zonal population distribution in Oromiya Region (2000)
Table 2.1 Land use systems under Woredas of the Dedessa River’s catchment
Table 2 2 Land use and Land cover of the Forest Priority Areas on the Catchment Areas . Table 2.3  Rural and Urban Population of the Catchment and command area woreoas Table 2.4  Features and uses of forestation for ecological protection
Table 2.5 Total potential energy supply and annual energy consumption in the areas surri woredas of the irrigation site
Table 2.6 Weighted mean annual per capita rural consumption and total (rural ano urban)
(including charcoal as wood) consumption in ORS ..........
Table 2.7 Estimated natural forests remaining after clearing for agriculture for Zones \ NATURAL FOREST FOR 1990, 2000, 2010 AND 2015 (IN HECTARES)
Table 3.1 Recommended species for plating
Annex
Annex 1 Zonal land use and land cover of Oromiya Region
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1 INTRODUCTION
l. 1 Forest Resources in Ethiopia
May 2007
The  total  land  area  of  Ethiopia  is  1.14  million  square  kilometers.  The  Ethiopian  highlar represent about 36% of the total land area, while the remaining is in the lowlands (below 1.J m. a. s. I.) The bulk of the human and livestock population, about 85% and 70% respective resides in the highlands (Alemu, 2005). Ethiopia has the total area of 60.7million ha (53.3 covered with different types of vegetation, which includes high forest, plantation, woodland c shrub land and bamboo. The remaining area estimated 53.3 million (46.7%) is under differ land use system including cultivation land, grassland, afro-alpine, bare rock, water body swa and urban areas. The total area under high forest and plantation is 4.6 million ha (4%) of land area of the country which has significant role in the production of different wood produ for  construction,  energy  supply,  ecological  conservation,  climate  protection  and  biodiver: conservation where as about 15.4 million ha is bare and rock land. Table 1.1 shows the la use and land cover in Ethiopia, Oromia and the three zones of the project area.
According  to  Reusing  (1998)  in  the  1970's  5.4  million  (4.75%)  of  Ethiopia  was  covered Natural  High  Forests,  which  included  2.64%,  1.24%,  0.87%  closed,  slightly  disturbed  < heavily disturbed high forests respectively. According to the same author after 15 years, at beginning  of  1990’s  the  remaining  forest  decreased  to  3.93%  of  the  country’s  land  cox According to this report 2.4 million hectare (2.14%) of the country’s area was deforested fr 1970’s  to  the  beginning  of  1990's.  This  shows  that  annual  deforestation  rate  is  about  0 million ha per year. The extent of human-made forests has been estimated as 42,124 hecta of peri urban fuel wood plantation, 18,706 hectares of industrial timber plantation and 44,( hectares  of  Community  Woodlot  The  main  components  of  the  sector  are  industrial  timt poles, construction poles, fuel wood, charcoal and tree products, in particular gums and res (incense and myrrh). According to EFAP (1994) the forest area in Ethiopia, which at one ti might have occupied as much as 35 percent of the country, has now been reduced to about percent.  This  forest  comprises  natural  high  forests,  bushlands,  plantations  and  on-farm  tn (farm  forestry).  The  natural  high  forests  are  classified  into  58  National  Forest  priority  An (NFPAs)  totaling  an  estimated  2.3  million  ha.  According  to  this  report  about  1.2  millior conservation forest whereas the remaining 0.8 million ha can be production forest.
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Ethiopia is endowed with extensive land area, varied topography, soil, climate, water resourc plant and animal biodiversity and underground resources. The use of these resources throt time, however, has not resulted in improving the lives of the majority of Ethiopians. Differ studies have shown that these natural resources have been degraded over the past seve decades. The Ethiopian Forestry  Action Plan (EFAP 1994) concluded that the deforestal rate in Ethiopia was 150,000 to 200,000 ha per year.
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Table 1.1 Land-use and land covers in Ethiopia, Oromia Region and three Zones of the Project Area.
May 2007
Land  use  land
cover
Nation al 'Ethiopia)
Oromia Region
Zones covered under the project (catchment and command areas)
Area in ha
Cover
Area in (ha)
Covera
Total of the three
age
(%)
ge in
lllubabor
Jimma
East Wellega
Zones
%)
(ha) I %
Area (ha)
%
Cultivation
21,298.241
18.70
37 21
919,714
49.61
820,807
41 09
Forest   (inc.
riverine)
4.073.213
3.58
37 75
25.91
72,726
20.48
Plantation
Woodland
501.522^
29.242?949
0.44
25.68
7.13
0.17
2734
617,799
1,114
374.177
0.07 22.87
480.270
0
276.346
0.00
14.91
1,364
932.740
___ 2,478
1,583,263
Shrub land
2 6^4003 00
23.18
12.80
0.22
0
0
163.373
163,373
Grassland
14.574.206
34.315
177,550
150,272
362,137
Afro-alpine
245 328
180,155
Highland
31.003
0.03
bamboo
Lowland
494,564
0.43
I_____
10
Swamp
11
Water
12
Bare rock. soil,
etc.
_ 755,181 82^27?
15J357.720
71.965
3 13,87436
9
0.66 0.73
13.49 0.06
137.353 260.500
1.192,286
36.302
19,468
29,964
36,302
13
Urban
Total
100       35.935.322
Source:
Woody biomass inventory and strategic planning project 2002.
3Arjo-Dedessa Irrigation Project
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1.2 Policy, Regulatory and Institutional Framework
Since the early 1990s, the Government's economic development approach has been Agricultural   Development-Led   Industrialisation   (ADLI)   strategy.   The   Government   aimt improve agricultural production, and use it as the basis for developing an agriculturally-ba industrial  sector.  The  Government  has  recently  released  several  other  major  developn plans, including the National Rural Development Strategy in November 2001, and an upd< National  Food  Security  Strategy  in  March  2002.  To  meet  national  and  international  gi regarding  poverty  in  mid-2002,  the  Federal  Government  finalized  its  Sustainable  Developn and  Poverty  Reduction  Plan  (SDPRP),  which  updates  the  earlier  Interim  Poverty  Reduc Strategy  Paper  (l-PRSP)  released  in  2000.  In  support  of  these  efforts,  Government  is  ; undertaking  a  major  process  of  decentralisation  and  devolution  of  power  to  the  count woredas  (districts).  Poverty  reduction  and  promotion  of  agroforestry  included  in  the  stratei could contribute in minimizing pressure on the forest resources and support conservation of existing  forest  and  increasing  the  forest  cover.  However,  Poverty  Reduction  Strategy  Pa| (PRSPs)  and  Interim-PRSPs  had  only  mentioned,  but  not  elaborated  upon,  forestry  respor and actions, by suggesting that agroforestry would be part of its actions to reduce poverty.
The more recent and comprehensive SDPRP also fails  to adequately  consider forestry  iss in its  analysis  of the causes  and responses  to poverty. It mentions  that agroforestry  wil promoted. It does  not, however, consider broader linkages  of forestry  with food secu income generation, and poverty  reduction. It does  not, for example, consider how sustain, participatory  management of natural forests  or promotion of eco-tourism or forest-bc enterprises, such as promotion and processing of non-wood forest products, could contribul poverty reduction. This s hows t hat these policies h ave I ittle contribution i n t he d evelopn and conservation of forest and improvement of land-use, which have significant impact on climate mitigation efforts in the country and, at global level.
1.2.1  Forestry and Environmental Policy
Ethiopia   has   prepared   a   number   of   forestry   and   environmental   plans   and   strategies. December 1 994, t he G overnment f inalized a n E thiopian Forestry Action P Ian (EFAP).
EFAP was an important contribution to the development of the National Conservation Stra
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of Ethiopia (CSE), presented in May 1994. The Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan proposed of 8 major action programmes, to deal with: (1) tree and forest production, (2) forest rest
May 2007
and ecosystem management, (3) forest industries development, (4) wood fuel energy effic development, (5) technology development and dissemination, (6) sectoral integratior planning, monitoring, and evaluation, and (8) human resources development. But sor these plans and strategies lack adequate supporting policies, legislation, or impleme regulations. Also, the implementation of this program is mainly based on external su[ which could not be materialized. Despite having good plans and strategies, it becomes di to legally enforce protection and sustainable management of the environment, n; resources without having adequate budgetary and manpower support.
The Federal Government issued Proclamation NO. 94/1994, "to provide for the Conserv. Development and Utilization of Forests," on 28 March 1994. This proclamation allows for types of forest management: state (national), regional, and private. Private forests may in not only those managed by individual persons, but may also by peasant associations o association of individuals. Thus, a private forest may be an individual forest, a comn forest, or a forest owned by a private investor. Proclamation no. 94/1994, CSE and I propose the need for conservation of the existing forests and the importance of expans, forest cover of the country. These provisions have significant contribution in c sequestration and substitute management. However, following completion of the EFAP. began to draft a national forest policy. This drafting process has taken many years and yet completed. Over the years, several versions of the forest policy have been dr Similarly, it is the Government's aim that such policies, strategies, and plans are prepai the regional levels.
1.2.2  Land Use Policy/Proclamation
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Rural land Administration and Land Use proclan No. 456/2005 is the recent proclamation related to land use system of the country. The provisions in this proclamation, which is related to forest resources conservation and Ian include (i) the importance of developing a guiding land use master plan, (ii) developm annual crops on rural lands that have slopes between 31-60 percent may be allowet through making bench terraces; (iii) rural lands having slopes greater than 60 percent, sh
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be used for farming and free grazing; they  shall be used for development of tn plants  and forage production; (iv) area closure of degraded lands; (v) the impoi rehabilitation, and (vi) the need for wetland biodiversity  conservation are some of included in the proclamation, which could support the maintenance of fore improvement of land management which may serve as carbon dioxide sink.
1.2.3 International Conventions
Ethiopia  is  party  to  a  number  of  important  international  conventions  relating  t( environmental   issues.   These   treaties   include,   among   others:   the   Framework   ( Climate   Change,   the   Convention   on   Biological   Diversity,   and   the   Conventic Desertification.    Ethiopia    is    receiving    donor    assistance    to    help    meet    some obligations.  The  most  significant  protocol  to  date  has  been  the  Kyoto  Protocol December   1997   meeting   of   the   Third   Conference   of   Parties   in   Kyoto,   Japa Protocol  proposes  to  set  legally  binding  commitments  for  emission  reductions  fo Annex  -1  countries  (the  developed  countries  and  the  Eastern  European  countriei Soviet   Bloc)   to   levels   relative   to   their   1990   levels.   The   protocol   identifies “flexibility  mechanisms"  for  countries  to  meet  emission  reduction  targets:  joint  in a  clean  development  mechanism  (CDM),  and  emission  trading.  CDM  would  all sequestration    and    storage    investments    in    reforestation,    in    afforestation    an deforestation  to  qualify  as  emission  reduction  credits  by  the  investing  countries.  I and   other   donors,   for   example,   are   assisting   with   regards   to   the   Conventii Desertification.
1.3 Forest Resource in Oromiya Region
The Oromiya Regional State (ORS) covers some 376,000km2 forming a bro? southeastern, southern, southwestern and western Ethiopia. It is a Regior ecological and cultural diversity: ranging from arid to semi desert in the lowlanc transhumant pastoralists, to montane forests with high rainfall inhabited by agriculturists. The population was estimated in 2000 by the CSA to be 22.35 details of population for different Zones with the rural and urban distribution population of the Region are available in Table 1.2. These figures show that sc of the population lives in the rural areas.
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Agriculture in the Highlands comprises mixed cropping and livestock production, with cere predominating in the Eastern and the North Central Highlands and the Rift Valley, and mi: enset, root crops and cereals in the South Central and Southwestern Highlands. In the Hare and Southern Lowlands extensive pastoralism occurs, whilst in the tsetse infested Abay c Western Lowlands shifting cereal cultivation is found.
With rapidly  increasing population, cultivation is  expanding. Marginal and steep lands  ; increasingly  being brought under cultivation, leading to accelerated soil erosion, and declining and more variable crop yields. Expanding cultivation is taking place at the expense communal lands on which most woody biomass resources are located, leading to a decline these resources. Regionally, bio-fuels  provide 99.5 percent of the total (rural and urb< domestic energy supplies, with 81 percent derived from woody biomass, 4 percent from cr residues, 14 percent from dung and 1 percent from charcoal. However these Regional figui conceal considerable local variations  in both supply  and consumption. In addition, there i temporal changes  in these patterns  in the face of declining stocks  of wood fuel and t increasing opportunity costs in its collection or purchase.
Large areas of woodland, shrubland and grassland characterize Bale and Borena Zon< Significant percentages of forest are also found in these Zones. The next two Zones ha extensive areas of shrubland and grassland but little or woodland They also have signifies percentages of rock. The remaining two Zones ol lllubabor and Jimma are the Zones with t highest percentages of natural forest in the Region. Annex 1 shows Zonal land use and la cover of Oromiya Region.
Humid Upland Broadleaved with Anmgeria dominant forests are found in greatest extent in ti lllubabor and West Wellega Zones. They are found between 1,500 and 2,600 mask Me: annual rainfall is between 700 and 2,000 mm and mean annual temperature between 15 and 20 C. They become more diverse in species from east to west (i.e. with increasii rainfall) and with decreasing altitude (i.e. with increasing temperature). Forests in the Ba catchment are thus floristically richer than in the Omo catchments. Four strata can be genera recognized. The highest stratum is formed by trees 30 to 50 m high, the most important which are Anmgeria adolfi-friederici, Ficus spp, and Syzygium guineense. Below this is a den: stratum of tree 18 to 25 m high with a wide range of species. The third stratum of small tree
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Table 1.2 Zonal population distribution in Oromiya Region (2000)
May
Zone
Rural
Urban
Total
Density: Total area
2
(p.p.km )
Density:
Arable area
(p.p.km')
Cover in p
Rural
Arsi
2,352,123
290,882
2.643,005
99
181
88.99
Bale
1,278.502
175,146
1,453,648
19
34
87 95
Borena
1.527,450
175,927
1,703,378
16
34
89.67
West Harerge
1.382,508
128,851
1,511.360
78
471
91.47
East Harerge
2,036.819
131,739
2.168.557
80
538
93 93
lllubabor
901.379
107,918
1,009.298
55
77
89.31
Jimma
2,081,782
255,911
2.337,693
112
161
89.05
I West Shewa
2.473,058
303,759
2.776.817
113
204
89 06
East Shewa
1,439,693
597.289
2,036,981
111
182
70 68
North Shewa
1,259,848
115,982
1,375,829
109
227
91.57
West Wellega
1,662,906
178,128
1,841,033
70
94
90.32
East Wellega
1,310,406
186,476
1,496,882
59
90
87.54
Regional
19,706,474
2,648,008
22.354.481
161
88.15
1.3.1  Deforestation
Deforestation  has  been  a  concern  in  Ethiopia  -  at  least  in  certain  localities  -  for  a Information  on  the  extent  of  forest  cover  and  deforestation  rates  varies  depending source  of  data  and  type  of  analysis.  Historical  information  on  the  forestry  coverage  ii is  limited.  Some  observers  have  estimated  that  at  one  time,  high  forests  covere Ethiopia,  and  high  forest  and  savannah  woodlands  combined  covered  a  total  of  66  pi the early 1950s, high forests covered 16 percent of the land. By the early 1980s it ha< to 3.6 percent, and 2.7 percent by 1989.
In recent years, deforestation and degradation has  been focused in the south-wesle the country, where the majority  of the remaining natural forests  are located. This  def is  being driven primarily  by  agricultural expansion —  through commercial agriculture c tea plantations, shifting cultivation, and settlements. Other causes  of deforestatio fuelwood collection, harvesting of construction materials, wildfires, growing hu
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livestock  populations, and inadequate incentives  to conserve or enhance forest cover, study  to detect change was  conducted using Satellite images  from 1973-76 with those 1986-90 and this  has  shown that in the mid-1970s, natural high forests  covered 4.75% c country, whereas 15 years later, it was found out that only 3.9% of Ethiopia was forested. 1 the deforestation rate was calculated to be 163,000 ha per year (Reusing 1998).
According to the detail study  made on the southwestern forests  of Ethiopia, deforestation the degradation of the natural resources is a serious threat for the last forests in south we Ethiopia From 1971-1997. almost 50% of the area, which was  once completely  covere natural high forests  was  deforested in this  time, the overall result has  shown that in i NFPAs  of Ethiopia forest stands  have been degraded or even completely  deforei Therefore, it is  advisable, to concentrate the development of management plans  as  a first on those NFPAs, where natural High Forest are still existing. In a second phase, a follox has  to be done at the remaining NFPA's  with the objectives  to rehabilitate those areas, w Natural High Forests were once existing.
1.3.2 Effects of Deforestation
Decrease in the forest cover in Ethiopia have been linked to degradation of fertile I declining land productivity, loss  of biological diversity, shortage of fuel wood, construe materials  and other goods  and services  provided by  forest resources. Expansior desertification throughout Ethiopia is  another consequence of forest destruction, whic followed by  frequent drought and famine. Considerable research has  been undertake Ethiopia to estimate land degradation and soil erosion, particularly  in the mountainous  regi and losses  of top soil. In some areas, where fuelwood is  in short supply, many  rural pe use dung and crop residues  (biomass) for cooking fuel, which then may  reduce soil fertility grain production. Where increased tree planting has  been taking place recently  in cei locations, and with changes  in fertilizer subsidies, more farmers  are leaving dung on their fi and crop residues are being increasingly used for animal fodder.
1.3.3 Forest Resources Management Systems
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cases, these plantations  were formerly  established through cooperative labour, employ, generation schemes  or Food-for-Work  programmes. Communities  have been given responsibility  to develop, protect and utilize the plantations. These communities, how, have not been provided with an appropriate orientation on the objectives  of these plantat For many  of these plantations, it is  not clear whether they  will be strictly  protecte( conservation benefits, or whether some selected har/esting of products  (grass, tin firewood, etc.) will be possible.
1.3.6 Individual Forests and Tree Planting
The  third  kind  of  forest  management  is  individual  plantations,  such  as  woodlots,  agrofor and  trees  for  wind  breaks  planted  by  the  household  members  or  by  groups  pooling  la resources.  The  farmers  have  long  traditions  of  conservation  and  cultivation  of  trees  an homesteads  and  around  farm  plots.  However,  the  long  experiences  of  the  farming  commui in   the   development   of   vegetation   and   efforts   made   by   the   government   could   not significant  improvement  in  the  conservation  and  development  of  the  forest  resources  o country.
1.3.7 Area Enclosures for Ecological Restoration
Over the past few decades, much work  has  been done in different areas  of Ethiopi promote rehabilitation of degraded areas. A common approach has  been to close sp areas  to grazing and other forms  of use, to permit natural regeneration. In some cases conservation measures, such as  soil bund or enrichment planting, have been undert; Generally  such activities  have been carried out by  the state, through Food-for-Woi Employment Generation Schemes, or by local communities.
1.4     Objectives of the study
1.4.1 Main Objective
The  main  objective  of  the  study  is  to  assess  the  past  and  current  vegetation  of  the  water areas     then     to     recommend     the     appropriate     management     system,     conservation development  measures  of  the  vegetation/forest  resources  to  ensure  sustainability  and  fc conservation of soil and water of the catchments.
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1.4.2 Specific objectives
These are as follows:
. To assess the exiting vegetation situation in the watershed areas
May 2007
o To identify the different uses of forest resources and traditional natural resource conservation mechanisms and its impact on the resources,
•    To identify the existing problems and potentials for future watershed management;
. To identify existing and potential tree and other perennial species for futui
development;
•    To prepare strategies and action plans for the conservation/protection of the fore resources for watershed protection and benefits of the forest for different goods ar services; and
•    To prepare management plan for the watershed and command areas of the Arj Deddessa irrigation project.
1.5   Scope of the Study
In the current study efforts have been made to compile and analyze information pertaining the current and potential contributions of forestry and forest resources to watershed protectio with an emphasis on their roles in catchment protection for soil and water conservation ar minimize deposition of silt in proposed reservoir. It will focus on looking at the extent to whir forestry-related activities contribute to rural supply of forest products for own consumption ai income  generation.  The  practical  actions  needed  to  further  enhance  the  contributions forestry  in  sustainable  watershed  management  have  also  been  examined  in  the  study.  Tl policy and programmatic issues that need further attention have also been highlighted.
1.6    Methodology
The  following  methodologies  were  used  to  assess  the  forest  conservation  and  developme activities in the study areas.
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1.6.1 Literature Review
May 2007
Relevanl literatures, documents, and projects having direct or Indirect relation Io the topic hav. been reviewed thoroughly. These included the following besides others,
. Woody biomass Inventory and Strategic Plan Project documents (2002),;
. Assessment and Monitoring of Erosion and sedimentation Problems in Ethiopia b; Ministry of Water Resources (2002);
. Monitoring of Natural High Forests in Ethiopia by Reusing (1998); and
. Ethiopian Forestry Action Program (EFAP), MOA (1994).
1.6.2 Field Assessment
As a part of the overall study's component eighteen days field assessment of catchment are< was conducted and information was collected on land use system, vegetation situation, fores conservation and development activities and overall biophysical features of the catchment anc command areas.
1.6.3 Visit to Institutions
Relevant woreda offices of the Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development were visited t< identify areas covered under catchment and command areas. The issues related to watersher management and forest conservation development activities were discussed. All updated an< detail information on the extent of forest resources, deforestation rate, development activitie: and major problems in the management of the natural resources were collected.
1.6.4  Plan for Forest Conservation and Development
Forestlands serve as an economic and environmental resource, with both perspectives neede<
to   achieve   sustainable   development.   The   economic   resource   includes   wood   product:
(fuelwood, lumber, building poles, etc.) and food, animal and other products from forestland: that  are  consumed  by  humans.  The  environmental  resources  include  biodiversity,  wildlife habitat,  and  climate  protection,  improvement  of  water  quality  and  quantity  and  aesthetics Watershed management provides a framework for management of such multiple resources it an integrated manner. High quality water are usually associated with forested watersheds tha are  well  managed  and  have  sparse  human  population,  few  grazing  animals  and  minimal  so erosion.
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The  management  of  natural  resources  refers  to  the  development  and  administration  of  al resources  to  satisfy  the  needs  of  present  and  future  generations.  The  main  objective  of management  is  to  conserve  and  develop  the  forests  to  enhance  their  role  for  soil watershed  protection  and  ecosystems  conservation  and  sustainable  production  of  good; services.  Forest  management  in  the  watershed  areas  is  the  management  of  the  n; resources of a drainage basin primarily for the production and protection of water suppliei water  based  resources,  including  the  control  of  erosion  and  floods  and  the  protects aesthetic  values  associated  with  water.  Thus,  this  plan  has  considered  protection,  produi aesthetic  and  ecological  benefits  of  forest  resources  and  planned  for  sustainable  producti goods and services of these resources.
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2. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA 2.1     Location
May 2007
The study  area covers  three zones, i.e. East Wellega, Jimma and lllubabor, of Oromia Re The command area is  located in Jimma-Arjo, Bedelle, Gechi and Limu Sekka woredas. main sources  of Deddessa River are located the highland of Jimma zone including < Sigimo, Setema and Goma woreda and flows  North East, North then Northwest direct The upper parts  of the catchments  have been covered with natural high forest of Gera, S and Babiya forests. The middle part of the River is also covered with broadleaved high fort Limu-seka and Deddessa woredas  and the lower parts  are covered with lowland woodlan Borecha, Limu seka and Gechin woredas .
2.2     Topography
The catchment area consists  of plateaus, undulating topographies  with different ridges, vt and steep slopes  covered with fragmented forests, plantation/forests  coffee, agricultural t and settlements. There are many  permanent and seasonal streams  of water found beb the ridges. The soil is very much degraded due to high population and overgrazing.
2.3     Land use system
The land use system under Woredas  of Dedessa River catchment is  available in Table which shows that most of the catchment areas are under different land uses of which the f areas  only  cover about 14%. This  implies  that most of the lands  are exposed to soil ero which can significantly  affect the life of the water reservoir and development of irrig scheme.
The upper and middle catchment of this  river is  under great pressure due to expanse agriculture with only  leaving shade trees  for coffee. The settlements  are located on < slopes  and also these areas  are used for annual crop production without any  kind of soi water conservation measures.
The irrigable parts of the lowlands are recently occupied by new legal settlers who came the eastern parts of the country and some other illegal settlers. The dense woodland had cleared for settlement and agriculture. The woodland also cleared for fuelwood and h construction without any proper management.
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In order to satisfy most of their needs, households rely on land holding averaging 4 hectai 0.76 ha per capita. The land owned by  the households  is  generally  fragmented, and the allocation reflects  households’ priorities  in terms  of production activities. Under the uncer related to tree tenure system farmers tend to over exploit their land rather than protecting investing in it which has  indirect impacts  on soil and woody  biomass  resources. The fai are reluctant to plant trees on their land, as trees do not provide benefits before several 5 Agricultural practices  can have a detrimental effect on natural resources, when ownersl utilization rights are not clearly established.
Table 2.1 Land use systems under Woredas of the Dedessa River’s catchment
Land use type
ra
a>
tf) co
D -C
E
_c
<u
cd _ 
GJ
fl) —'
s
o
Cultivated land
53.353
50.76
28,000
51.19
32,229
66.24
137.363
55 88
56427
58 85
307
Forest land
8,390
7 98
10.408
0 02
2,721
5.59
44.079
17 93
22,430
23 39
77
Grazing land
14,002
13.32
16.422
30.02
6,193
12.73
53,336
21.70
8006
8 35
97
Infrastructure
6,199
5.90
1.006
1.84
3,660
7.52
9117
3.71
1545
1.61
21
Non-productive
21 055
20.03
8,288
15.15
2.485
5 11
849
0.35
6914
7 21
39
Wetland
2,108
2.01
973
1.78
1,365
2.81
1,072
0.44
557
0 58
6
Total
105,107
100
54,699
100
48.653
100
245,816
100
95,879
100
550
Sources: Woreda Agriculture and Rural Development offices, (2006).
2.4    Forest cover of the study areas
Most of the highlands of the catchment areas had been covered with high forest cove 1970s, then after the forests were highly pressurised through government settlement prog expansion of modern coffee plantation and introduction of modern agricultural systems areas. More than 50% of the forest cover of the areas were lost to different land use sy; and currently fragmented and disturbed forests were remained in some parts of the worec
There are three high forest priority areas found in the catchments areas which include Sigmo and Babya Forests. Table 2.2 shows the land use and land cover of the forest c areas in the catchment, which shows that about 17% of the forest was converted to agrici land. According to the current observation made by the author the situation is worse than 2002.
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Bedele woreda (ha)
Coverage in ( %)
Dedessa land ' area (ha) |
I
Coverage in
(%) Gechi (ha)
I
Coverage in (%)
I
Borecha land
area (ha)
I
Coverage in
(%)
Total landArjo-Dedessa Irrigation Project
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Table 2.2 Land use and Land cover of the Forest Priority Areas on the Catchment Areas
[ RFPA
Total area
Natural Forest
Woodland
Cultivated land
I Babiya
25,284
18,169
2,723
4,392
Gera
113,360
93,774
19,586
Sigmo
70,672
59,641
11,031
Total
209,316
171,584
2,723
35,009
%cover
100
82
1
17
Source: WBISPP, 2002.
2.5   Socio-economic situation
The main sources of income for the study areas are agriculture and coffee planting. Fc expansion of agriculture and coffee stand improvement, the high forests of the zone have threatened and there is high loss of biodiversity of the areas. More than 1.1 million pt (Table 2.3) live in the catchment and command areas of the irrigation project, which is h; influence on the conservation, and development of the forest resources. The forests an main sources of energy, construction material and income and acts as coffee shade fc local people.
The pressure exerted by the population on the forest has threatened the quality and distrib of water flow in the year.
Table 2.3 Rural and Urban Population of the Catchment and command area woredas
! Woreda
rural
Urban
total
Badele
99,023
17,800
11
Dedessa
48,040
4,785
5
Gechi
47,286
4,816
5
Limu-Seka
139,858
4,570
14
l_Borecha
46,000
1,056
4
Gera
82,013
6,147
8
Gomma
239,479
53,311
29
Menna
132.200
4,112
13
Setema
96.793
3,116
9
Sigmo
82,570
2.624
8
Jimma-Arjo
69.952
8.789
7
Total
1,083,214
111,126
1,19
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2.6 The importance of trees in watershed management
May 2007
As human population increases the demand for food also increases and the pressure to
more and more food in less and less space leads to a need for more intensive and in c 
study of alternatives to conventional farming that could possibly meet this ever-increc demand.
Agroforestry, the intentional integration of agricultural and forestry based land-use syst provides multiple benefits that collectively contribute to agroecosystem sustainability. As p;
an ecologically based land management system, agroforestry practices can mai
ecosystem diversity and processes that contribute to long-term sustainability 
environmental quality. Agroforestry practices include windbreaks, alley cropping, tree/pa: systems living fences, riparian forest buffers, tree/specially crop systems, forest /espei crop systems (forest farming), wildlife habitat, and fuelwood plantations.
At  farm,  watershed  and  landscape  levels,  integration  of  agroforestry  practices  can  trans agricultural lands into stable, resilient, diverse, aesthetic and sustainable agricultural lane systems. Agroforestry can sustain and improve crop yields as well as can provide a rant additional  resources,  which  include  control  of  erosion  and  sediment,  multiple  crops  incli wood  products,  sequester  and  biodegrade  excess  nutrients  and  pesticides,  can  modi microclimates, and diversify habitats for wildlife and human being. By utilizing trees for ar fodder  and  green  manure,  the  integration  of  trees  into  crop  and  animal  systems  can substantial   nutritional   inputs.   Trees   also   maintain   and   improve   structural   and   nutrit properties  of  soils  through  nitrogen  fixation,  soil  aeration,  and  contributions to  organic rr content and structural stability of the soil. Agroforestry is an effective and innovative mea reduce poverty, create food security and improve the environment. Scattered trees on farn common  practice  in  Ethiopia  and  cover  a  large  part  of  agricultural  landscapes  that contribution in the improvement of livelihood of the rural people.
The use of trees on farmland may vary according to the objectives of the plantation. The purpose of planting trees  in the command area is  for wood products, income gener? improvement of soil fertility, keeping water table low and fodder for animals. According t< study of the area, the farmers in the low lands have substantial amount of eucalyptus for
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own   consumption   and   income   generation.   Thus,   the   main   focus   of   the   future   fores development will be for production of food, feed and nitrogen fixing species.
The forests land of the western parts of the country is very susceptible to soil erosion an nutrient depletion due to fragile ecosystems  and the accumulation of the nutrient in th biomass rather than in the soil. This situation has significant impact on the watershed area conservation due to deforestation, cultivation of steep slopes and over grazing. As the numbe of people increases, the need for more land for agriculture forces  the local communities  t further encroach to the remaining wood lands and steep slopes. Therefore, it is very essenti; to undertake forestry development activities with multipurpose species to meet the needs of th local communities  for food and feed which contribute to the improved management of th watershed as well as rehabilitation and sustainable production of forest resources.
2.7     Effect of forestationp activities on Ecology
The reconstruction of a vegetation cover through forestation can develop towards  a equilibrated state of ecological stability. Therefore, the forestation techniques  that ar ecologically  successful are those closest to the original vegetation cover structure an diversity. Small-scale village forestation is the plantation which covers local demand for fore products  and markets  forest products  for the benefit of small communities  and agroforesti plantation covers  the demand for forest products, additional income generation, equal ar sustained utilization of soil resources, complementary production and intensifies soil and wati protection Table 2.4 shows  the features  and uses  of small scale village forestation ar agroforestry on ecology.
3 Forestation is divided into two: 1) afforestation - means planting trees on areas which have been withe forest cover for a long time (for over 50 years); and 2) reforestation: means replanting trees in areas th were recently deforested (less than 50 years).
f L
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Table 2.4 Features and uses of forestation for ecological protection
May 2007
Description
Small-scale village forestation
Agroforestry
Water balance and erosion control
Only  locally  effective; in combination with terracing good chance to rehabilitate small catchments
As tree are planted in steps and in strips  along the contour line sustainable reduction of runoff and erosion is achieved
Climate
improvement of the microclimate
Tree lines serve as windbreaks
Soil fertility
Small-scale positive effects, could be achieved provided that erosion is  stopped and nutrients  are released to the soil by the organic matter
Positive  effects  prevail,  because often  nitrogen  fixing  species  are used, and            negative effects possible   through   root   and   light competition
Shade  protects  the  humus  layer,  therefore  the  destruction  of  the  soil structure is counter balanced
Species diversity
Species diversity of agriculture areas is improved through tree groups, tree strips and small scale village and community woodlots.
Source: Tropical Forestry Handbook, 1993.
2.8     Demand and supply for forest resources
2.8.1  Forest resources
According to the information obtained from the Woreda Agricultural Offices about 77,630 ha o the land is covered with forests in Bedele, Deddessa. Gechi, Borecha and Limu-Seka woredas which is about 14.1% of the total land area of these woredas (Table 2.1). Forest is the mail sources  of energy and construction material in the area. Due to lack of proper management most of the forest areas on the watershed and valley bottoms are cleared and converted t< agriculture and grazing land The farmers  encroach to the forestlands  and steep slope t< produce more food for survival.
Humid Upland Broadleaved with Aningeria dominant forests are found in greatest extent in th< lllubabor and Jimma Zones. They  are found between 1,500 and 2,600 masl. Mean annua rainfall is between 700 and 2,000 mm and mean annual temperature between 15 Cand 20 C
2
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They become more diverse in species from east to west (i.e. with increasing rainfall) and wit decreasing altitude (i.e. with increasing temperature). Four strata can be generally recognizee The highest stratum is  formed by  trees  30 to 50 m high, the most important of which ar
Aningeria adolfi-friederici, Ficus spp, and Syzygium guineense. Below this is a dense stratur of tree 1 8 to 25 m high with a wide range of species. The third stratum of small trees am bushes  includes  Galinera coffeodes and Coffea arabica. The ground stratum include Aframomum korarima.
In the higher rainfall areas above 2,400 m. a. s. I on more gentle slopes dense thickets c highland bamboo (Arundinaria alpina) occur. It is possible that this is an anthropomorphic sub climax caused by frequent cultivation. There is evidence of human disturbance throughout th area and Chaffey considers that all the remaining natural forest is in fact secondary.
Terminalia-Combretum (Deciduous) Woodlands are also found in the higher rainfall areas generally with above 700mm mean annual rainfall. These are found the lowland valleys of th Dedessa and Gibe valleys and the lowlands lllubabor, and East Wellega, Zones. Apart from th two dominant species others include: Oxytenanthera abyssinica, Boswellia payrifera, Lanne schimperi, Anogeissus leiocarpa, and Stereospermum kunthianum. The main land us 
systems are agro-pastoral and shifting cultivation.
In addition to natural forests, there are substantial amount of man-made forests in the zone comprising different species  including Cupressus  lustanica, Euclyptus  spp., Gravillia robust; and some other indigenous species.
2.8.2 Forest resources supply
The most frequent uses  of wood households  include house construction, furniture, fuelwoor and shade and farm implements. For all types of use, the primary source of wood is the natur; forest whereas  there is  a trend of planting eucalyptus  for income generation and ow construction materials.
Self-motivation and activities of farmers themselves, as well as the use of own nurserie
contribute to self-sufficiency and sustainability in the provision of seedlings. These play 
significant role in the development of private forests as well as other important preconditions. I
2
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addition, awareness programs on plantation objectives, forest management planning and fores resources utilization within the community is another key route in developing self-sufficiency and sustainability within the rural community.
According to Table 2.5. there is about 2,449.176 tons of wood stock is available in the regior for energy supply, out of which; annual wood yield is about 105,339 tons. There are some other sources of energy, which includes: crop residue, dung, gas oil and kerosene. The highes share of energy is supplied from woody biomass followed by crop residue and cow dung Contribution of kerosene to energy supply is very low.
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Table 2.5 Total potential energy supply and annual energy consumption in the areas surrounding woredas of the irrigation site
Total potential energy supply by fuel types (tons)
Total annual rural energy consumption by bio-fuel types
Wreda
Land
area
Pop'n
Rural families
wood
stock
Wood
yield
Homestead stock
On-farm
yield
Round/split
BLT
Total
wood
Residue
Dung
Gas 
oil
("000
lit.)
Kerosene (’000 lit)
Jimma-Arjo
78.068
69.952
63990
452494
22789
35676
4995
67279
20589
57868
5033
0
1557
55
Bedelle
170288
99023
22005
1146980
54756
63469
8886
101576
50775
152351
4375
63
2448
119
Gechi
142936
93286
20730
1083273
48848
57897
8107
95782
46323
142105         3991          57
2307
109
Limu-Seka
249768
139858
31080
2449176
105339
90781
8253
48885
29183
78260
27936
31145
3458
392
Source: wbissp. 2002.
24Arjo Dedessa irrigation Project
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2.8.3 Fuelwood demand and consumption
May 2007
Patterns of fuel wood consumption vary widely across the Oromia Region depending mainly o its availability. Availability also influences the total amount of household energy consumed froi all sources. There is a weak relationship between the increasing requirements for heat (ft cooking a nd h uman c omfort) with i ncreasing altitude and t emperature. T able 2 6s hows t h mean annual per capita consumption of fuel wood.
Table 2.6 Weighted mean annual per capita rural consumption and total (rural and urban) fuel woe
(including charcoal as wood) consumption in ORS
ZONE
Rural
Per capita
Urban
Per capita
TOTAL (including
Commercial Services 
(Dry weight)
Consumptior
as %
of region
kgs
M3
Kgs
M
I
Million
tons
MillionM
Arsi
309
0.52
833
1.39
0.98
1.64
6°
Bale
386
0.64
821
1.37
0.65
1.08
4°
Borena
572
0.95
516
0.86
0.97
1.62
6°
West Harerge
521
0.87
885
1.48
0.84
1.40
5°
East Harerge
535
0.89
456
0.76
1.16
1.93
8°
lllubabor
1,606
2.68
1,050
1.75
1.57
2.61
10°
Jimma
1,264
2.11
922
1.54
2 88
4 80
19c
West Shewa
599
1.00
808
1.35
1 76
2.93
11c
East Shewa
429
0.71
963
1 60
1.22
2.04
8C
North Shewa
353
0.59
897
1.50
0.55
0.92
4r
West Wellega
889
1.48
1,088
1 81
1.68
2.80
11c
East Wellega
743
1.24
864
1.44
1.14
1.91
7<
REGIONAL
AVERAGE
659
1.10
861
1.43
15.40
25.67
According to the study  of WBISPP, (2002) the highest rural per capita rates  of fuel wot consumption are found in and around the natural forest areas of Jimma and lllubabor Zon where local rates of consumption between 1,300 to 1,800 kgs per annum were recorded. Tl lowest rural consumption rates were in Arsi, Bale, North Shewa and East Shewa Zones whe annual per capita consumption rates  are between 200 and 500 kgs  although consumpti rates of crop residues were much higher (500 - 700kgs). In the areas, which are relatively w endowed with on-farm tree resources, fuel wood consumption rates of between 1 000 a
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J
3
3
Rural per capita consumption rates  of fuel wood and other bio-fuels  are generally  lower I urban rates. Where urban wood rates are less than rural rates, this may be a reflection ol increasing use of modern fuels, particularly electricity and kerosene.
The annual per capita rates of fuel wood consumption in many parts of ORS are belov 
about the average for Ethiopia, which is approximately 700kgs (1.12M ) per capita,
weighted rural average for the whole of the Region is 659kgs (1.10M ). By way of compar annual p er c apita r ates i n S outh A frica a re r eported 1 t o b e a bout 4 10 k gs (0.68M3) a n Tanzania 540 kgs (0.9M ). The three main sources of bio-fuels are the household’s farml;
the communal grazing areas and by purchases.
There is a substantial supply of fuelwood in the project areas (Table 2.6) which may not be after some times  due to settlements  and pressure on the forest land for different uses  o than forestry.
2.8.4  Main problems in the catchment areas
Increasing population and expansion of small-scale agriculture are the most important fac in the declining woody  biomass  resource base of the Oromia National Regional State. Li quantities  of woody  biomass  are consumed during clearing for agriculture, particularly  in natural forest areas  of lllubabor and Jimma Zones. In other parts  of Oromia the smaller fc remnants  are also under severe pressure from expansion of agriculture. Table 2.7 shows area under forest during 1990 and 2000 as well as the expected area, which will remain, ui forest during 2010 and 2015 for different Zones of the project area.
1 Leach and Mearns, 1994
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Table 2.7 Estimated natural forests remaining after clearing for agriculture for Zones with natural f
for 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2015 (in hectares)
ZONE
1990
2000
2010
2015
Loss
1990-
2015
Loss
%
of 1990
Arsi
65,393
36.735
29,838
29,605
35,787
55%
Bale
779,534
734,791
631,893
610,693
168,841
22%
Borena
296,725
292,102
287,436
274,524
22,201
7%
West Harerge
22,334
15,793
15,793
15,793
6,542
29%
East Harerge
8,119
6,768
6,768
6,768
1,351
17%
lllubabor
617,799
558,009
472.463
432,643
185,156
30%
Jimma
480,270
303,456
242,861
216,15b
264,114
55%
West Shewa
69,130
46,001
24,260
24,260
44,870
65%
East Shewa
24,300
19,289
15,160
15,160
9,140
38%
North Shewa
3,592
1,246
1,246
1,246
2,346
65%
West Wellega
122,668
114,141
103,203
94,046
28,622
23%
East Wellega
72,726
70,627
57,027
38,098
34,628
48%
2,198,957
1,887,948
1,758,992
803,599
31%
1
TOTAL ORS         2,562,591
Source: WBISPP 2002
According to the above Table 2.7, Jimma zone has  the highest rate of forest loss  o regional zones  followed by  lllubabor. These high losses  of forest resources  are attribute settlements  (legal and illegal), expansion of private coffee plantation and high rat population growth.
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3. PROPOSED MANAGEMENT PLAN
3.1    Types of Forest Management Plan
May 2007
All Forest Priority Areas and patches of natural forests are getting fragmented from time to ti due to expansion of agriculture and settlements in the catchment areas of Jimma, and llluba Zones. These forests  will lose their protection potential in short period of time unless  urg actions  are taken to manage on sustainable basis  for the protection of the watersh According to EFAP (1994) about 40% of these high forests  can be managed for product purposes whereas the remaining 60% has to be put under strict protection to ensure the flow rivers originating from these forests. Thus, 209,000 ha from forest priority areas and 77,000 forest outside forest priority  areas  need immediate interventions  to stop/minimize current r of deforestation and put under sustainable management to ensure the continuity  of tht forests.
The  following  management  circles  are  recommended  in  the  management  of  forests  and  ot natural resources of the catchment areas and areas of the irrigation project:
i)         Conservation forestry
ii)        Agroforestry /Production forestry
iii)        Forestry for Recreation  and Tourism
iv)        Multiple-use forestry
3.2    Conservation forestry
The forest can be conserved or protected for watershed protection (control of runoff, i erosion, land sliding, and regulation of river flow), reclamation of land (the improvement degraded land through forest planting or protected and assisted regeneration), conservator flora (protection of the variety of plant species and thereby in situ plant genetic conservatic wildlife conservation, particularly  the protection of rare or endangered animal species  j contribution to the regulating of the global carbon dioxide cycle. Conservation of the remain forest areas can benefit the nation in the conservation of genetic resources of coffee, differ plants and animals that are known and not yet known species.
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3.2.1 Objectives of the working circle
The followings are the main objectives of working circle:
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•    To minimize the further expansion of agricultural land to the remaining forest and f
forest under sustainable forest management;
•    Protecting the remaining forest for soil and water conservation, wildlife habitat, etc.
•    To involve the local communities in the management of forest resources and benefiti communities.
3.2.2   Components of the activities
The main components of activities under working cycles are as follows:
(i)      Participatory boundary demarcation and management plan development
The activity will be carried out in the catchment areas to halt forest depletion and to mil sedimentation in the dam and improve soil and water conservation with full participation local communities. All lands having slopes greater than 35% will be identified and dema to restrict human intervention without management plan. Natural regeneration v encouraged in most areas accompanied with enrichment planting.
About 77,000 ha of forests, which are scattered, allover the included woredas v 
rehabilitated and about 200,000 ha of the forest priority areas will be demarcated, ai
under management on sustainable basis as well as necessary organizational structure established for efficient and effective conser/ation and development of the forests.
(ii)       Establishment and Nursery
About 10 government nurseries, having the production capacity  of 1.0 million seedlings will be established/rehabilitated for each woreda for the supply  of seedlings  to the catc areas. Also, 20 small farmers'  nurseries  will be established through technical and m support of the project.
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(iii) Production of seedlings
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Different seedlings having multipurpose will be produced in government and farmers nurseries It IS planned to produce 10 million seedlings every year in government nurseries over 4 years to rehabilitate the degraded high forests and for enrichment planting. Technical and materia support will be given to the farmers to produce 10 million seedlings of tree, fruit trees anc fodder species for their own consumption and as a means of income generation.
(iv)     Tree planting
Different trees  having conservation, food and feed values  will be planted in the watersher areas  by  the government and the local communities. Areas  with steep slope around the reservoir will be permanently  kept under vegetation and grass  cover to minimize the soi erosion from those lands and inflow of soil into the reservoir from the surrounding areas. Abou 16, 000 ha will be planted by the government and 800 ha by the communities on the catchmen areas  and surroundings  of the project over the four years  period. Controlled use of fores products can be allowed from less steep slopes. Farmers can use their own plants from the agroforestry plantations.
3.3 Agroforestry/Production forestry
Agroforestry i s a collective term covering all land use systems in which trees or shrubs ar grown in association with crops, pasture or livestock, in a spatial association or a rotation, an in  which  there  are  both  ecological  and  economic  interactions  between  the  trees  and  othr components. It is the presence of ecological interactions between trees and crops, which is th distinctive   feature   of   agroforestry.   The   ecological   interactions   take   place   mainly   via   th microclimate  and  soil.  Examples  are  conservation  of  water  for  crops  by  shading  or  tree  le litter,  and  recycling  of  nutrients  to  soil  via  tree  root  systems  and  litter.  Another  feature agroforestry, and one, which lends it great, potential, is the capacity to yield forestry produc from agricultural land, at the same as maintaining, or even enhancing, crop production. By th means,   the   pressure   for   forest   encroachment   is   reduced.   The   major   products   fro multipurpose  tree  in  agroforestry  systems  are  fuelwood,  small  timber,  tree  fodder  and  fruit The  most  important  service  function  is  that  of  soil  conservation,  including  both  control erosion and maintenance of fertility.
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■ v- -
--------------------------------------------------- ------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
There are about 19 agroforestry technologies, defined as distinctive arrangements of trees with crops in space and time. These are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iii)
Agrosilvicultural-trees with crops;
Shifting cultivation
Improved tree fallows
taungya
trees on crop land
plantation crop combinations
multystorey tree gardens
hedgerow intercropping (alley cropping) boundary planting
trees on erosion-control structure windbreaks and shelterbelts
biomass transfer (tree litter mulching) silvopastoral (trees with pastures or livestock)
trees on range lands or pastures
tree crops with pastures
live fences
fodder banks
tree component predominant
woodlots with multipurpose management reclamation forestry leading to multiple use
other components present Entomoforestry (trees with insects) Aquaforestry (trees with fisheries)
Combining these with choice of plant species, spacing and management leads  to man thousands  of agroforestry  systems. This  range offers  wide opportunities  for choice in th. selection and design of systems to meet specific problems that is in the conception stage of th. process of diagnosis and design.
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3.2.1  Objective of the Agroforestry
The main objective of the agroforestry is the production of food, fodder, fuelwood, cons materials, windbreaks, soil and water conservation, soil fertility  improvement and prote the environment.
3.2.2  Components of the activities
The main components of Agroforestry are as follows:
(i)       Establishment of Nursery
Eight nurseries  will be established and/or rehabilitated in Bedele, Gechi, Jimma-Arjo ar Seaka Woredas  with the production capacity  of 0.50 million seedlings  each per yeai production of different tree and fruit species to supply in the command areas.
(ii)       Production of seedlings
About 16.0 million multipurpose seedlings  will be produced in the four years  peric distributed in the command areas  and the surroundings  for the production of food, fuelwood, fodder, feed, and microclimate improvement. Nitrogen fixing species  will b due consideration for the improvement of land productivity and feed supply to the anim;
(iii)      Planting
All seedlings  will be planted by  the farmers  around their homesteads, woodlots, on fe and as  windbreaks. About 5700 ha will be planted with different species  for soil ar conservation and other goods and services.
3.4     Forestry for Recreation and Tourism
Where recreation purpose is  combined with conservation, it provides  a source of incc the land. Tourists  like to walk; play, ride horses, sail boats  and camp, in scenic  sum and under safe conditions. There are considerable opportunities  to widen such fac conjunction with conservation forestry, if fire hazard and other a spects  of protectior ensured.
The proximity of the dam site to different zonal towns, natural forests and different Ian this site has a great potential for ecotourism promotion. Existing of different hot spring, area and the surrounding areas can be developed as recreational site. Rehabilitate
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surrounding highlands  and covering with trees, construction of trails, and arrangem different facilities  can attract local and international tourists  to the area. Organiza different folk  dancers, cultural antiquities  and handcrafts  can be the means  of job crea the local youth and generation of income for households.
3.5     Multiple-Use Forestry
Multiple -use forestry  management is  the management of forests with the intention of r two or more major objectives  simultaneously. On some land, it may  be possible to c carefully controlled harvesting with protection forest, whilst at the same time permitting r of non-wood forest products. A productive or otherwise actively managed forest is less I suffer illegal incursion. The combination of wood production with forest grazing is  < example. Other clear opportunities  for multiple uses  arise in combination of protec conservation forestry with controlled use of recreation.
The catchment areas, especially, the remaining high forest of Sigmo and Babiya can t
for watershed protection, sources of organic coffee and gene pool, honey production ar
forest products under controlled harvesting. These forests also have significant environmental protection, biodiversity conservation and ecotourism. The animals of tl communities can take shelter and feed with proper care to avoid damages on the reget
and saplings
3.6     Species Composition
Heterogeneous  species  composition promotes  stable forest ecosystem and ens protection of watershed. Propagating huge monocultures  often risks  the stability  of th< Before a definite decision is  taken on one or more species, the following points  sh carefully analyzed.
•    They are less threatened by pests and diseases;
•    They take better advantage of the site, e. g. a combination of light demand shade species or shallow rooting species and deep rooting ones;
•    They allow the consideration of small-scale site differences and the choice of m specific species;
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» They have different end uses and assure versatility and flexibility when confro
market changes.
3.7    Species Selection
In many  cases,  species selection directly determines the success of the plantation acti\ species   selection,   whether   large-scale   industrial   plantation   or   small-scale   multipurpo plantation,  a  limited  set  of  criteria  apply  in  varying  combinations.  These  are  site  su physiological  requirements  of  the  species,  requirements  of  the  local  population  and  ma Therefore,  based  on  the  objectives  of  the  plantations  and  site  suitability  the  following having  different  use  (Table  3.1)  are  recommended  for  the  forestation  of  the  watersb command areas:
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Table 3.1.. Recommended species for plating
May 2007
No.        Species
Production
m3/ha/a
Uses
Saw timber            Fuelwood
Fodder                  N-fixing
Protection
Others
1
Acacia abyssinica
X
X
X
X
X
2
A saligna
X
X
X
X
X
3
A tortilis
X
X
X
X
X
4
Albizia gumifera
X
X
X
X
X
X
5
Albizia lebbek
18-28
X
X
X
X
X
X
6
Albizia schimperiana
XX
X
X
X
7
Apodytes dimidiata
X
X
X
X
8
Arundinana alpine
X
X
XX
9
Arundo don ax
X
X
10
Azadirachla indica
5-18
X
X
X
X
X
11
Casuarma equisetifolia
6-18
X
X
X
X
12
Celt is aficana
X
X
X
X
X
13
Cordia Africana
X
X
X
X
X
14
Croton macrostachys
X
X
X
X
15
Dodonia anguistifolia
X
X
X
16
Ekebergia capensis
X
X
X
X
17
Entada abyssinica
X
X
18
Erythrina abyssinica
X
X
X
19
Eucalyptus camaldulensis
10-22
X
X
20
E globules
10-40
X
X
X
X
21          Euphorbia candelabrum
X
X
22
Grevillea robusta
5-10                       X
X
23
Hagema abyssinica
X
X
X
X
X
24
Juniperus procera
X
X
X
X
25
Leucaena leucocephala
X
X
X
X
X
26
Melia azadarach
—
X
X
X
X
27
Millettia ferrugmea
X
X
X
X
28
29
Olea europea
X
X
X
X
Phoenix reelin ata
------------ ———
------
30 Prunus Africana
X
X
X
X
X
X
31          Podocarpus falcatus
X
X
XX
Phamnus pnnoides
X
X
33        Sesbania sesban
X
X
X
X
X
--------
34          Syzygium guineanse 35          Elephant grasses
X
X
X
X
X
'x\rjo OedessA Irrigation Project
Forestry_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _  May J
3.7    Summary of Activities
Over four year period forestry  conservation and development project, 18 state an farmers’ nurseries  will be established to produce 56 million seedlings. These seedling cover about 16.800 ha Production forests  are mainly  planted by  the farmers, whereas steep slope, enrichment planting and buffer zones  are planted by  the government mam watershed and biodiversity  conservation The following physical activities  wil accomplished over four years project period:
(0         Nursery Eslablishment/rehabilitation
• Slate nursery
18
• Farmers nursery
10
(11)
Seedlings production
56 million seedlings
(ill)
Planting
16.800 ha
3.8    Summary of Investment
The total estimated for the management of the forest for four years  is  about Birr -5 million (USDS 4 84 million) This  money  will be used for nursery  establishment, seed production and planting and other expenses  such as  purchase of transport facilities, salary, and running costs The following are the summary of expenses for four years
(■)
Forest Boundary demarcation and inventory Birr 3.0 million (USDS0 35 mill )
(>>)      Forest management plan preparation           Birr 0.3 million (USDS 0 035 mill.) (Hi)      Office/field equipments and vehicles             Birr 4.0 million (USDS 0 47 mill )
(iv)       Infrastructure development
(Office, access roads, etc )
Birr2 5 million (USOSO 29 mill.)
(v)
Nursery establishment/rehabilitation
Birr 1 Smillion (USDS0 21 mill.)
(Vi)
Seedlings production
Birr 11.2 million (USDS1 3mill.)
(VII)
Planting
Birr 16 5 million (USD$1 91 mill 1
(Vlll)
Nursery tools and planting materials
Birr 0 72 million (USDS0 081 m>l| i
(IX)
Administration cost
Birr 1 6 million (USOSO 19 mill )
Total i
nvestment cost
Birr41.62niUliontUSD$4.84 million)
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The  following  assumptions  were  used  in  the  calculation  of  the  investment  cost  of  th. project:
0)      Nursery Establishment                     BirrlOO, 000 per nursery (ii)       Seedlings production                       Birr 0.2 per seedling
(iii)      Planting
(iv)      Nursery tools
(V) administration cost
Birr 1000 per ha
Birr 50,000 per nursery
•    salary for one forest officer (Birr2500/month and 5 nursery technicians Birr 900/month)
•    vehicle (double cabin)                      Birr 500,000
•    other running costs               Birr 400,000/year
37
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Annex 1 Zonal land use and land cover of Oromiya Region
ZONE
Area
Cull,
Forest
Plantn.
Woodl.
Shrubl.
Grass!
Afro-alp.
Swamp
Waler
I----------------------------------------
Arsi
i----------------------—
2,402.232
1,285,166
65,393
15,271
113,438
458,116
365,394
Rock,  soil  l or urban
Bale
52,255
6,559,404
5,552
527,927
779,534
10,022
1,382.163
18 832
2,197,073
22 339
1,010,442
118,884
Borena
9,823,808
419,434
7.259
296,725
10,354
5,631,271
,
0
2,707,716
466,161
502 04*2~'
0
West Harerge
66,720
1 776,336
357,777
22,334
3,850
15,764
95 072
660.932
130 348
533.014
0
East Harerge
533
2,561,500
370,554
8,119
266
,
284
7.039
1,055.611
849.466
179 724
0
lllubabor
1,636,384
605
608,979
617.799
1,114
0
374,177
0
34,315
,
269 839
0
Jimma
1,853,880
919,714
0
480,270
0
276,346
.
0
0
0
177,550
0
West Shewa
2,196,972
0
1,569,575
69,130
10,062
0
24,006
195,771
0|
305.959
9.016
East Shewa
10,932
1,404,428
780.780
24,300
6,567
2.340
70,271
229,604
162.953
180
0
13,652
2,309
North Shewa
1,157,920
759,870
3,592
113 988
3.436
20,494
82,226
238 455
0
West Wellega
2,362,096
0
1,250.875
122,668
464
,
0
975,453
0
49 846
0
0
East Wellega
12,632
2,227,036
820,807
72,726
1,364
0
932 740
163,373
,
0
150,272
0
19,468
29,984
36 302
.
TOTAL
35,961,996
9,671,458
2,562,591
62,770
9,823,163
7,750,422
4,293,980
180,155
i  137,353
260,500
1,192.286
Source: WBISPP surveys and GIS (2002)
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ENERGYArjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Energy
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
1     INTRODUCTION
May 2007
Table of contents
II
III
IV
I
1.1 The link between irrigation development and energy
1.1.1 The objective of the irrigation project....................................... I
1.1.2  Economic and social service requirements 
I
1.1.3 Energy for economic and social services 
1.1.4  Impact of the irrigation project on energy supplies 2
1.2  Project background
1.2.1 Location .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.2.2 Population
1.2.3 Topography 3
1.2.4 Climate 3
1.3   Objective of the study
1.3.1  Objectives of the project..................... .. .............. .............. 1.3.2  Objectives of the study3
1.4  Methodology
1.5 Scope of the study
2 THE RESOURCE BASE<
2.1 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS .5
I
.2
3
........ 3
3
4
4
2.1.1  Population
2 1.2 Waler supply 6 2.1.3 Health service
2.1.4 Education
2 2 Natural resources
s
$
2.2.1 Climate.......................................................................................................................................... 6
6
6
2.2.2  Land cover and land use
3. ENERGY DEMAND IN THE PROJECT AREA<
3.1 Data collection
3.2 Households
3 2.1 Wama Maribo Kebele in Limu Seka Wereda
3.2.2 Megnisa Kebele in Bedele Wereda
3.2.3 Aggregate household energy consumption
3.3 Agriculture
3.4 AGRO-INDUSTRY
3.5 Social services
3.5.1 Water
3.5.2   Health
3.5.3 Education ..................................................................................... ................ 3.6 Demand projection
3.6.1 Scope of analysis 
3.6.2   Basic model inputs 
4. ENERGY RESOURCES IN THE PROJECT AREA25
4.1 General
4.2 Biomass energy ....
4.2.1 Woody biomass 
7
<) <)
.9
10
12
13 15 16
17
18
20
22
22
23
25
25
.......25
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4.2.1.1 Potential Impacts of the project on forests in the area27
4.2.1.2 Tree planting in the project area ................................................................. -27
4 2.2 Agricultural residue
4.2.3 Animal dung 4.3 Hydropower.................................................................................................................... 29
4.4 Solar energy............................................................................................................................... 29
4.5 Wind energy..................................................................................................................................30
5. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SERVICE STRATEGY.......................................................................................... 31
6. PROJECT PRPOSALS FOR IMPLEMENTATION-35
6.1 Dissemination of efficient biomass stoves35
6.2 Homestead and farm tree planting37
6.3 Solar PhAotNoNvEoXlAt.aDicATsAysFtReOmMs WfoErREhDeaAlBthURaEnAdUeSdOuFcaAtGioRnICaUlLsTeUrRvEicAeNsD39WATER SUPPLY42
List of Tables
Table 2.1    Population in the command and reservoir areas. 2006
Table 2.2    Land cover for Weredas in the Project area7
Table 3.1a Household energy consumption in the command area. 2006       12
Table 3.1b Household energy consumption in the reservoir area. 2006 13
..... .5
Table 3.2   Land allocation and crop production per settler in Limu Seka. 2005 season 14 Table 3.3   Small scale irrigation in the Limu Seka Wereda, June 2006 14
Table 3.4   Commercial energy requirement for agriculture
Table 3.5 Agro-processing energy requirements in the project area16
15
Table 3 6    Distribution of water supply facilities in the Limu Seka and Bedele Weredas, 2006 17
Table 3.7    Energy requirements for potable water supply
Table 3 8    Energy requirements for health facilities
Table 3.9    Distribution of schools in the project Weredas, 2006 21 Table 3.10  Energy requirements for schools
Table 3.11  Parameters for analysis22
Table 3.12  Key Variables for demand projection
Table 3.13   Demand classification23
Table 3.14   Demand projection Year 1-Year 10, Tera Joules Table 4.1     Biomass stock and yield in the project area
18
20
21
23
24
26
Table       4.2      Agricultural       residue       potential       in       the       command       area       28
Table 4.3     Potential dung production by type of animal
Table 4.4     Solar energy resources, Jimma town (07.40N. 36.50E. 1577 masl)
29
30
Table 5 I The problem matrix: development issues, energy issues, and potential interventions in
THE ENERGY SECTOR 32
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List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Land cover ano land use in the project Wereda. Figure 4 12 Land cover in the project area
8
26
■
■
■
■
■
I I I I
I J I I
I
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Acronyms and abbreviations
May 2007
BLT
CSA
Branches, Leaves, Twigs
Central Statistics Agency of Ethiopia
EEPCO                       Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation
ENEC-CESEN (Italy) EREDPC ESTC
GJ GW (h) ha ICS kW(h) masl
MJ
Ethiopian National Energy Committee and Centro Studio Energi;
Ethiopian Rural Energy Development & Promotion Centre Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission
Giga Joule (E9 Joule)
Giga Watt (hour)
hectare
Inter-Connected system (EEPCO's national grid) Kilo Watt (hour)
meters above sea level
Mega Joule (E6 Joule)
MOA
Ministry of Agriculture
MW (h)
Mega Watt (hour)
NGO
Non-Government Organization
NMSA
National Meteorological Service Agency
PJ
Peta Joule (E15 Joule)
PV
Phtovoltaics (solar electricity production with photosensitive devices)
SCS
Self Contained System (EEPCO’s non-grid system)
TJ
Tera Joules (E12 Joule)
WBISPP
Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project
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Energy
Energy conversion factors
Fuel
Standard
unit
Moisture
Content (%)
Energy content
MJ/unit
Woody biomass Crop residues Dung Charcoal Biogas Kerosene Diesel Gasoline Fuel oil LPG
Electricity
kg kg kg kg nr L L L L kg
kWh
Air dry
15%
15.5
15.5
13.3 29.0 18.9 35.3 36.3 32.1 38.6 45.2
3.6
Source  Ethiopian  Rural  Energy  Development  and  Promotion  Center, Energy Database: sources & methods, 1994
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Energy Report
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 The link between irrigation development and energy 1.1.1 The objective of the irrigation project
May 2007
Irrigation development in the project area will increase food and cash crop production thus securing t he livelihood of people that w ill settle in t he a rea. A dditional b enefits w ill a Isc accrue to people who will be engaged in the processing, transport and trading of outputs from the project area. The project will provide the following benefits:
■     Increase  in  food  production.  This  will  ensure  food-security  for  tens  of  thousands  of people who will be settled in the area.
•  Increase  in  cash  crop  production.  Surplus  production  of  food  and  cash  crops  will  result in  increased  incomes  for  farmers,  development  of  market  economy  in  the  area,  and potential for exports.
■    Creation  of  diverse  and  enhanced  employment  opportunities.  With  surplus  output  from the    area,    employment    opportunities    will    increase    in    processing,    transport,    and marketing.
1.1.2 Economic and social service requirements
Irrigation development is  multi-sectoral, requiring inputs  from other sectors, providing inputs to the secondary  and tertiary  sectors  and impacting (positively  and/or adversely) on the environment. Development of the irrigation project will create demands  for economic  and social services for the population in the area.
The economic  service requirements  will include, agricultural inputs, industrial services  for agricultural inputs  and processing of outputs, transport and communication infrastructure, and energy  to run all of these. Social service requirements  will include provision of basic social services such as potable water supply, health services and schools.
1.1.3 Energy for economic and social services
The irrigation project will diversify  economic  opportunities  in the area. This  diversification must be driven by  accessible modern energy  (energy  for modern agriculture, agro industries. and industries). Access to modern energy must also be enhanced to people in
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the project area to enable them to enjoy better social services (water, health, educatior information).
Diversification of the local economy into small-scale industries and services will ci employment and generate more income to the people (more value added to
agricultural output). Such diversification will also reduce the pressure on land resou
and thus contribute to sustainable natural resource management.
1.1.4 Impact of the irrigation project on energy supplies
The development of the irrigation project will result in the clearing of forests  and c vegetation in the area. The development of the scheme will also result in mass mover of people to the area (as direct and indirect beneficiaries of the project). Since forests c critical component of watershed management systems, forest clearing will impact on and water management in the area while mass movement of people to the area will cr additional demands for forest products (for construction and fuel).
There is, therefore, a need to plan for a sustainable balance of demand and supph biomass  energy  in the area to secure the livelihood of thousands  living within and arc the project area. For the biomass  energy  sub-sector, sustainable managemen resources  may  require intervention in energy  demand management, energy  substitution enhancement of the biomass energy supply base.
1.2  Project background
1.2.1 Location
The Arjo-Dedessa irrigation project lies  in the Oromiya Region within East Wellega, Jir and lllubabor Zones. The command area lies mostly in Jimma Arjo, Limu Seka, Bedele Gechi Weredas, while the reservoir area is mostly in the Limu Seka, Dedesa and Bore Weredas.
The dam coordinate is  N 08.52017, E 36.66778. The dam is  just 1.5km upstream of confluence of the Dedessa and Wama rivers. The potential gross  command are 17.825ha.
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1.2.2 Population
The area is sparsely populated. There are only four rural settlements in the propose
May 2007
command area (all are very recent settlements). The people in the project area and thos 
around it depend on agriculture for their livelihood. A mixed system of agriculture ar
livestock production is practiced where crop production dominates in terms of contribution
output and incomes.
1.2.3 Topography
The command area lies  at about 1350masl and the topography  is  one with gentle slope and rolling hills. The land cover of the irrigation area and its  environs  include woodlanc grassland and cultivated land.
1.2.4 Climate
Mean annual rainfall in the area is  1800-2000mm (at Bedele and Nekemt respectively Rainfall is  concentrated between the months  of May  to October, which receive eight percent of the annual rain. The mean monthly temperature is 17-20 degrees Celsius.
1.3    Objective of the study
1.3.1 Objectives of the project
The development objective of the Arjo-Dedessa irrigation project will be food-security increased outputs  for export and creation of a diverse local economy  with sizabl employment opportunities. To ensure that the scheme brings  optimum and sustainabl development to the local economy a multi-sectoral study is underway.
1.3.2 Objectives of the study
The objective of this  study  is  to recommend actions  to improve energy  access  for sock services and for economic development in the project area. For this purpose, this study ha evaluated energy  needs  and resources  in the area and has  formulated strategies  an project proposals  for implementation. The specific  objectives  for the assignment include th following:
■   Assessment of energy service needs in the area
■   Assessment of energy resources and supplies
■   Identification of constraints and opportunities for energy sector development
■   Recommendations for action for energy service development
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1.4 Methodology
May 2007
The study  has  been carried out through the review of published and un-published secondary  data, a brief field survey  of the project area, and application of an energy planning model to assess energy demands. The following methodology has been adopted:
i.           Review  of  published  and  un  published  reports  on  the  project  area.  Specifically, reports  from  the  Integrated  River  Basin  Master  Plan  Studies  conducted  by  the Ministry of Water Resources was reviewed for this purpose.
ii.          Primary  data  collection  from  the  area.  This  included  visit  of  regional  and  local authorities  to  collect  data  on  energy  resources,  supplies  and  consumption;  and conducting interviews with selected key informants in the project area to gather data on energy demands and supplies.
iii.        Review of reports of other sector studies for this project.
iv.         An  energy-planning  model  is  used  to  analyze  energy  demand  and  supply  data  for the project area. The Long-range Alternative Energy Planning model, LEAP, is used for this purpose
1.5  Scope of the study
The assignment has been broken down into six tasks. The main tasks were the estimation of energy demand of the population that will settle in the command and assessment of local resources to meet this expected demand. The tasks are as follows.
i.          Review the socio-economic conditions of the area
ii.         Review the natural resource endowment of the area
iii.        Assess energy service needs at present and in the future
•    Review available energy sector studies
■ Evaluate the impacts of energy programs and projects carried out in the area
■   Identify data gaps
•   Conduct field survey to collect current data
■  Estimate energy needs
iv.        Assess energy resources in the area
v.           Explore  sustainable  energy  supply  alternatives  and  make  recommendations  for energy service development
vi.        Develop project profiles for implementation
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2 THE RESOURCE BASE
2.1
Socio-economic c
haracteristics
The
project  area
(both  on
the  reservoir  side
and
the
p
otenti
al
comma
nd
area)
is  ver
spars
ely  populated
by  new
settlers.  Settlers  be
gan
com
ing
into
th
e  area
in
2004
foliowin
the  government’s  initiative  for  food  security  for  people  in  food  deficit  areas  of  the  countn The setters originally were from the Hararge and Arsi Zones of the Oromiya Regional State
The new settlers have located their living areas in the hills while they cultivate lower areas Family sizes in the settlements (for those who came from Hararge) are quite high at mea household size of 8.
The settlers  are currently  engaged in cultivating crops  using land allotted to them by  th* local authorities. Land holding in the settlements  is  1.5 to 2ha per family. Settlers  wer also provided with one ox  per family. However, settlers  have still no food security Discussions held with Wereda Bureau of Agriculture experts during the reconnaissance fieli survey indicated that some setters still require food aid. It is expected that settlers will sooi be self-sufficient in food production.
2.1.1   Population
The population residing in the command and reservoir areas  is  estimated at 73,157 (vid< Table 2.1). The population in the command area number 32,904 and reside in 15 Kebele; within 3 Weredas  (some partly  and some fully). The population in the reservoir area i: 41,557 residing in 15 Kebeles within 2 Weredas.
Ethnically  the population in the command and reservoir areas  is  composed of 85% Oromo 7% Amara, and 8% from other ethnic groups. About half of the population is Muslim, 41°/ Christian and the rest from other religions.
Table 2/1 Population in the command and reservoir areas. 2006
Zone
Wereda
___
Area                   Rural (km )             Population (for
Wereda)
2
Kebeles
within 
project area
Population
within project
area
Households
within project
area
Command
illubabor
Bedcle
1.822                     117,598
8
16,408
4,103
lllubabor
Gechi
563
61,674
4
6,330
1,055
East Welcga
Jima Arjo
684
81,504
3
8,862
1.975
Reservoir
lllubabor
Borecha
914
47,004
11
28,662
4,763
Jimma
Lcmu Scka
2,787
165,441
4
12,895
2,200
Total
30
73,157
14.096
Source: Ajro Dedesa Irrigation Project, Socio-Economy Sectoral Study Report, Nov 2006
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2.1.2 Water supply
May 2007
For the Limu Seka Wereda as a whole rural water supply consists of 372 functional hand pumps and 12 supplying Atnago town and surrounding rural areas. In the new settlement areas  (where part of the reservoir area will be located) the population is  provided with potable water supply from springs (18 units) and shallow wells with hand pumps (22 units).
For Bedele Wereda the water supply  infrastructure consists  of 31 springs, 26 hand-dug wells, 15 shallow wells  with hand pumps  (9 of them currently  under construction). Rural water service coverage is estimated to be 39 percent.
2.1.3 Health service
There are 5 health centers, 22 clinics, and 45 health posts in the W eredas that will be affected by the irrigation project. Access to the facilities is limited: in Limu Seka there are only 13 health posts for an estimated population of 177,000. Similarly in Bedele there are 4 health posts for a population of 75,000.
2.1.4 Education
There are a total of 209 primary and 5 secondary schools in the project Weredas. These schools serve a population of over half a million people, which translates into 209 schools for a school age population of about 100,000.
2.2 Natural resources
In rural areas, local resource endowments determine the type of economic activity. Types of land, soil, water, and climate in the area determine the potential for agriculture and other types of economic activity. Those in turn determine the need for energy services.
2.2.1 Climate
Meteorological data is  available for the project area from Met stations  at Bedele (N08.45598, E36.35306, 2007masl) and Nekemt (N09 08686, E36.52788, 2077masl). The mean annual rainfall at Bedele is 1836.5mm, of which 84 percent falls in the months of May to October. Mean annual rainfall at Nekemt is 2002.1mm, of which 88 percent falls between the months of May and October.
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The mean monthly temperature at Bedele is a low of 17.4 degrees Celsius in July and a high of 20.5 degrees Celsius in April. For Nekemt, the low temperature month is July at 15.9 degrees Celsius and the high in April at 20.1 degrees Celsius.
Relative humidity in both Bedele and Nekemt range from 48 percent in February to 88 percent in August. Generally very low wind speeds are recorded in the area where at both Bedele and Nekemt wind speeds are about 1m/s or slightly lower throughout the year.
2.2.2 Land cover and land use
The reservoir and the proposed command area are both mostly covered with woodland, lightly interspersed with crop cultivation by very recent settlers in the area. For the farmers, land holding per family is 1.5ha, of which 1ha is currently cultivated. Maize and sorghum are cultivated on a third of a family’s plot; the rest is cultivated for oil crops (sesame and neug) and nuts. The situation about the land cover and land use presented in Figure 2.1 as well as Table 2.2.
The major land cover and land use in the command and reservoir areas are cultivation (25 to 52%) and woodland (31 to 61%).
Table 2.2 Land cover for Weredas in the Project area
Total
c
□
c
•O
“O
"3
Q
c
area
T5
"in
a
o.
Wereda
>
u.‘J
o
3
JO3
J
tn
'_Q-
.-3
E
rj
£ 
5 S
Zone
O
(ha)
Lt.
EL
o 
o 
£
c/i
3
o
C/j
£ 5
Illubabor
Bedele
170,288
45%
4%
0%
47%
0%
3%
0%
0%
0% 0%
Jimma
Limu Seka
249,768
27%
5%
0%
47%
0%
21%
0%
0%
0% 0%
Illubabor
Gechi
142,936
49%
6%
0%
31%
0%
14%
0%
0%
0% 0%
East Welega
Dedesa
50,744
52%
7%
0%
25%
0%
17%
0%
0%
0% 0%
East Welega
Jimma Aijo
78,068
39%
0%
0%
61%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0% 0%
Source: Derived from WBISPP Strategic   Plans for Oromiya Regional State.
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Figure 2.1 Land cover and land use in the project Wereda
May 2007
Legend
Cultivation
i—* Grassland
Natural F orest
I 1 Plantation
Woodland
----- River
♦ T owns
L’LT-WEREDA
../V . a
O
1 2.5
33 Kilometers
25
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3. ENERGY DEMAND IN THE PROJECT AREA 3.1      Data collection
May 2007
This section documents the current and projected energy service needs of the population now living in the project area and new settlers expected to settle in the area after project implementation. The assessment is  made for the following four sectors: households, agriculture, agro-industry and social services.
Demand analysis is made based on secondary data available for Weredas in the project area and a reconnaissance survey made to the area during June. Secondary information sources for this section of the assessment include the following:
■   Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Plan for the Oromiya Regional State (WBISPP, Ministry of Agriculture. 2001);
■   The Oromiya Energy Resources Baseline Survey (Addis Resources Development PLC, 1999);
• The Abay Basin Master Plan Study (Ministry of Water Resources, 1998)
3.2 Households
A reconnaissance survey  was  made in June 2006 to the project area to collect energy demand and supply data. Two Kebeles, one on the reservoir side (Wama Maribo in Limu Seka) the other in the command area (Megnisa in Bedele) were visited. These two villages were considered representative of the population in the project area and were also readily accessible for the survey. The household energy  profiles  for these two Kebeles  are presented in Box 3.1 and Box 3.2.
3.2.1 Wama Maribo Kebele in Limu Seka Wereda
New comers from the Arsi and Hararge Zones of the Oromiya Regional State live in the area. The people derive their livelihood from crop cultivation on a 1.5ha plot of land originally provided to them.
In the Maribo Kebele. wood (in the form of branches  and twigs) is  the only  source of cooking fuel. The average household consumes  12kg of wood per day  for cooking. The main cooking end uses for households are boiling of maize, tea, and making of the local bread.
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Households  use kerosene lamps  (with wicks) for lighting. On average a househc consumes  0 1 liter of kerosene per day  for lighting. When cash is  scarce households  uj burning fires for lighting their homes.
Wood for cooking fuels  is  freely  collected from the surrounding areas. Households  colie wood from the scattered woodland areas  in the farmlands  and around the homestead Kerosene for lighting is purchased in the local market at a cost of Birr 9 per liter
The new settlements  have high population density. Their demand for wood for fut construction and other purposes  is  considerable. Some problems  of access  to fuels  a already  evident (according to the Wereda Agriculture Bureau experts). Flooding of the are for reservoir will exacerbate the problem (unless, of course, they  move to the commar area).
Box 3.1 Energy profile for households in the resettlement Kebeles in Limu Seka Wereda
Energy profile
Location
Coordinates Region
Zone Wereda
Kebele
Rural Households
Maribo village
NA
Oromiya Jimma
Limu Seka
Wama Maribo
June 2006
Settlement Economic activity
Scattered settlement
Crop cultivation
Land per family:
1.5ha
Energy demand characteristics
Household size = 6 persons
Number of households = 659
Cooking energy use = 12 kg of wood/day Lighting energy use = 0.1L of kerosene/day
3.2.2 Megnisa Kebele in Bedele Wereda
The population in the Megnisa Kebele resettled here in 2004 from the Hararge area Ear household is  provided with a 1.5ha plot of land and an ox  The people cultivate maiz sorghum and other cereals in their plots
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Households are large (at a mean of 7 people per family). Branches, leaves and twigs (BLT) are the only source of cooking fuel. BLT is available from both around the homestead and the farmlands
The main household cooking end uses are boiling of coffee and tea (Hojja), boiling of grains (Nifro), injera/bread baking (with sorghum). Bread baking accounts for the largest share of energy consumed for cooking in the household.
Some households  in the village reported that they  use agri-residue (from maize and sorghum) for fuel in the dry season (October and November). This is despite the fact that, at least for the present, wood is available from the surrounding woodland.
Household interviewed during the reconnaissance survey indicated that they use Birr 0.5 worth of kerosene per night for lighting (when they have cash). At a local price of Birr 9 per liter for kerosene, nightly use of kerosene amounts to 0.06 Liter per household Considering the fact that these are barely self-sufficient farmers, their cash expenditure for lighting is quite high.
Box 3.2 Energy profile for households in the resettlement Kebeles in Bedele Wereda
Energy profile     Rural Households
June 2006
Location Coordinates
Megnisa village N08.53051
E36.60822 
1412m
<
Region 
Zone
Wereda
Kebele
Oromiya
lllubabor
Bedele                            i Megnisa
Settlement Economic
activity
Scattered settlement Crop cultivation Land per family: 1.5ha ] Livestock: 1 Ox
Energ> demand characteristics
Household size = 7 persons
Number of households = N?X
Cooking energy use = 15kg of wood/day Lighting energy use = 0.06L of kerosene/day
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3.2.3 Aggregate household energy consumption
May 2007
Aggregate energy consumption for the household sector is made from energy consumption estimates obtained from the field survey (above) and population (household) data for the project area obtained from the draft final report of the socio-economic study.
Aggregate annual energy consumption by households now living in the area is estimated to be 61,740 Tons of wood for cooking and 515 cubic meter of kerosene for lighting. The details are available in Tables 3.1a and 3.1b.
Table 3.1a Household energy consumption in the command area, 2006
Woody 
biomass
Crop
residue
Char-coal
Kero-sene
Electri-city
Zone
Woreda
Kebeles
House
holds
Ton
4.38
Ton
0
Ton
0
L
36.5
kWh
0
Bedele
Lilokarie Chafiejalela Bekelichbiftu Bildimadaru Chilalobildima Ambeleta Kolosirie Harotatesa
210
426
414
405
377
404
576
322
920
1,866
1,813
1,774
1,651
1.770
2,523
1,410
7,665
15,549
15,111
14,783
13,761
14,746
21,024 11,753
Sub total
8 Kebeles
3,134
13,727
0
0
114,391
0
Getchi
Chitubosena Manis 
Yebelo
Wakel
281
253
272
249
1,231
1,108
1,191
1,091
10,257
9,235
9,928
9,089
Sub total
4 Kebeles
1.055
4,621
38,508
Jima-Arjo
Lugama
Meta Bedhasadede ssa
350 ’
1,291
334
1,533
5,655
1,463
12,775
47,122
12,191
Subtotal
3 Kebeles
1,975
8,651
-
-
TOTAL
ZL
72,088
6,164'
26,998
0
0
224,986
0
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Table 3.1b Household energy consumption in the reservoir area, 2006
May 2007
Woody Crop Char- Kero- Electri
biomass residue coal sene -city
Zone
Woreda
Kebeles
House holds
Ton         Ton       Ton           L          kWh 4.38            0           0          36.5           0
Borecha
Chewo
Nataro Agidearba Darasidan
Chulu
Golijo
Beleka
Markafo
Buko
Belati
Gubahora
238
488
385
297
335
341
190
329
329
1,296
535
1,042 - - 8.687 2,137 - - 17,812 1,686 - - 14,053 1,301 - - 10,841
1,467              -            -   12,228
1,494              -            -   12,447
832              -            -     6,935
1,441              -            -   12,009
1,441              -            -   12,009
5.676              -            -   47,304
2,343              -            -   19,528
Sub total
11 Kebeles
4,763
20,862             -            -    173,850
Limu-
Seka
Wmamaribo Medajalela Gemta
Tokuma
Damme
659
384
493
664
2,886 - - 24,054
1,682 - - 14,016
2,159 - - 17,995
2,908 - - 24,236
Subtotal
4 Kebeles
2,200
9,636             -            -      80,300
TOTAL
6,660
30,498              0            0    254,150             0
3.3 Agriculture
The proposed irrigation reservoir and command areas  are inhabited by  new settlers voluntarily  moved from the Hararge and Arsi zones  of Oromiya Regional State Resettlement into the project area from food deficit areas  in the Oromiya Region started ir 2004 and is still continuing.
The  new  settlers  have  been  provided  with  1.5  to  2ha  of  land  and  an  ox  per  family.  Basic potable water supply and health facilities were also provided.
Settlers  have started crop production on their allotted lands. However, local experts  in the Wereda Bureaus  of Agriculture (in Limu Seka Wereda) have pointed out that the nev\ settlers are still not food sufficient and require support food aid from the government.
A  recent  survey  made  of  Limu  Seka  Wereda  by  the  local  Bureau  of  Agriculture  indicates that the farmers, on average, are cultivating about two-thirds of the land allotted to them, i.e 1ha.  Farmers  are  cultivating  quite  a  wide  variety  of  products  including  Sesame,  Maize, Haricot  beans.  Sorghum,  Neug,  and  Ground  nuts.  Their  land  allocation  for  these  crops  and production is shown in Table 3.2.
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The settlers  in the potential command area are originally  from the Hararge zone (an are; renowned for cattle breeding). Some of the households  (settlers  in Bedele Wereda) an therefore engaged in cattle breeding/fattening, in addition to crop cultivation.
Table 3.2 Land allocation and crop production per settler in Limu Seka, 2005 season
(Data is for the Mada Jalala resettlement kebele)
Sesame Maize Haricot Neug Sorghum Ground
beans
Total
nuts
Cultivated area               0.50         0.25       0.125       0.25             0.08          0.03 (ha)
Production                             4              9            2.5            3               1.5         1.25 (quintal)
Households
1.035
Source: Cultivated area and production per household from the Limu Seka Wereda Bureau of Agriculture, for the 1997/98EC production year, June 2006
The settlers  practice rainfed crop cultivation on their small plots. The traditional productior technique is  essentially  human and animal power based and commercial energy  is  no applied in production.
Small-scale irrigation is  practiced by  some farmers  in the Weredas. These irrigatior schemes  are of the small diversion type or from springs. Again, no commercial energy  i< used for water lifting or delivery. Details  of small-scale irrigation schemes  for Limu Seks Wereda are available in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Small scale irrigation in the Limu Seka Wereda, June 2006
Plan
Implementation
Irrigation method
Area
(ha)
Users
(persons)
Area         Users (ha)      (persons)
River diversion
(gravity)
Spring
Wet land
Hand dug well Water harvesting
353           6200
85           5310 79           3173 15             532 10             500
76.6            1043
28.6               524 35.0              984
5.3              104 0.5                 58
Total
542         15715
146.0            2713
Source. Limu Seka Wereda Bureau of Agriculture, June 2006
The proposed irrigation project will change farming practices  in the area. Mechanization foi land preparation, harvesting and post-harvest on-farm activities  may  be possible, even foi small holders, either on a hire basis or by communal ownership.
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With the assumption that all the potential command area (17825 ha) will be cultivated b mechanized means  annual diesel fuel requirements  could be around 700 m (or 25 Ter< Joules). Details are available in Table 3.4.
For the livestock sub-sector, the basic requirement for livestock water may be met from th( irrigation canals.
Table 3.4 Commercial energy requirement for agriculture
Agricultural activity
Unit       Fuel
Energy use
L/unit
GJ/unit
Land preparation
Harvesting
Post-harvest
(threshing/shelling)
Ha Diesel
Ton Diesel
Ton Diesel
32.3
5.3
NA
1.2
0.2
NA
Source: Agricultural mechanization services corporation. Ministry of Agriculture,
1989
3.4 Agro-industry
Relatively  higher land and labor productivity  will be possible with irrigation. As  a resul farmers  in the area will become surplus  producers. This  will transform the local productior system in two ways:
•     With potentially year round engagement in farm activities, farmers and their families ma} have little time left to do the traditional household chores (and will also afford to pay foi the  services)  such  as  grain  pounding  and  fuel  collection.  As  a  result  some  of  these services may be available as commercial activities outside the home.
•       Surplus   agricultural   output   from   the   area   may   be   exported   raw   or   processed Processing of outputs in the area will create more value added and employment
In terms of energy service requirements, the transformation in production techniques w il
bring with it an energy use transformation. For example, grains will be processed b\
mechanized means outside the home instead of in the home (by women a nd girls) anc 
other basic food items such as oil may be available from local oil pressing facilities. The
details of requirement of energy for agro-processing are available in Table 3.1.
•     Depending  on  the  types  of  crops,  vegetables  and  fruits  grown  in  the  area  energy  may also be required for drying and refrigeration.
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•  For  this  preliminary  assessment  only  processing  requirements  for  consumption  in  thi project  area  only  is  considered.  Estimation  of  processing  requirements  for  export  wi require   detailed   agricultural   production   data   as   well   as   market   potentials   for   thi products, which is not available.
Table 3.5 Agro-processing energy requirements in the project area
Food               Unit requirement
Requirement
Unit/person-year
Settlers
Total
requirement
Grain                          Ton
Oil
L
0.18
6
73,157 13,168
73,157 438.942
Note: It is assumed that all those now living in the command and reservoir area, a total of 73,157 people, will live in the area after irrigation development. It is also assumed that a person consumes about half a kilogram of ground
grain a day (therefore 180kg/year) and about half a liter of oil per month.
Agro-processing
Output
Electricity use per
unit output
Total electricity use
activity                                       Unit
kWh/Out- MJ/Out- put unit put unit
MWh
MJ
Grain milling Ton
Oil pressing •000 L
38           137 400         1440
500
175
1804
632
Source: For electricity consumption per unit output. Oromiya Energy
Resources Baseline Survey, 1999.
There is scope of power generation from the proposed dam. According to the preliminary plan a substantial portion of generated power may be used to pump water to increase the irrigable area. If part of the power is made available for the settlers, their agro-processing requirements may also be met by electricity, which will improve the viability of the processing businesses.
3.5 Social services
Social service requirements in the project area include potable water supply, health facilities and schools. At present the coverage of these services, in terms  of population served and the quality of services for those in operation is generally inadequate.
The social and economic benefits of adequate social services for the rural population cannot be over stressed: the productivity of the population will be enhanced with better health services and education.
Small amounts of modern energy can improve the quality of the social service infrastructure substantially. Access to electricity will enable higher yields of potable water, basic refrigeration and lighting for health clinics, and light and communication media for schools.
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3.5.1 Water
Water service facilities  in two of the project Weredas  (one each in the reservoir am command areas) are shown in Table 3.6. Service coverage is  decidedly  much lower thai the average for the national rural population as  a whole. In Limu Seka Wereda, fo example, service coverage was  only  13 percent in 1997 compared to 27 percent at the national level.
Unexpectedly,  the  population  in  the  resettlement  areas  have  much  better  water  service coverage than original residents in the area. The new settlers in Limu Seka are served with
18 springs a nd 22 medium d epth bore holes compared to j ust 1 1 water points for othei parts of the Wereda.
Table 3.6 Distribution of water supply facilities in the Limu Seka and Bedele Weredas, 2006
Limu Seka
Bedele
Type of scheme              Water lifting
Operational
units
Operational
units
Springs
Hand dug wells
Hand pumps
Shallow bore holes                Hand pumps Mid to deep bore holes
28
372
1
22
38
31
15
Note: The mid depth bore holes in Limu Seka are 42 to 74m deep; the
shallow boreholes in Bedele are 30 to 60m deep. In Limu Seka Wereda
18 of the 28 springs and all the 22 mid depth boreholes are installed in
the resettlement areas._______ ____
Source: Limu Seka and Bedele Wereda Rural water supply office, June
2006
In the project area water lifting from boreholes is made by using hand pumps. For shallow wells hand pumps would be the cheapest sources of power (both in capital and O&M costs). However, for high pumping lifts and high discharge rates, motorized pumping may be more appropriate.
Due to low discharge rates  of hand pumps, several units  may  need to be installed in an area to serve large population centres. In contrast, a single motorized deep well pump can serve the same number of people and also cuts time spent by people for pumping.
Potable  water  requirement  by  the  population  that  would  settle  in  the  command  areas  is estimated from the following four parameters:
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•    Population (73,157),
•    per-capita daily water demand (10 Liter/day-person, general recommendations are fi 20 Liter/day but this would be too high for rural Ethiopian realities),
May 2007
3
•    mean water lifting head (mean depth of boreholes in the project area which is assume to be 60m), and
•    useful energy required to lift 1m  of water by 1m (computed as E—rho g h q Ws 
323
1000kg/m *9.8m/s *1m*1m  = 9800 Ws = 2.72 Wh).
Table 3.7 Energy requirements for potable water supply
Potable water supply
Unit
Deman
d
Daily water demand per 1000 people Mean delivery head
Daily water delivery * head Annual water delivery * head Useful energy requirement per m4
m3
m
m4
m4
Wh/m4
103
60
600
219,000
2.72
Useful energy requirement for 1000
persons
Useful energy requirement for 1000
persons
MWh/year
GJ/year
0.6
2.14
Note:  10 liter per capita per day assumed
a
Depending on the power source used for lifting water, final energy  required (in contrast t< useful energy, which does  not consider conversion losses) to serve a thousand people would range from 1 to 2.4MWh per year (the lower figure is  for electric  pumps  and the higher is  for diesel pumps). Details  of energy  requirements  for potable water pumping are available in Table 3.7. Total energy  required to meet the water service requirement for al settled in the area would then be about 73 to 175MWh per year.
3.5.2  Health
Health service is  the second most valued service in rural areas  (second only  to watei supply). The number of health institutions and health service workers in the project area (oi generally  in Weredas  of the project area) is  however very  few. For example, in Limu Sekc Wereda there is  only  one health center, five clinics  and 13 health posts  for an estimatec 
population  of  177,000.  Similarly  in  Bedele  Wereda  there  is  only  one  health  center  and  4
health posts for a population of 75,000.
Health  service  reach  is  not  the  only  constraint  in  rural  areas.  Even  where  health  service institutions are available adequate quality service is not provided due to constraints in
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trained personnel, equipment and energy  required to operate equipment. A limited amoui of electricity  for lighting, refrigeration, basic  diagnostic  equipment and communication radic can improve quality of service considerably.
Rural health service institutions  are classified into three, health posts, health clinics  an health centers. Facilities  available in each of these institutions  is  outlined in Box  3.3 (not that these are the standards, but in reality the standards are rarely met).
Box 3.3 Health service standards
Health posts    Doctors and nurses make periodic visits but are not stationed at these posts. Facilities are available only for the treatment of minor ailments and injuries.
Health
clinics Health
centers
Clinics have a permanent nurse and better facilities than a health posts, they may have laboratory facilities.
Health centers or rural hospitals have permanent doctors and nurses, beds for patients, and laboratories.
Basic  equipment required for proper functioning of rural health facilities  is  shown in Table 3.8. Requirements  for health posts  are only  for lights  and vaccine refrigeration while fo clinics power may be required for diagnostic equipment and for VHF radio.
According  to  the  energy  demand  shown  in  Table  3.8,  health  posts  and  clinics  will  require 139kWh and 251 kWh of electricity per year respectively.
1   Two-way communication radios arc essential to send health or other emergency information to concerned bodies outside the settlements.
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Table 3.8 Energy requirements for health facilities
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Appliance
Health post
Health clinic
Loads
Wh
Loads
Wh
Lights - compact fluorescent Vaccine refrigerator
Microscope
Centrifuge nebulizer
Vapourizer
Oxygen concentrator Communication VHF radio Water pump
2*20W’2h
1‘60W5h
80
300
4*20W*4h
T60W’5h
V15W*1h
320
300
15
54
Total per clinic per day Total per clinic per year
(kWh)
380
139
689
251
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), USA, for energy consumption of rural health facilities
The size of the population each type of health institution is expected to serve is as follows:
2
5000 for health posts, 10,000 for health stations or clinics, and 25,000 for health centers .
With the expected number of settlers in the project area (73,157 people). 15 health posts and 7 clinics will be required. Total annual electricity requirement for these institutions will be 3.8MWh (2MWh for health posts and 1.8MWh for clinics).
3.5.3 Education
There are a total of 209 primary and 5 secondary schools in the Weredas that would be affected by the project (refer to Table 3.9). The available statistics does not show
distribution in rural and urban areas but all secondary schools and a large portion of the primary schools would be in urban areas.
The school age population is generally estimated at 20 percent and 4.5 percent of the total population for primary  a nd secondary  schools  respectively.3 This  means  there would be nearly  15,000 primary  school age children and 3,300 secondary  school candidates  in the settlements (this assumes that a total of 73,157 people will settle in the development area).
2 Health and health related indicators. Ministry of Health. 2002/03, p 23.
’ Computed from data on school age population and total population from the Health and health related indicators statistics of the Ministry of Health. 2002 03. pp. 7-11
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Mean number of students served by primary schools in project area Weredas is about 400 (computed from the table). If this number is taken as a guide, there would need to be 30 primary schools to serve the population in the project area. However, since settlements in the project area will be in close proximity one school may serve 800 to WOO children. This means 15 primary schools and 3 secondary school will be required for the project area.
Table 3.9 Distribution of schools in the project Weredas, 2006
Energy  requirements  in schools  range from basic  lighting (night school) to audio-visual teaching aids  and laboratory  equipment Electricity  requirement for these end uses  is  for primary and secondary schools is shown in the next Table 3.10. Primary schools require 102kWh of electricity  annually  for lighting and audio-visual equipment while secondary schools require 410kWh of electricity annually for lighting, audio-visuals and lab equipment The details are available in Table 3.10.
Table 3.10 Energy requirements for schools
Appliance
Primary school
Secondary school
Wh
Lights - compact
fluorescent
Teaching aids
Radio
TV (2VB&W)
TV (21" color)
VCR/Satellite receiver Refrigerator/Lab
Equipment
Power tools/Workshop
Loads
5*20W*4h
2*15W4h
1*30W*4h
Wh
400
120
120
Loads
5’20W‘4h
4*15W’4h
2*100W4h
V30W‘4h
Total per school per day Total per year (kWh)*
640
102
400
240
800
120
500
500
2.560
410
• Total energy requirements for the year computed as daily demand times 160 days per year i8 months per year and 20 days per month).
Source National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), USA. for energy consumption of rural schools .
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Total energy required for schools in the project area as computed from the required number of schools and energy demand per school is 2.9MWh of electricity (1.5MWh for primary schools and 1.4MWh for the secondary school).
3.6 Demand projection
Growth in energy demand depends on development of basic socio-economic factors at the local level. These variables  include population, cultivated area and productivity, incomes, and the development of the social service infrastructure.
Population is  the key  driving variable for energy  demand. The size of the population, its economic engagement and its requirement for social services determines energy demand Therefore, as  the key  variable, the number of people expected to live and work  in the project area has  to be estimated precisely. At present there are no estimates  for the number of potential settlers  in the command area. Energy  demand is  projected with the assumption that all those now living in the command and reservoir area will settle in the command area (73,157 people in 14096 households).
Depending on availability  of irrigation water, land and climatic  suitability  of the command area there would be two or more growing periods. This effectively doubles or triples the size of the potentially  cultivable area Agricultural productivity  will increase with the availability  of irrigation water. The diversity  of agricultural output as  well as  volume will increase. This in turn will increase energy demand for processing
3.6.1 Scope of analysis
The geographic scope for the demand projection is limited to the command area, and the period of analysis to ten years from the start of the project.
Table 3.11 Parameters for analysis
Parameter
Scope and assumptions
Geographic scope
The demand projection is limited to the command area.
Projection period
The projection period is 10 years from the base year (first year of
operation of the project).
Command area
under cultivation
The full extent of the command area will be developed within the projection period. Area under cultivation will start at a fraction of the total command area then reaches the total potential within three years.
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3.6.2 Basic model inputs
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In the demand projection model used for this  study, the Long-range Energy  Alternative Planning (LEAP) system, demand driving variables are called Key Variables and are basic input parameters. The Key Variables for demand assessment in the project area are shown in Table 3.12.
Table 3.12 Key Variables for demand projection
Key variable
Expression
Scale      Unit
Potential command area       17,825
Cultivated area per farmer    1.25
Cultivated command area     2‘Potential command area Cultivated land growth          0
Households Rural
14,096
Household size rural             5.2
Population Rural
Households RuraFHousehold size rural
Population growth rural 2.3
Agriculture productivity 1.5
Agriculture output
Cultivated command area'Agriculture prod.
Livestock population             2'Households Rural
Ha
Ha
Ha
% Households Persons Persons
%
Ton/ha
Ton
ETB per year
For the four demand sectors to be analyzed in this study demand projection is made using the relationships shown in Table 3.13. Essentially, energy demand is modeled as a product of “Energy intensity” which characterized energy demand per unit of output or activity and a socio-economic “Driving variables” such as population or area under cultivation
Energy  intensities  for each of the sectors  and sub sectors  have been estimated in the previous  section. These estimates  are used together with the socio-economic  variables (and their assumed rates of growth in the future) in Table 3 12 to project energy demand by sector.
fable 3.13 Demand classification
Sector               Sub sector           Demand relations
Households       Rural
Demand (GJ) = Households * GJ/household
[Demand computed for cooking, baking, lighting end uses]
Agriculture
Small farms
Demand (GJ) = Ha * GJ/Ha
[Assumed mechanization for agriculture]
Agro-industry     Agro-industry
Demand (GJ) = Ton * GJ/Ton
[Demand for grain mills]
Social Services  Water
Health
Education
Demand (GJ) = Population ’ GJ/Person
Demand (GJ) = # of institutions ' kWh/lnstitution Demand (GJ] = # primary schools ’ kWh/pnmary school
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3.6.3 Projected energy demand in the project area
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Household energy requirements will constitute 95 percent of the total energy consumption in the project area for the base year (the year the irrigation scheme becomes operational). Household energy consumption is shown to decline in the future: this is the result of the assumption that households will substitute their inefficient stoves with efficient ones (56% of the households converting to efficient stoves in 10 years).
Energy  consumption for the agriculture sector stays  level since the driving variable for energy demand in sector, area of cultivated land stays constant throughout. For the agro industry sector demand grows with population growth. For the social services sector energy demand grows  at the driving variable for the sector, population grows. The projection of demand is available in Table 3.14.
Table 3.14 Demand projection Year 1-Year 10, Tera Joules
Sector
Fuel             Year 1    Year 2    Year 3    Year 4    Year 5  Year 10
Household
980
997
1,007
1,002
973
681
Cooking
Wood
961
977
987
981
951
Lighting
655
Kerosene
19
20
21
22
25
19
Agriculture
12
29
48
48
48
Land preparation
Diesel
48
10
25
41
41
41
Harvesting
Diesel
41
2
4
7
7
7
7
Agro-industry
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Grain mill
2.9
Electricity
3.4
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
Oil mill
Electricity
2.1
2.5
0.6
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.9
Public service
0.29
0.30
0.31
0.32
Water
Electricity
0.34
0.39
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.30
Health
Electricity
0.31
0.36
0.014
0.015
0.016
0.016
0.014
0.019
Education
Electricity
0.011
0.011
0.011
0.012
0.010
0.014
Total
995
1,029
1,058
1,053
1,025
733
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4. ENERGY RESOURCES IN THE PROJECT AREA
4.1 General
This task deals with evaluation of the energy resources of the area in order to assess they could meet the energy service needs identified in the previous section. The outpi
May 20
the task is a documentation of the local energy resources of the area, including hydropo' woody biomass, agriculture and livestock product residues, solar and wind energy.
Resource assessment in the area is based on the reconnaissance survey made to the c in June 2006 and review of published and unpublished reports. The following reports h been reviewed:
■   Abay River Basin Integrated Development Master plan (1998)
■     Meteorological  data  from  the  National  Meteorology  Service  Agency  (wind  spec sunshine durations)
■    Energy  resource  studies  from  the  Ethiopian  National  Energy  Committee  and  CES 1994
■   The Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project document for Oromiya
4.2 Biomass energy
Biomass  energy  resources  include  woody  biomass  resources  from  forests  and  plantatic agricultural residues and animal dung traditionally used for fuel in rural areas of Ethiopia.
4.2.1 Woody biomass
Forestry  resources  of the project area are estimated for the four Weredas  that will substantially  affected with the irrigation project. The Limu Seka Wereda will mainly affected as  the reservoir area, the other Weredas  (Bedele, Gechi and Jimma Arjo) will affected as part of their area lies within the command area.
This assessment is based on review of previous studies on the irrigation project, data fr the Wereda Bureaux of Agriculture in the project area and the reconnaissance survey m? to the area in June of 2006.
The  project  area  is  generally  covered  with  open  woodlands,  which  become  dense  near banks of the Dedessa River (see Figure 4.1). Data obtained from the Limu Seka Were
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Bureau  of  Agriculture  indicates  the  forest  cover  in  the  Wereda  to  be  42256  ha  accountii for 17 percent of the total area of the Wereda.
According to the Woody  Biomass  Inventory  carried out for the Oromiya region in 20( (WBISPP, 2000) stocks  and yields  for natural forests  and plantations  in the area are < shown in Table 4 1.
Table 4.1 Biomass stock and yield in the project area
Wereda                Total area
(Ha)
Natural (Ton/ha)
Homestead (Ton/ha)
Total
(Ton/ha)
Stock        Yield
Stock           Yield
Stock           Yield
Bedele 170,288 Gechi 142,936 Limu Seka 249,768 Jimma 78,068 Arjo
6.74         0 32
7.58         0.34
9.81         0 42
5.80 0.29
0.37 0.05
041 0.06
0.36 0.03
0 46 0.06
7.11             0 37
7.98            0 40
10.17            0 45
6.25 0.36
Source: Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project, 2000
Figure 4.1 Land cover in the project area____________
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4.2.1.1 Potential impacts of the project on forests in the area
The reservoir will cover areas in the Limu Seka and Gechi Weredas. Areas adjacent to
river in these Weredas are covered with open and dense woodland. Depending on
extent of the reservoir area, considerable volume of forest resource will be either clearec submerged under the reservoir. Every hectare of land submerged or cleared will result i
loss of 7 to 10 Tons of biomass stock that would otherwise meet demand for energy <
other purposes.
The proposed command area covers parts all four Weredas (Bedele, Gechi, Limu Seka < Jimma Arjo). Land preparation for irrigated agriculture in the command area will result in removal of a considerable portion of the forest. Settlements in and around the comm;
area will also create demand for forest products for fuel, house construction, <
agricultural implements.
4.2.1.2 Tree planting in the project area
Settlers in the Limu Seka Wereda are planting trees around their homesteads and their f« fields with seedlings freely supplied by the Wereda Agriculture Bureau.4 There is, howe\ water stress in the area and survival rates are low (seedlings are also not well protec and get trampled by animals).
The rate of planting and survival of trees is low. A much larger rate of planting and fol up is required to meet the demand for wood products by the settlers. In the mid and k term settlers’ demands for wood products must be met from own plantations.
4.2.2 Agricultural residue
Agricultural residues are already in use in some of the resettlement areas for parts of year (this is the case, for example, for settlers in the command area in Bedele Werec Agricultural residues are used for cooking in the weeks after harvest in the dry season.
The type and volume of agricultural residue available in an area obviously  depends types of crops cultivated. The volume of residue available from crops is usually given Residue to Crop ratio and ranges from 1:1 for pulses to 2.7:1 for maize.
The volume of residue available from farms in the command area will depend on the ty[ and productivity of crops cultivated. The Agricultural and Marketing studies of t
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assessment will indicate what crops  are viable and marketable from the area. A fii estimate is  made based on current land use by  farmers  in the area (specifically  settlers Limu Seka Wereda) and yield data for the crops from the Central Statistics Authority (yie data for lllubabor zone is used).
Total agricultural residue production from the command area could be around 29,547 Tor per year for a single growing season as per details available in Table 4.2. Since at least tw growing seasons  are possible with irrigation, total residue could be as  high as  60,000Tor per year.
Table 4.2 Agricultural residue potential in the command area
Sesame            Maize          Hancot    Neug     Sorghum      Ground
Total
beans
nuts
Residue:Crop ratio                     1.0                 2.7                 1.0        1.0              1.5             1.0
Cultivated area (%) 48% 24% 12% 5% 8% 3%
Cultivated area (ha) 8,556 4.278 2,139 891 1.426 535
Yield (quintal/ha) 4 18.8 4.6 3.4 12.4 8.8
17,82f
Production (Tons)
3,422             8.043                984       303          1,768           471
Residue (Tons) 3,422 21,715 984 303 2,652 471
Residue (GJ) 53.047 336,584 15.251 4.697 41,112 7.294
14,991 29,547
457,985
Notes: Residue:Crop ratios are not available for sesame and ground nuts and a 1:1 ratio is used;
Energy content of residues is taken as 15.5 GJ/Ton.
Sources: Residue to crop ratio from ENEC-CESEN, Technical Report 1, 1966,
Cultivated area and production per household from the field survey (for the Mada Jalala resettlement kebele in Limu Seka Wereda,1997/98EC production year), June 2006;
CSA, Area and Production for Major Crops, Bulletin 227, May 2000.
4.2.3 Animal dung
At the national level animal dung is  an important household fuel and meets  8 percent o total household energy  demand. In the project area, however, since access  to wood> biomass is still relatively good and because households own very few cattle, animal dung is not used for fuel.
The  potential  animal  dung  resources  in  the  project  area  is  estimated  using  current  rates  of cattle ownership for settlers in the area, total number of households expected to settle in the
4 The Bureau supplies 500 lo 1000 seedlings per household depending on demand from farmers
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Table 4 4 Solar energy resources, Jimma town (07.40N, 36.50E, 1577 masl) Average daily radiation on horizontal surface (kWh/m'-day)
M
Jan    Feb    Mar     Apr     May     Jun      Jul    Aug    Sep     Oct    Nov    Dec      Year
Sunshine              7.4     6.6     6.5     6.6      6.2     5.1      3.2     3.7     4 9      69      7.3      79         6.0
hours
Total
Direct
Diffuse                  1.9     2.0     2.2     2.2       2.2     2.1     2.1     2.1     2.1      2.1      1.9      1.9        755
5.1 5.1 5.3 5.4 5.1 4.6 4.0 4.3 4.7 5.2 5.1 5.1 1.793
3.2 3.1 3.1 3.1 2.9 2.5 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.2 3.2 32 1.037
Source' Ethiopian National Energy Committee and CESEN, 1986, Technical Report 2.
Solar energy availability declines markedly during the wet seasons of June to September by as much as 20 percent.
MM • i
4.5 Wind energy
Wind speeds around Jimma are among the lowest recorded in the country. Annu. wind s peed at J imma is only 1.13 m/s (at 10 m above g round level). There are significant differences in wind speeds among localities in the same district. Howeve case of the project area, data available from both the National Meteorological Agency (NMSA) and studies that modeled wind energy resource data based on NM conclude that the South-West part of Ethiopia generally falls under a very low to k energy resource area.
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5. SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SERVICE STRATEGY
The potential of local energy  resources  to meet demands  have been exploret Interventions  required both on the supply  and demand sides  to ensure sustainabl development of the sector has been assessed.
Findings  from the demand analysis  and review of energy  resources  have indicated that th critical issues  are biomass  energy  supply  to households  and accessible modern energy  fc the social service sector. These issues  have been analyzed using the problem analysi technique. Strategies  have been then proposed to create a sustainable balance betwee supply  and demand and also to enhance service quality  for social services  in the projec area.
The results of the study have been presented in tabular form at Table 5.1. They have beei present for four main sectors: households, agriculture, industry  and social services  unde the following four columns:
i.      Development issues;
ii.      Energy issues or problems:
iii.     Causes of energy problems; and
iv.      Potential measures.
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Table 5.1 The problem matrix: development issues, energy issues, and potential interventions in the energy sector
Development issues
Labor for domestic services need to be reduced to increase productive application of labor in agriculture Living standards must
be improved through provision of better energy services. The major constraints are.
•      Cooking fuels are now available in easy 
reach. But resources are fasl
disappearing as settlers remove natural
forests without replacement.
•
Poor quality domestic lighting
•
No communication, information,
entertainment services.
•
Inadequate access to potable water
supply
•
Inadequate service for grain milling.
The development strategy should be improving access to domestic labour saving technologies and to better energy services.
Energy issues or problems
At present access to cooking fuels in the project area is adequate. As a result of harvesting of wood without replacement settlers will face problems in the near future.
The settlers use kerosene wick lamps for lighting Part of the population cannot even afford to use kerosene lamps every night and they have to resort to using wood for lighting. Better quality light is required to extend social and economic activities for households.
•      Access to cooking fuels will be a serious problem in the near future
•      Poor quality domestic lighting
•      No communication/information services
Causes of energy problems
•   Increasing demand for fuel, fodder, construction, furniture
•  Low end use energy conversion efficiencies (open fires are used)
•  Non-sustainable management of forests
•  High prices for petroleum fuels (substitutes for biomass; energy for lighting)
•  Inaccessibility of electricity due to low incomes, high supply costs
Potential measures
1 Increase sustainable production
and
management of trees
2.
Imp
rove access for cooking fuels
•
Improve pnmary conversion
efficiency (charcoal making)
•
Improve end use efficiency
(efficient stoves)
•
Provide substitute fuels
3.    Provide affordable modern
energy for lighting and audio visuals
4.   Develop the hydropower
potential of the dam and supply electricity for domestic uses
5.    Measures to improve grain milling and water services are shown under the Industry and Social service sectors below.Industry
Agriculture
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Energy Report
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Settlers to the project area came from food insecure areas of the Oromiya region Food insecunty was the result of diminishing land sizes and declining productivity. The key issues and the development goal is therefore to increase the productivity of land, labor and livestock for small holders.
• The development strategies for the sector are extensive labor application, irrigation, appropriate land use. and secure water and feed supply for livestock
Family labor and animals are the only sources of energy in the settlements Transition into intermediate labor saving technologies and mechanization will increase labor and land productivity. At present, there is no access to the following:
• productivity enhancing technologies 
(intermediate and mechanization)
•
appropriate pumping technologies 
and energy
•
irrigation technologies and energy
•
technologies and energy for product
conservation and on-farm
processing
In the settlements visited during the reconnaissance survey no rural mdustnal activities were observed in the project area However, a thriving agriculture sector must be backed up with adequate industrial infrastructure for processing of output and for provision of agricultural tools. The following industrial services will be required:
•      Improved mechanical inputs and tools 
for agriculture; maintenance services
•
Facilities for processing of agricultural
outputs
Modern energy (electricity and petroleum fuels) is required to drive industrial tools and machinery required to manufacture and service agncultural equipment Electricity and petroleum infrastructure and fuels are not available for the following uses:
•      Rural manufacturing and service industries
•      Agro-processing industries (crop and livestock)
•
Facilities for the production and
maintenance of mdustnal goods for the
population
Appropriate agricultural technologies are not available for the fanners in the project area
Mechanization is not affordable for small holders (on ownership basis)
Low economic capacity of farmers
Inadequate technology services (rural industries) for provision of appropriate technologies and for technical back-up for mechanization.
Development of modern energy infrastructure to the area was costly But this changes with the availability of hydropower from the dam.
Poor road infrastructure therefore fuel transport and distribution is insecure and expensive
Agro processing services are still not available because settlers have little extra cash for processing.
Ability to pay for electricity is low (settlers are still not food secure).
Disseminate appropriate intermediate technologies for agriculture in the project area. These would include cultivation, planting, soil/water conservation, harvesting and post-harvest technologies.
Improve access to petroleum fuels to the project area (for mechanized land cultivation, farm processing). Mechanized inputs may be made available to small holders on a hire basis.
Provision of electncity from hydropower from the dam Development of petroleum storage facilities in the center of settlements to be established in the command area
Water Works Dftsitm & Kimarvicinn vm
33Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Energy Report
May 2007
Both the income and non income dimensions of poverty must be addressed to lift the settlers from livelihood insecurity. For this reason, food secunty must be accompanied by provision of basic water, health and educational services.
Provision of these essential services will not only raise standards of living of the settlers but also enhance their economic productivity. For this reason the population must be provided with at least the following;
•       Potable waler supply
•       Basic health services
•      Primary education
Potable water supply in the resettlement areas is comparatively better than those in the surrounding areas (reconnaissance survey). However, services are still not adequate. Hand and motorized pumps are required.
Health posts and clinics must be established in the project area. The adequacy of services from these institutions will depend on the availability of electricity for lighting, refrigeration and lab equipment
Schools in the project area can benefit from access to educational media which requires electricity to run it.
• Services requiring electricity can not be provided (water, health,
education)
•      Breakdowns of pumps; inadequate technology services (general problem indicated by Water Bureau experts in the project Weredas, not necessarily in the project area)
•      Inadequate technical and financial capacity to meet demand for back-up services
•      Development of the electricity infrastructure would have been costly (without the
project)
•     Ability to pay for electricity is low (settlers are still not food
secure).
1 • Provision of electricity from hydropower from the dam
• Provision of electricity from solar energy for water, health and
education
34
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Social servicesAr Jo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Energy Report
6. PROJECT PRPOSALS FOR IMPLEMENTATION
May 2007
Project proposals  have formulated here with the view to improve social services  and ti create economic  opportunities  in the project area. The proposed projects  will also help ti counter the negative impacts of non-sustainable energy use in the project area The projec interventions  are derived from the problem matnx  in the previous  section. These induct the following three major proposals:
i.      Dissemination of efficient biomass stoves
ii.      Homestead and farm tree planting
iii.     Solar Photovoltaic systems for health and educational services
All these three proposals have been discussed under the following sub heads
- Background
- Objectives
- Inputs and activities
- Resource requirements
- Cost component
- Outputs and benefits
Besides the location of the project, its life and the executing agency have also been grven
6.1 Dissemination of efficient biomass stoves
Location Command area
Executing institutions Oromiya Water, Mmes and Energy Bureau
Project life 2 years
Background
Development of irrigated agriculture will result m removal of forests  in the reservoir and command areas prepare land for agriculture, for house construction, fuel and furniture This  may  create an .mmedi3te glut in availability  of biomass  fuels  in the area. However as  it is  already  evident in the resettlement villages  in the project area, this  short-term surplus  will change rapidly  into deficit within a couple of years
An i ntegraled d evelopment s trategy f or the p roject a rea m ust therefore t ake into a ccount t he p roper management of the resources  in the project area Specifically  for forest resources, the strategy  must address  forest product development and utilisation Forests  must be enhanced (by  planting and proper management) and a system of efficient utilization must be exerased
One of the key  project interventions  will be promotion of energy  efficient stoves  for household use in the project area Some work  is  already  underway  for dissemination of such stoves  by  the Oromiya Regional Waler. Mines  and Energy  Bureau in collaboration with Federal government agencies  and NGOs Some of these are
•  Menschen  fur  Menschen  (MFM)  is  promoting  and  supporting  dissemination  of  the  efficient  biomass _______________________________________________________________________________ 35
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stove called “Mirte" in the lllubabor zone.
•      The  Ethiopian  Rural  Energy  Development  and  Promotion  Center  (EREDPC)  in  collaboration  with the Oromiya Region Water, Mines and Energy Bureau is promoting the “Mirte" and “Gunizie" stoves in the region.
•      As part of the food security initiative in the region, the Regional Water, Mines and Energy Bureau is promoting the “Mirte" stove in the region
Objectives
The development objective of this  project is  to reduce the time a nd effort required by  households  to collect and transport wood fuels and also to improve indoor air quality for the households in the project area.
The project objective is to disseminate the "Mirte" or “Gunizie" improved wood stoves in the project area to reduce wood fuel requirements for cooking purposes by households.
Inputs and activities
The main activities of the project will be training and setting-up of local stove producers, and financing of produces  and consumers. Producer finance would be available from the Regional Bureau (accessed from the Federal EREDPC), consumer finance may be secured from NGOs operating in the area (MFM, GTZ). The following tasks will need to be carried out:
•      A  rapid  energy  survey  (to  identify  user  cooking  methods,  preferences  and  capacities  as  well  as  to evaluate the feasibility for local production of stoves)
•   Household diets, cooking methods,
•   Identification of households' preference to types of interventions
•   Households' capacity to own and use new stoves
•   Availability of stove making materials in the area
•   Availability of technical skills and financial capacity to build stoves in the area
•     Training of stove producers
•     Setting-up of stove producers (financing)
•     Dissemination of the stoves (by the Wereda Bureau of Agriculture)
•   Creation of awareness - demonstration, promotion
•     Monitoring and evaluation of benefits and impacts of stove dissemination
Resource requirements
Technical requirements
The main project activities  are a brief survey, training and setting-up of stove producers, and then dissemination of stoves. A strong working relationship must be established between the Regional and Wereda level executing Bureaux.
Human resource requirements
A  team  composed  of  an  expert  from  the  Regional  Water,  Minesand  Energy  Bureau  and  a  team  of experts from the Wereda Bureau of Agriculture will carry out the project.
Financial requirements
Cost component
Unit
Quantity
Unit cost
('000 Birr)
Total cost
('000 Birr)
Remark
Baseline survey (2 persons; per-diem+fuel)
Dissemination
Capacity building (Wereda Bureaux)
m-m
m-m
1.0
0.5
5.0
5.0
5.0
2.5
Regional experts
Regional
36
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Technical assistance to stove producers
Promotion (demonstration) Consumer finance (50% subsidy)
Monitoring and evaluation
Sum
Sum
Unit
Sum
2.0
20,000
10.0
15.0
20.0 5.0
300
10.0
experts Moulds, sheds
Total
Outputs and benefits
This  project should be completed in two years. At the end of the project at least fifty  percent oftht households  should be using improved stoves. This  will reduce total wood requirements  for cooking by  < quarter (the efficient stoves consume only half those of open fires). The broad project benefits include
•     Savings of time and energy spent on fuel collection by rural people
•       Conservation  of  trees  and  other  biomass  -  trees  may  be  usefully  employed  for  conservation  of  soi and water. Availability of more feed for livestock (conserved biomass residue, trees)
•     Creation of employment for stove producers
6.2 Homestead and farm tree planting
Location: Command area
Executing institutions: Oromiya Water, Mines and Energy Bureau
Project life: 4 years
Background
An integrated development strategy  for forest resources  must address  both the supply  and demand sides. Energy  demand management will be promoted with the efficient biomass  stoves project outlined above, sustainable supply  management should be addressed by  a program for tree plating (fast growing tree species  for fuel and construction purposes) and for improved management of natural forests.
This  project will complement the efficiency  improvement project proposed above Although efficient use will reduce requirements  for wood fuel quite substantially, in the long term it alone will
not suffice to maintain a sustainable balance of supply and demand due to increasing population
Wereda level Bureaux  of Agriculture are promoting tree planting in the project W eredas. The Bureaux  provide seedlings  for farmers  for free. According to the local experts, however, the success  of this  effort may  be limited due to limited seedling production and distribution capacity and low survival rates  for seedlings  (because of water stress  and other reasons). More importantly, there is  need for large-scale tree planting program for the resettlement areas
where   the   population   density   and   therefore   the   demand   for   wood   is   high   and   the   negative impacts are imminent.
Farmers  should be assisted to plant trees  for fuel, construction and other purposes  around their homes  (homestead planting) and around their farmlands. High yield, fast growing trees  should
be selected and promoted to them.
Objectives
The development objective of this project is to reduce the time and effort required by households 
to collect and transport wood fuels in the project area.
37
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The  specific  project  objective  is  to  promote  the  planting  of  fast  growing,  high  yield  trees  for  fue and construction in the project area.
Inputs and activities
The  main  project  activities  are  the  establishment  and  operation  of  seedling  nurseries  in  the  projec area and the dissemination of seedlings to farmers.
The following specific activities will be included:
•       Rapid   survey   to   gauge   farmers   preference   of   tree   species,   method   of   planting,   running nurseries, availability of inputs for maintaining nurseries, and others
•     Establishment of seedling nurseries in the project area
•     Operation of the seedling nurseries
•     Dissemination of seedlings to farmers
Resource requirements
Technical requirements
Farmers  in the project area will be assisted by  Wereda Bureau of Agriculture experts  to establish and run the nurseries. Farmers  will contribute labour and local materials  for starting the nurseries Operation of the nurseries (watering, protection) may be financially supported from a grant fund.
Human resource requirements
The Wereda Bureaux of Agriculture will implement this project.
Financial requirements
Farmers  are expected to meet 50 percent of nursery  establishment and running costs  in the form
of in-kind contribution of labour and materials.
Cost component
Unit
Quantity
Unit cost C000
Birr)
Total cost (‘000
Birr)
Remark
Baseline survey Technical assistance
Bedele Wereda Gechi Wereda
Jimma Arjo Monitoring                and evaluation
m-m
# of Nurseries # of Nurseries # of Nurseries
Sum
2
1
1
1
5
60
60
60
10
60
60
60
10.0
Total
200
Outputs and benefits
This  project will ensure fuel self-sufficiency  for households  in the project area. The project will bring additional benefits  in provision of wood for construction, agricultural implements, and furniture. Trees will also help in the conservation of water and soil resources of the area
•     Adequate supply of wood for fuel
•     Adequate supply of wood for construction and implements
•     Soil and water conservation
•     Savings in time needed for collection
•     Secondary cash income for farmers from sale of wood poles and fuelwood
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6.3 Solar Photovoltaic systems for health and educational services
Location: Command area
Executing institutions: Oromiya Water, Mines and Energy Bureau
May 2C
Project
life:
1
year
Backgr
ound
Access 
to  basic  so
cial
s
ervices
is  inadequat
e
in  Weredas 
of
the
proj
ect
area.
Even
where
the
service
institutions 
exist
,
their
effectiveness 
is 
compromise
d
due
to
lack 
of
trained
perso
nnel,
equipment and energy to drive critical service facilities.
Access  to electricity  can enhance service quality  for the social service institutions: electricity  for health posts  and clinics  will provide critical lighting, refrigeration and power for laboratory equipment, electricity  in schools  extends  learning hours  and creates  access  to the broadcast and information media.
The Arjo-Dedessa irrigation project is  a multi purpose project with irrigation and hydropower components. According to previous  feasibility  studies  a 30MW hydropower plant is  feasible. If the hydropower component of the scheme is  implemented, there will be sufficient power for the domestic, industrial and service sectors  in the project area. In that case there would be no need for distributed electricity generation facilities in the area.
In the case where hydropower from the dam is  not available, solar electricity  can serve the critical social services  in the area. Power for health institutions  and schools  may  be provided at relatively lower cost compared to other alternatives including diesel generators.
Objectives
The development objective is to improve health and education service quality in the project area
The specific project objective is provision of solar electricity to health and educational institutions 
in the command area. With the provision of solar electricity health posts and clinics will be able to
operate lighting, refrigeration and basic laboratory equipment while schools will have access to
educational media through radio and TV and extended working hours through better lighting.
Inputs and activities
Project activities  will include detailed demand assessment for the social service facilities  of the area; a firm assessment of cost of the solar systems; pilot installations  for each service type of service and monitoring and evaluation of the impacts of the project.
Sample sizing of PV systems for clinics and schools
Array  load  (Wh/day)  =  Daily  energy  consumption/Battery  efficiency/Charge  regulator  efficiency PV array size (Wp) = Array load/lnsolation/Mismatch factor
Battery capacity (Ah) = Daily energy consumption/Maximum allowable discharge (%)/Nominal voltage__________________________
Battery efficiency: 80%
Charge regulator efficiency: 90% Mismatch factor: 85%
Maximum allowable discharge: 20%
Nominal voltage: 12V
System component
Unit
Clinic
Primary school
Daily energy consumption Array load
PV array size
Battery capacity
Wh/day
Wh/day
Wp
Ah
689
957
225
287
640
889
209
267
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REFERENCES
1. Abay Basin Integrated Development Master Plan, 1998
May 2
2.    Socio-economic  study  for  the  Arjo-Dedessa  Irrigation  project,  Inception  Report 2006
3.  Agricultural Planning for the Arjo-Dedessa Irrigation project, Inception Report, May
4.    Irrigation  and  Drainage  study  for  the  Arjo-Dedessa  Irrigation  project,  Inception  R May 2006
5.     Oromiya   Economic   Study   Project   Office,   June   1999.   Oromiya   Energy   Resc Baseline Survey, Volume III: Annexes
6.     WBISPP,   December   2002.   A   Strategic   Plan   for   the   Sustainable   Develop Conservation  and  Management  of Woody  Biomass  Resources  for  the Oromiya  Re State
7.    National  Renewable  Energy  Laboratory  (NREL,  USA),  1998.  Renewable  Ener Rural Health Clinics
8.    National  Renewable  Energy  Laboratory  (NREL,  USA),  2002.  Renewable  Ener Rural Schools
9.   CSA, May 2000. Agricultural Sample Survey 1999/2000, Volume 1: Report on Are Production for Major Crops
10. ENEC-CESEN, 1986. Technical Report 2, Biomass Energy Resources
11. ENEC-CESEN, 1986. Technical Report 3, Solar Energy Resources
12. ENEC-CESEN, 1986. Technical Report 4, Wind Energy Resources
13. Ethiopian Energy Authority, 1994. Energy Database: Sources and Methods
14. Ministry  of  Mines  and  Energy,  1994.  Energy  Policy  of  the  Transitional  Governm Ethiopia
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ANNEX A. Data from Wereda Bureaus of Agriculture and Water supply
Wereda               zone,
May 20(
Land use/cover
Area (ha)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Potential cultivable area
Cultivated land
Grazing land
Land occupied by investors Un-cultivable land
Swamp
Forest land
57940
76620
53336
17694
848
1072
42256
Total
249766
Cultivated land
Area (ha)
1
2
3
Annual crops
Perennial crops
Government coffee
Farmers’ coffee
Fruits and vegetables
58539
7809
1851
5958
471
Total
66819
Forest land
Area (ha)
1
2
3
Natural forest
Chalte
Boka
Ummo and Beda
Mt. Tiku
Beda Konchi
Man made
Patch and riverine
13766
4929
2138
1945
494
3429
1768
26722
Total
42256
in the Limu Seka Wereda
Sesa
me
Maize Haricot
beans
Neug Sorghum Groun
d nuts
Total
Cultivated area (ha) Production/ Household (quintal)
0.50       0.25      0.125    0.05           0.08     0.03
1.035 4            9          2.5          3             1.5     1.25
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Small-scale irrigation development (potentially irrigable land = 1036ha and 13713
beneficiaries)
Irrigation
method
Plan
Cultivated
Beneficiaries
Area (ha)
Beneficiary
population
1
2
3
4
5
Gravity/river Spring
Wet land Hand dug well Water
harvesting
353
85
79
15
10
6200
5310
3173
532
500
76.6
28.6
35.0
5.3
0.5
1043
524
984
104
58
Total
542
15715
146
2713
Limu Seka Wereda Rural water supply
■ 372 functional hand pumps (the estimate is that there are four to five times this installed)
■   12 springs supplying Atnago town and surrounding rural areas
•    1 deep well (70m, drilling just completed) at Atnago
■   1 deep well at 40m not functional at Atnago
■ Water supply in the resettlement area
■   Springs = 18
■   Shallow well hand pumps = 22 (depth of 42 to 74m)
43
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ANNEX B. Data collection questionnaires Waterworks Design and Supervision Enterprise
Arjo Dedesa Irrigation Project Energy survey
Questionnaire for households
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D Fnergy consumption in the household per month (both cooking and lighting)
Fuel
Acquired in local unit
End use (%)
•o
S
I—
CT
5>
<n
■£
□ c 
CT o
E
LL
*-•
c 
m
3
o
c
0-
q: s
Wood & BLT = 1
Agri residues = 2
Animal wastes = 3
Process residues =4
Charcoal = 5
Kerosene = 6
Electricity = 7
Candles = 8
Other - specify = 9
CXI
II      II c* O& <D    O
—  i— OO
O O.
Woman load = 1
Man load = 2
Child load = 3
Donkey load = 4
Sack -100 kg = 5
Sack - 50 kg = 6
Sack - 25 kg = 7
Retail -1.0 Birr = 8
Retail - 0.5 Birr = 9
kg = 10
Litre = 11
0.33 Litre =12
0.12 Litre = 13
Number = 14
CCD
CD
C
CD
c
2
o
o
O
CO
a>
-
CD
C
12
to
CO
CD
_C
XZ
CD
8
m
Q.
co
CO
0
■C
<u
i
•O
ro
Qi
W
X
Y
Z
AA
AB
AC
AD       AE
AF
AG
AH
20.1
202
20 3
20.4
205
20 6
20.7
20 8
20.9
20.1
0
20.1
1
20.1
2
20 1
3
20.1
4
45
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E - Cash incomes
21. What are the sources of cash income for the household?
21.1 What is the frequency of cash
income?
(frequency = year, month, week,
day)
21.2 What is the amount of cash
income?
(note that the amount is for one period of the frequency)
Salary
Sale-cereal crops
Sale-cash crops
Sale-milk
products
Sale-bev. or food
Handicrafts
Remittance
family
Other-specify
Other-specify
Al AR BA
AJ AS 38
AK AT BC
AL AU BC
AM AV BE
AN AW BF
AO AX BG
AP AY BF
AQ AZ B
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Source
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BirrArjoDedessa Irrigation Project
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May 20C
RRA TOPICS AM) QUESTIONS ARJO DEDESA IRRIGATION PROJECT ENERGY STU1
General Information about the community
Goal of the Study
Understanding the general PA /community backgroi
Main topic
1. Physical infrastructure and natural resources
Key questions
1.  Location, Physical accessibility
2.  Quality of resources
3.  Possible conflicts on access and ownership
4.  Economic and social services
•     Availability  of  water  services,  health  lnstitutior schools
•   Accessibility to above
•    Means of transport to get access to education, and economic services
5.  Main constraints to use social and economic servic
RRA tools and methods
1. Resources mapping
2.    Group discussion
Sources of information
1.   Reports, sketch maps, other secondary data
2.    Extension worker/DA. home economist
3.    Farmers themselves, PA leaders (councils) and PA arc 4 Informal leaders (elders, religious leaders, representati
villages, influential leaders
5. Different groupings of the local communities/interest gr
Reporting format
1.   Resources map
2. Comments on key questions
Sub-topics, indicators
Boundaries of PA
House, church, mosque
School, clinic, storage, community building, extension service center, co operative, roads, tracks, market places. Mining activities (traditional ones). Rainfed agricultural and Irrigated land Range land, grazing land,
Forest, village wood lots
Terraced land
Sources of fuel wood
Rivers, ponds, lakes, springs, wells Water points for animals.
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Household energy supply and biomass energy resources
Goal of the study
Assessing sources of wood
Main topic
Natural forest and shrub land, agro-and social forestry
Key questions
1. Availability of wood for fuel, furniture and construction
2.    Consumption
3.    Efficiency of use
RRA tools/ methods
1.   Matrix ranking
2.    Trend lines
3.    Observations in field and kitchen 4 Group discussion, cross-checking
Sources of information
1.    Reports, sketch maps, other secondary data
2.    Extension worker/DA
3.    Farmers. PA leaders (councils) and PA archives.
4. Informal leaders (elders, religious, reps, of villages, others)
Reporting format
1.   Trend lines
2. Comments on key questions and sub-topics
Sub-topics, indicators
1 Trees and shrubs available and preferred for fuel wood, construction and weaving materials, leaf fodder, fencing, shade, etc...;
2.   Agro-forestry and social forestry activities;
3.   Trends in area of natural forest and shrubs, and forestry plantations
4.   Ownership and access to natural forest and planted forest and shrubs
5.   Fuel:
6.   Trends in availability, distance of source and time required for
collecting;
7.   Consumption per household/for preparation of one meal (in local unit e.g. Shekim/day); efficiency of use (types of stove, etc.)
8.    Is fuel wood sometimes bought? By whom  When  Why? Price trends?
9.    Is dung being used for fuel? Why? Preference for wood or manure for
99
fuel
10. Is manure used for fertilising the soil9 Which do you prefer  For land or
fuel?
9
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CATCHMENT
DEVELOPMENT PLANArjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
May 2007
Table of Contents
Title
CABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES..
LIST OF ANNEXES
ACRONYMS.... 
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTION ..
I I General
I 2 Objectives
1.2.1 General objective.......................... 1.2.2 Specific objectives
13 Methodology and approach
1.3.1 Methodology
I 3.2 Approaches
Page
...Ill
...
5
1.4 Review of Previous Studies and Works
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
7
2. DESCRIPTION OF WATERSHED................................................................... ..................................... ................................. 12
2.1 Bio-physical features
2.1.1 Climate, Land Use and Topography
2 111 Location
2 1.1 .4 Topography
2.1.2 Soils and Land Capability' Classification 
2 1 2 1 Soils
2.1 2.2 Land Capability Classification................................................................. 2.1.3 Forest resources
2.1.4 Soil erosion
2.1.5 Water Resources
2.1.6 Experiences in Soil and water conservation activities....
2.2 Socio-economic conditions
2 2.1 Demography
12
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27
c
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2.2.2 Economic Base
2.2  3 Farming system
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4.
2.2.4 Livestock population and distribution 
2.2 5 Agricultural activities
2.2 6 Perceptions and priority needs of the community
3.       MAJOR PROBLEMS OF W ATERSHED
3 I Land degradation
3. I I Soil erosion by water
3 12 Deforestation
3.2 Shortage of grazing land and lia estock feed
3 3 Socio-economic problems
3 3 I Inadequate extension service
3.3 2 Problems related with water use
3 3 3 Improper land use
4. EXISTING OPPORTUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
4 l Development potentials
4 I I Abundant rainfall and water resources 4 1.2 Availability of irrigable areas
4 I 3 Coffee development
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4S
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51
5/
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4.1.4        Soil fertility improvement with FYM
4.2 Opportunities.................................................................................................................................... 4.1.1 Opportunities related to bio-physical resources
4.1.2 Socio-economic opportunities.......................................................................................................................
4 2 Development Strategies.................................................................................................................. 5. PROPOSED WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS
5 I Criteria for selection
5.2 Soil and Water Conservation interventions
5.2.1 Physical Measures
5.2.1.1 Soil bunds........................................................................................................................................ 5.2.1.2 Fanya juu terrace
5 2 1.3 Cutoff drains.................................................................................................................................... 5.2.1.4 Sediment Storage and Overflow earth dams
5.2.2 Agronomic/biological Interventions
5.2.2.1 Crop rotation
5.2     2.2 Adoption of Organic manures, Green manure and Fertilizers
5.2.2.3
Strip.
Mixed
and
Intercropping
5.2.24 Residue management
5.2.2.5 Contour farming
5.2.2.6 Compost making
5.2.2.7 Grass strips
5 2.3 Agro-forestry interventions.............................................................................................................................
5.2.3.1 Alley cropping
5 2.3.2 Multi-Storey Gardening
52.3.3 Establishment of buffer-zone agro-forestry 
5.3 Livestock management Interventions
5.3.1 First option
5.3.2 Second option
5.4 River bank protection
5.5 Spring development
5.6 Development of access road
5.7 Establishment of New Nurseries and Strengthening of the old 5 8 Expansion of small Scale irrigation schemes
5.9 Policy and Strategic issues
5.9.1 Interventions with respect to policy
5.9.2 Strategic consideration
6.    IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
6.1 General schedule
6.2 Time schedule and phasing
6.3 Requirementof inputs
6.4 Implementation strategies
6.4.1        Implementation of the interventions should be participatory 6 4.2      Watershed logic to be respected
6.4.3       Community capacity building
6 4 4 Group work and local experiences
6.4.5 Linkage with regular extension service......................
6
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4.1.4        Soil fertility improvement with FYM
4.1.1 Opportunities related to bio-physical resources 4.1.2 Socio-economic opportunities
May 2007
4 2 Opportunities
4.2   Development Strategies.........................................................................................................................•
5.
PROPOSED WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS
5.1 Criteria for selection
5.2 Soil and Water Conservation Interventions5
5
5.2. / Physical Measures 5.2.1.1 Soil bunds ............................................................................................................................................... 6
5.2.1.2 Fanya juu terrace6.
5.2.1.3 Cutoff drains6.
5.2.1.4 Sediment Storage and Overflow earth dams6.
5.2.2        Agronomic/biological Interventions
5.2.2.1 Crop rotation..6:
5.2.2.2 Adoption of Organic manures, Green manure and Fertilizers 5.2.2.3 Strip, Mixed and Intercropping
5.2.2        4 Residue management6‘
5.2.2 5 Contour farming
5.2  2.6 Compost making
5 2.2.7 Grass strips6S
5 2.3 Agro-forestry interventions71
5.2.3.1Alley cropping
5.2.3.2Multi-Storey Gardening
5.2     3.3 Establishment of buffer-zone agro-forestry71
5.3 Livestock management Interventions72
5.3.1 First option 
5.3.2 Second option 
5.4 river bank protection
-6*
6(
6
.............................. 61
61
..71
..... 71
72
.
5.5 
5 6 Development of access road75
Spring
.......................................................................... 72
........................................ 73
development75 
5.7 Establishment of New Nurseries and Strengthening of the old
5.8 Expansion of Small Scale irrigation schemes
5.9 Policy and Strategic issues76
.76
76
5.9.1 Interventions with respect to policy 5.9.2 Strategic consideration  yg
6. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
6.1 General schedule
6.2 Time schedule and phasing81
6.3 Requirement of inputs
6.4 Implementation strategies84
.............................. _77
6.4.1  Implementation of the interventions should be participatory
6.4.2      Watershed logic to be respected                   gj
81
83
.. .84
6.4.3      Community capacity'building 
g4
6.4.4      Group work and local experiences
gj
6.4.5     Linkage with regular extension service
g$
6.4.6 Rural land certification
6.4 7     Recognition of the role of women
6.4.8      Project Cost-sharing
6.4.9     Flexibility in placing proposed measures
1, WATERSHED MANAGEMENT APPROACH AND ACTION PLAN
7.1        social Structures
Alternative-11:
7.2        action Plan
7.2.1     Natural Resource Management 7.2.2     Land-based activities
7.2.3     Non land-based activities
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7.2.4     Marketing
7.2.5      Production systems
7.2.6      Training and Capacity Building
7.2.7      Package of Production Practices
7.2.8      Management of Finances and Financial Resources
May 2007
8.               ESTIMATION               OF               COST               FOR               WATERSHED               DEVELOPMENT1
9. BENEFITS EXPECTED............................................................................................................................................................ 1
10. MONITORING AND EVALUATION-1
REFERENCESJ
ANNEXES
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1           Dominant land use/land cover of the watershed by Woreda
Table.2.2 General slope categories of arjo-Dedesa watershed area and proportions
Table. 2.3
Characteristics of different land uses of watershed and land class unit
Table  2.4  Summary  of  Land  Classification  and  Land  Class  Unit  with  Major  Limiting  Factors Table.2.5 Soil and water conservation measures implemented by Woredas in the watershed’
between 2004 and 2006
Table.2.6
Table 2.7
Table 2.8
Table 3.1
Table 4.1
Table 5.1
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 8.1
Table 8.2
Table 8.3
Table 8.4
Table 8.5
Population of respective Woredas in the watershed Livestock population in the watershed by woreda Stocking rate of grazing lanos in the Woredas Population of Woreda Supplied with Potable Water Irrigation projects studied in the project area
.......
.................
Options  of  interventions  for  Soil  and  water  conservation  in  Arjo-Dedessa  watershed Implementation schedule by phase and years
Inputs required for implementation of watershed development activities Institutions proposed for implementation of development plan with their major roles.
Costs for Civil works
Costs for Inputs and materials.......................................................  . .. k Stationary and other items
Salary, Per Diem and transportation Summary of costs
K
K
|(
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1         River Morphology
Figure  2.2  Average  Monthly  Rainfall  of  Stations  in  and  Around  Arjo-Dedesa  Watershed  ... Figure 2.3 Average Monthly Temperature of Stations in and Around Arjo-Dedessa
Figure                2.4              Land                use                map                of                Arjo-Dedesa                Watershed Figure 2.5         Slope categories for Arjo-Dedessa watershed
Figure
2.6                 Soils                    map                    of                    Arjo-Dedessa                    watershed
Figure 2.7 Land Capability Classification map for Arjo-Dedessa Watershed
Figure 2.8
Soil loss rate map for the watershed
Figure 5.1
Development map for Arjo-Dedessa Watershed
Figure 7.1
Social Mobilization Alternatives.
Figure 7.2
Action plan For Natural Resource Management
Figure 7.3
Action plan for Land-Based systems
Figure 7.4
Action Plan for Non Land - Based Activities
Figure 7.5
Action plan for marketing
Figure 7.6
Production systems Involving Land-based activities
Figure 7.7
Financial Structure
Figure 7.8
Fund flow
LIST OF ANNEXES
ANNEXURE A/1 Average monthly rainfall of stations in and around the Arjo-Dedessa Watershed (mm)
ANNEXURE A/2 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature of stations in and around the Arjo-Dedesa Watershed ANNEXURE A/3    Design dimensions of spillways for SS dams for rainfall intensity of 100 -1 50mm/hr ANNEXURE A/4    Revised work norms for activities proposed
ANNEXURE A/5 RECOMMENDED SPECIES FOR PLATING ANNEXURE A/6 PACKAGES OF PRODUCTION PRACTICES OF CROPS
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Acronyms
May 2007
AMAREW        - Amhara Micro-enterprise Development, Agricultural Research, Extension and Watershed Management Project
board          - Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development
BPEDO          - Bureau of Planning and Economic Development for Oromia CEC               - Cat-ion Exchangeable Capacity
CWT               - Community Watershed Team
Cm                 - Centimeter
CSA               - Central Statistical Authority
CSE                - Conservation Strategies of Ethiopia
EEPA             - Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority
EFAP             - Ethiopian Forestry Action Program
EHRS             - Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study
FAO               - Food and Agriculture Organization
FDRE             - Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
FYM               - Farm Yard Manure
GTZ                - German Technical Cooperation
Ha                  - Hectare
Km                 - Kilometer
LCU                - Land Class Unit
LUPRD           - Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department
M                    - Meter
MERET          - Managing Environment Resources to Enable Transition to more Sustainable Livelihoods
MoA MoARD MoWR
- Ministry of Agriculture
- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
- Ministry of Water Resources
OIDA              - Oromia Irrigation Development Authority
PD RCSO SLM TLU USAID WBISPP
- Persons days
- Regional Conservation Strategy of Oromia
- Sustainable Land Management
- Tropical Livestock Unit
- United States Agency for International Development
- Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project
WFP               - World Food Program
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1General
May 2007
Watershed Management is  an iterative process  of integrated decision-making regarding and modifications of lands and waters within a watershed. This process provides a chan' stakeholders  to balance diverse goals  and uses  for environmental resources, and to cor how their cumulative actions may affect long-term sustainability of these resources.
Human modifications  of lands  and waters  directly  alter delivery  of water, sediments nutrients, and thus  fundamentally  alter agricultural activities. People have varying goal: values  relative to uses  of local land and water resources. Watershed management provi framework for integrated decision-making, where we strive to-
(i)  assess the nature and status of the watershed ecosystem;
(ii) define short-term and long-term goals for the system;
(iii) determine objectives and actions needed to achieve selected goals;
(iv) assess benefits of each action;
(v)  implement desired actions;
(vi) evaluate the effects of actions and progress toward goals; and
(vii) re-evaluate goals and objectives as part of an iterative process.
Watershed management related to agricultural activities  involves  the planning and execu need based soil and water conservation practices  and other socio-economic  interve which will consequently  control the soil loss, reduce the run-off and improve the livelihc the community and thus will provide more time of concentration for run-off water to infiltra soil which will finally contribute to ground water. It is, therefore, essential to have a wate as  a basis  for planning and implementation of various  soil and water conservation proc Watershed management is  the integration of appropriate technologies  and strategies  witt natural boundaries  of a watershed or drainage basin for optimum development th conservation, regeneration and judicious  utilization of all resources  - land, water, anim human within a particular watershed. The dynamic processes of the biosphere and the < of vegetation and soils  on these processes  such as  interception, evaporation, transpi infiltration, percolation, and surface run-off, subsurface and ground flow, all are affected t management activities  on the watershed. An improper and exploitive farming practice watershed leads to resource deteriorations, both ex-situ and in-situ. Watersheds with dec uplands result in sedimentation of reservoir and irrigation structures with frequent flooc
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down stream at the outlet of the watershed system. Proper watershed management scht greatly  supplement the sustainability  of these irrigation schemes, in addition to the mi outputs  to be derived including forest, livestock, and crop products  and fishery  on uj watershed.
A study conducted on Aijo-Dedesa watershed suggests that the vegetal cover is relatively good soil erosion is minimal in many placeses except in areas where forest clearing is taking p particularly that of Borecha and Dembi areas. The major challenge is seen to be low awarenes the community in natural resource conservation. Demographically, there is low population pres where by many areas of land are available for cultivation. The exploitation of natural resource getting induced with the need to open new land for cultivation and cutting of trees for sale. In n places the depth of soil is good enough to support agricultural activities without external inj However, many parts of the soil need buffering with basic substances owing to acidic natur soils that limit crop production.
Land degradation in the watershed is  associated with deforestation and improperly  laid ( drainage channels  in the cultivated lands. The number of livestock is found to be incomp with carrying capacity of existing grazing lands. It has been observed that there is high r; over grazing on both grazing lands and cultivated lands during dry periods. Failures of so water conservation structures are also highly correlated with free grazing of livestock.
1.2 Objectives
1.2.1 General objective
The general objective of feasibility  study  of Arjo-Dedesa watershed, as  part of Arjo-D( Irrigation Project, is  assessment and identification of biophysical and socio-economic  pote and problems  of watershed along with the resource base, and to give recommendatio development options  that could be applicable in solving the watershed problems. It is aimed at improving the livelihood of the community  in the watershed in the long run eqi through implementation of various  interventions  with due consideration to upst downstream interactions  and reduce competition for resource, consequently  avoiding co that may  arise from inequitable distribution of development and resources  between th stream and downstream community  owing to development of irrigation project, from whi( down-stream community  benefit. Furthermore, the objective of feasibility  study  of wate
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management    includes    protection    of    the    watershed    resources    from    degradation rehabilitation of degraded areas of Arjo-Dedesa watershed thereby increasing the producl of  agricultural  lands  in  the  watershed,  protection  of  the  existing  natural  resources  espec that  of  soil,  water  and  vegetation,  protection  of  the  irrigation  dam  from  sedimentation flooding, with due consideration to holistic and integrated approach, so that the developme irrigation project would be sustainable.
1.2.2   Specific objectives
The specific objectives include the following
Identify the biophysical and socio-economic problems of the watershed for different land uses. Identify areas vulnerable to soil erosion and recommend appropriate soil and w'ater conservat measures for both arable and non-arable lands that may help to halt erosion.
Identify  appropriate  interventions  and  prepare  the  watershed  development  plan  along  v institutions responsible for the implementation of the development plan.
Estimate the cost required for implementing the proposed watershed management plan. Indicate the monitoring and evaluation systems to effectively implement the plan and ens sustainability.
1.3 Methodology and approach
1.3.1 Methodology
The  methodologies  followed  for  conducting  the  study  of  Arjo-Dedesa  watershed  managei are:
•    Review of previous studies and works
•     Review and collection of secondary data at national, regional, woredas and water levels
•     Delineation of watershed from topographic map of 1:50,000 scale and interpretatic the land uses, slopes and other characteristics of watershed from topographic maps aerial photo
•     Field o bservation to cross-check i nterpreted i nformation from maps and ascertair actual  and  current  reality  on  the  ground,  and collection of primary  data on bioph^ and socio-economic situation.
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•       Land   capability   classification   was   conducted   using   the   methodology   adoptt Escobedo (1988), land classification for use in soil conservation in Ethiopia. The nr attempts to identify the MOST SUITABLE LAND USE for soil conservation requirer
•     The  Soil  Loss  Rate  Map  has  been  interpolated  from  the  study  reports  of  EHRJ BCOEM  (1999)  and  assessed  and  acquired  field  data  based  on  the  limiting  parar of   soil   erodibility,   rainfall   erosivity,   slope   steepness   and   length,   vegetal   cove management practices.
1.3.2 Approaches
The  assignment  of  watershed  management  study  was  undertaken  considering  the  fol five stages and approaches:
i.     Review of past studies undertaken and to identify data gaps along \^ith recommen
of information and data gap filling
1
ii.     Field investigation, data collection and consultation with Woreda and concerned e and Regional officers
iii.     Analysis of Resources and identification of constraints
iv.      Design of project components and Cost Estimates
v.      Project monitoring and evaluation
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1.4 Review of Previous Studies and Works
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Soil erosion by water is the dominant type of soil erosion in Ethiopia and is the most import, cause of soil erosion in Ethiopian Highlands, within which Aijo-Dedesa watershed is found. I effect of soil erosion is loss of soil, removal of organic matter, depletion of nutrients; consequer causing decline in land productivity, sedimentation of water reservoirs and the like. Current
Ethiopia  is  facing  severe  land  degradation  mainly  arising  from  soil  erosion  problems.  1
Ethiopian Highland Reclamation Study (EHRS) estimated that nearly 1.9 billion tons of fertile « is lost from highlands annually through water erosion alone. This amount is equivalent to average soil loss of 130 tons per hectare per year from cultivated lands. Allowing for re-deposit of soil in the bottom lands, the net soil loss from cultivated lands has been estimated to be 100 l per hectare per year, which is equivalent to 8 mm of soil depth per annum. The study furt estimated that 50% of the highlands are significantly eroded, 25% seriously eroded, w hile 4% h reached a point of no economic use. It also estimated that there is an average annual 1 productivity decline of 2.2% due to soil erosion. Humi (1984) estimated rates of soil erosion croplands and found to be 421013 on average, while this rate has reached up to 300t/ha individual fields. On the other hand, soil formation rates were estimated to vary between 2 anc tons/ha per year. The variations are based on the differences in agro-ecologic zones, altitude local situations.
At present day Ethiopia, forests are being destroyed at an alarming rate and the area co> by forests at present is only 2.4 percent compared to the estimated 40 percent initial cove The primary  causes  of natural forest destruction are agricultural expansion, both thr shifting cultivation and the spread of sedentary agriculture; the demand for increasing am- of construction material, fuel wood and charcoal. Charcoal production is  commonplace i arid, semi-arid and dry humid parts of the country (CSE, 1989). Using fire to fumigate bee to facilitate hunting is also very common. The major source of household energy is bioms 1984 estimate indicated that 94.8 percent of the total energy  consumption in Ethiopia made up of biomass fuels consisting of fuel wood, animal dung and crop residue (EFAP, 1 Fuel wood use makes up 81.8 percent of these traditional sources, while animal dung anc residue make up 9.4 and 8.4 percent, respectively. Traditional fuels  make up 99.9 perc the rural energy  consumption and the rural population consumes  86.7 percent of the tot energy (EFAP, 1994).
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In  addition  to  the  deforestation  caused  by  understandable  needs,  negligent  as  well  as  \ destruction  (such  as  by  fire),  do  contribute  to  deforestation.  These  types  of  deforestatio become  increasingly  frequent  in  the  last  20  years  or  so.  This  has  been  a  period  in security  of  land  tenure  and  access  to  natural  resources  were  undermined  by  unpopular measures  such  as  frequent  redistribution  of  land  and  restrictions  in  cutting  and  utilizinc even in one’s own backyard. Serious destruction of forests has occurred between the fal previous  government  and  the  stabilization  of  the  present  one.  Forest  and  generally  bi degradation,  as  well  as  consequent  land  degradation,  lead  to  the  destruction  and  ero biodiversity   of   both   plants   and   animals.   More   specifically,   the   destruction   of   habita introduction  of  a  narrow  spectrum  of  crop  varieties,  recurring  droughts,  as  well  aswa conflicts  could  be  mentioned  as  the  most  common  causes  for  the  erosion  of  forest  co\ biodiversity  in  Ethiopia.  Ethiopia’s  largely  poor  rural  population,  driven  by  poverty,  after satisfy  their  survival  needs  through  the  clearing  of  more  forest  land  for  agricultural  pu (CSE,   1989).   Based   on   the   evaluation   of   forest   conditions   in   the   country   EFAP recommended  the  expansion  of  tree  plantations  in  agricultural  areas  mixed  with  agri operations as means of abating forest degradation and associated problems
To  evaluate  the soil erosion status, EHRS used depth of soil as an important indicator t depth  affects  both  soil  water  holding  capacity  and  plant  rooting  depth  providing  a  dir between  ’erosion  status’  and  productivity.  Soil  scientists  now  recognized  that  soil  loss greatest  impact  on  crop  yields  through  the  reduction  in  soil  depth  (WBISPP,  2004).  The depth  below  which  crop  yield  is  affected  is  between  80  and  100  cm.  The  same  study  • that  sorghum  and  pulses  are  not  affected  until  soil  depth  reaches  77  cm,  indicating  < resistance  characteristics  of  these  crops.  Barber  (1984)  assumed  this  depth  to  be  10 cultivated  lands  of  Ethiopian  Highlands  that  is  expected  to  reach  in  year  2010  if  the  tr land  use  practices  continue  in  similar  situation  of  the  time.  Correlating  the  soil  depth  wil ecological  zones,  EHRS  found  that  deeper  soils  being  associated  with  the  higher  p zones,  including  the  present  study  area;  and  correlation  with  altitude  showed  that  st soils are occurring especially at higher altitudes.
The decline in soil depth, being effected by  soil erosion, reduces  soil moisture store thus, reducing the ability  of crops  to sustain development and survival during the mid-p rainfall. The situation is  exacerbated by  increased runoff owing to reduction in vegetatic and reduced soil infiltration due to removal of top-soils and clogging of soil pores by fir
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washed-in from upslope side. Removal of crop residues  and animal dung, primarily  for fuel, also breaches the natural cycling of nutrients in the environment, further impoverishing the soil (NCS. 1989).
Concern over land degradation, and impacts of it on land productivity and livelihood’s of people came to prominence after the 1974 drought. In recognition of the severity of erosion in Ethiopia and stimulated by  recurrent famines  especially  the major famines  of 1972 and 1984, the government of Ethiopia, assisted by  FAO, undertook  a major study  on soil erosion in the Highlands  of Ethiopia (EHRS, 1 986). Recognizing occurrences  of soil erosion and recurrent drought with international assistance and especially  in association with the WFP, the government has made a major effort to implement soil conservation measures. Between 1978 and 1984, 590,00km of contour bunds covering 600,000ha of cultivated land were implementec along with 600,000km diversion ditches; 1100km check  dams  in gullies, and 470,000km o terraces, afforestation on 150,000ha of sloping land (Hurni 1985 as  quoted by  BCEOM-1999) These measures  have been implemented mainly  in Harerghe, South Wello, South Gonder North Showa, Tigray and Arbaminch areas, which were affected by drought. The recent repor of Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority  (EEPA, 2003) showed that between 1995 anc 1999, 1284924ha on-farm terraces, 115398ha soil bunds, and 45794ha check dams, 12387hc micro-basins, 5646ha cut-off drains  were implemented across  the country. Generally  speakinc in the past, focus has been given to physical soil and water conservation activities.
Since 1974, the previous government gave much attention to implementation of soil and wate conservation measures  as  a means  of abating land degradation and established Communit Forest and Soil Conservation Department (CFSCD) within the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) t< plan and oversee conservation and community forestry projects by watershed countrywide. Thi soil and water conservation and community  forestry  programmes  were then implemented oi watershed bases  from 1980 up to 1991. During these periods, the size of watershed considered as  development unit was  20,000 to 40,000ha (BCEOM, 1999). In a more genera way, the study  of soil erosion situation and the efforts  made so far in soil and wate conservation were carried out and given in Abbay River Basin Master Plan project report. Thi report would be relevant to the target area of study. The study indicated that soil erosion in th basin and also in Ethiopia as  a whole has  reached at the alarming stages  and is  increasin under the combined pressures  of increasing population and de-vegetation. In light of this, th study further suggested that soil and water conservation strategy should focus on conservin
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currently productive land at the expense of reclaiming degraded lands. In principle, soil ere is  directly  linked with the disturbance of soil or land through cultivation, and thus  stratec erosion control must focus on protecting cultivated land.
Extensive   assessment   and   evaluation   of   the   soil   and   water   conservation   measu implemented  in  the  country  was  carried  by  Donald,  1984  under  EHRS  project.  Accord to  this  report,  attention  was  given  to  physical  measures  and  insufficient  attention  has  be given    to    the    biological    and    ecological    aspects    of    conservation    The    study    furtl recommended  greater  attention  to  identifying  and  exploiting  locally  available  plant  mate for  stabilization  of  bunds  and  improvement  of  pasture  and  to  the  selection  of  tree  spec for   different   ecological   conditions,   with   out   ignoring   the   need   to   have   quality   works physical  measures  based  on  standard  norms.  Moreover,  the  measures  were  implemen here  and  there  with  out  due  consideration  to  watershed.  It  was  just  in  1980's  tha watershed    approach    was    started    in    planning    and    implementing    soil    and    we conservation  works  (John  et  al  1984).  The  activities  conducted  since  then  concentra on  soil  and  stone  bunds,  terraces,  cutoff  drains,  gully  control  check  dams  and  forest  t plantation   with   major   emphasis   to   degraded   hilly   areas.   During   these   periods   until recent  times  of  the  fall  of  Dergue  regime,  watershed  management  programmes  conduc have   experienced   three-fold   major   constraints.   Firstly,   the   planning   of   watershed   wo was   top   down   and   decided   by   technical   experts;   secondly,   the   size   of   watershed planning   was   large,   20-40   thousand   hectares   and   thirdly,   the   watershed   managem interventions   were   biased   to   soil   and   water   conservation   measures   emphasizing degraded   communal   and   hilly   areas   with   little   attention   to   individually   held   farmlai (personal   view).   The   lessons   learned   from   this   experiences   pushed   MoA   and   supf agencies  like  FAO  to  initiate  pilot  watershed  planning  approaches  on  a  bottom-up  ba using   smaller   units   and   following   community-based   approaches,   resulting   in   introducl of   minimum   planning   and   sub-watershed   approach   and   initiating   a   shift   from   lar watershed  to  smaller  watershed  as  a  planning  unit.  This  approach  was  tested  at  p stage through FAO technical assistance from FAO under MoA during 1988 - 91
During the last ten years, with support from W FP under MERET project, GTZ, US> under AMAREW project and other organizations, the FDRE has  worked with communi within micro-watersheds to develop and implement natural resources conservation <
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community  watershed management plans. To reinforce such efforts  guidelines  on watershed management planning have been published by  the MoARD and are generally accepted by  almost all practitioners. This  would give a favorable condition for implementation of watershed management programmes at community level.
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2. DESCRIPTION OF WATERSHED
May 2007
The current conditions and characteristics of watershed are described under this topic to he a clear picture of biophysical and socio-economic situations.
2.1 Bio-physical features
2.1.1 Climate, Land Use and Topography
2.1.1.1Location
Arjo-Dedesa watershed, which is  originating mainly  from dense forest hills  of Sigmo, Ge Mana. Goma and hills of other Woredas, is the area that drains water to Dedesa River, one the tributary  rivers  to Abbay  basin. The watershed covers  the whole of Gomma, Borec Dedesa and Setema Woredas  and parts  of Sigmo, Gera, Mana, Limu Kosa, Limu Seka c Getchi Woredas. It is located in Oromia Regional State, parts of Jima and lllu-ababora Zon The watershed can be accessed through Jimma after 30 km drive on all weather roads towa Agaro town. It is  located at 360 km from Addis  Ababa and 60 km from Bedele town towa Jimma.
Geographically,  it  is  located  between  36°02  and  36°46  East  Longitude,  and  between  7°43 and   8°1353   North   latitude.   The   watershed   covers   a   total   of   556,436ha,   excluding command  area  and  inclusive  of  reservoir  area.  The  elongation  ratio  (index  of  shape) watershed is computed to be 0.34, showing weak relief and gentle ground slope, and havin short  and  wide  shape,  nearly  squat.  The  map  available  in  Fig.  2.1  shows  the  morphology River  Dedessa.  The  map shows  that Dedesa  River has many networks of tributary rivers. ' major  tributaries  of  Dedesa  river  include,  Ater  Geda  which  is  originating  from  Gaway.  La1 Chngo,  Atara  suga  and  Dapara  in  Sigmo  hills;  Yira,  which  is  originating  from  Muje,  Du Dapara  and  Gabasa  forest  in  Toba;  Aweyitu,  which  is  originating  from  Awanu,  Buture  Gat and  Tiliku  Bore  in  Agaro  areas;  and  Geba,  which  is  originating  from  Keberecho  forest,  K forest and Weja forest in Dembi.
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260000
^?Chora        Aba        Bora fAbdela
I 33‘
36'
:
LEGE
Catchme
Reservo
Stream i Dedess. Dam  siti Roads
'Limu Ga
“Gatira
'Ambuyr
w
o
r Girmo
■—
•Sigmo
•Koche
FEDERAL DEF
OF
PI c
WJKT
LE1MT
ARJO-t MINI
•Ge’ra
•Dalecho
L
.OtaATANT
|      WA SI
INTER Ah
mapttr
e2.1.1.2 Climate
The  climate  of  Ethiopia  is  influenced  by  seasonal  variations  in  the  Intertropical  Convergenc Zone (I.T.C.Z). The seasonally changing northeast and southwest trade winds, each containin different  amounts  of  humidity,  converge  in  this  equatorial  low  pressure  zone.  In  addition  t orographically  determined  rainstorms,  intense  precipitation  often  results  primarily  from  thermc convection.  Annual  precipitation  is  concentrated  during  periods  when  the  sun  is  at  its  peak  i the form of long or short rains. The long rains are known as Kremt and the short rains as Belg.
The main climatic information  that  is most important for watershed management is rainfall ant temperature.  Others  like  evapo-transpiration,  relative  humidity,  solar  radiation  are  subsidiary  fo planning  watershed  management.  Moreover,  the  importance  of  such  climatic  data  can  b> implied  from  rainfall  and  temperature.  The  monthly  rainfall  within  and  nearby  areas  of  thi watershed  were  collected  from  four  metrological  stations  namely,  Agaro,  Bedele,  Dembi  ant Jimma,  the  details  of  which  are  given  in  Annexes  A/1  and  from  these  data  a  representativi values were reckoned
Peak rains in the project area are observed to concentrate between the months of March t< October. Almost all months of the year receives certain amount of rain, with the minimum beint in the month of January. Figure 2.2 shows graphical representation of monthly rainfall fo stations in and around Arjo-Dedessa watershed. The annual rainfall in the project area range: between 1535 to 2214mm, average being 1835mm.
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Figure 2.2 Average Monthly Rainfall of Stations in and Around Arjo-Dedesa Watershed
way zuu/
---- U'llxJ
---- EHSSB
---- I4L>M1
- egMtJ
The  area  is  characterized  by  a  humid  tropical  climate  of  heavy  rainfall  in  its  upper  highlands. Almost 70% of the total annual rainfall is received during Kiremt.
The maximum and minimum monthly  temperature varies  between 22.4 - 30.9° C and 8.4 - 14.4°C, respectively. Figure 2.3 shows  graphical representation of average monthly temperature at stations  in and around Arjo-Dedessa watershed The average wind speed is 56km/day. Monthly  evapo-transpiration varies  between 3.32 and 4.7mm/day. The altitude ranges  between 2006 and 3467m above sea level. The dominant agro-ecology  is  Wet Weyna Dega.
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Figure 2.3 Average Monthly Temperature of Stations in and Around Arjo-Dedessa Watershed
2.1.1.3 Land Use/cover
The identification and mapping of the present land use classes  of watershed is  essential part c watershed management. The way  a given land unit is  used determines  the hydrologic characteristics  of watershed and development potentials  and constraints. A plan of watershei management should be based on the type of land use along with other factors  that define th< conditions. Moreover, the type of land development intervention is  directly  related to the lan» use. Thus, the identification and mapping of the land use/cover for Arjo-Dedesa watershed wa made and three major and dominant classes  of land use have been identified. Details  ar< available in Figure 2.4.
Of the total watershed area of 556,436 ha considered for watershed management program excluding the reservoir area, 186571ha (33.5%) is  cultivated, 82811 (15%) grazing, 136560h; (24 5%) is  forest or bush land. 24829ha (4.5%) is  open wood land, 4791 ha (0.86%) as  wet o swamp. 52314ha (9.4%) unused area, and the rest 68560ha (12.3%) is  under different use; such as settlement, cemetery, gully, roads, etc. These details are available in Table2 1
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I.(i) Cultivated land
Cultivated land is devoted to annual crops and perennial crops such as fruits and coffee. Somt cultivated lands  exist in the form of cultivated land with scattered trees, cultivated land witl trees and shrubs and seasonally cultivated lands. Annual and Perennial crops cover an area o about 80.2% and 19.8% of the total cultivated land, respectively. The dominant slope is flat t( almost flat (0 - 3%) and gently  sloping (8 - 15%) in the order of 72.2 and 20.3 percen respectively. This indicates that cultivation takes place on almost flat slopes.
(ii) Forest/bush land
Forest/bush area includes  both naturally  and artificially  developed ones. It accounts  for abou 24.5% of the watershed indicating the presence of better forest cover, about 8 times more thai the percent forest cover for the whole country, which is 3% only. The dominant slope of th< forest or bush land is gently sloping (8 - 15%) and sloping (15 - 30%) in the order of 45.6 am
17.23 percent of the total forest/bush land, respectively.
(Hi) Grazing land
Grazing land covers 82811 ha, which is 15 percent of the total watershed area. Grazing area is often found mixed with open wood tree stands.
The  major  grass  species  identified  in  grazing  lands  include  Cenchrus  sp.,  Serdo,  ura  sp Hyparrhena  sp.,  Pennisetum  sp  and  Trifolium  sp.  and  Elephant  grass.  The  dominant trees an shrubs  that  are  found  on  grazing  lands  include  Juniper  sp.,  Terminalia  sp.,  Eucalyptus  sp Acacia   sp.,  Olea   Africana,  Podocarpus  gracili,   Croton   macrocytes,   Juniperous  procera  an Ficus sp. The forage production in the grazing lands is markedly affected by free grazing owin to  animal  trampling  that  influence  grass  rejuvenation  during  the  rainy  season  However,  it found that overgrazing  is minimal and  is not  as such  a serious problem during the wet seasc due  to  the  fact  that  grass  regeneration  is  fast  owing  to  the  availability  of  adequate  rain  a  n moisture.
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Table 2.1: Dominant land use/land cover of the watershed by Woreda
May 2007
Cultivated
Grazing
Forest/bushes          Open wood
Un-used land
Woreda
Wet/swamp
Ha        %
Ha
Miscellaneous
%
Ha
%         Ha
%
Ha
%
Ha
%
Ha
Mana
2080
57.4
%
Total
(Ha)
808
2.2
2227
6.1
-
-
8880
24.5
1118
3.1
2417
6.7
17530
Goma
45752
47.1
9766
10.0
4728
4.9
155
0.16
7117
7.3
826
0.85
28798
29.6
97142
USeka
13228
16.1
32123
39.2
14750
18.0
-
-
18156
22.1
-
-
3790
4.6
82047
UKosa
15339
20.4
14683
19.5
29135
38.7     1775
2.4
2877
3.8
1106
1.5
10274
13.7
75189
Dedessa
21783
39.0
7133
12.8
7880
14.1
3170
5.7
4860
8.7
737
1.3
10352
18.5
55915
Borecha
42720      45.6
6061
6.5
I 16982
18.1
17898
19.1
6510
6.9
316
| 0.3
3199
3.4
93686
Getchi
4630
6.0
473    0.62
715
0.93
161
0.2
85
0.1
-
-
784
0.1
6848
Setema
15613
20.3
9905    12.9
41645
54.2
943
1.2
2358
3.1
509
0.7
5905
7.7
76878
Sigmo
1942      16.1
443
3.7
7092
58.6
95
0.8
463
3.8
-
■
2064
17.1
12099
Gera
4756
23.3
1417
7.0
11406
56.0
632
3.1
1008
4.9
179
0.9
977
4.8
20375
Total
186571
33.5
82811
______
15.0
136560
24.5
24829
4.5
52314
9.4
4791
0.86
68560
12.3
556436
Source:- Agriculture and Rural development offices of respective Woredas ( June 2006) and Oromia BoFED Abstract, 2000
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(iv)  Open wood land
The  open  wood  land,  which  accounts  for  4.5%  of  the  total  area,  is  found  in  some  case:
combined  with  grazing  lands  but  identified  as  open  wood  lands.  W  oodlands  are  defined  a: lands  covered  by  the  open  stand  of  trees  taller  than  5  m  but  shorter  than  20  m  and  with  s canopy  cover  of  more  than  20%  (EFAP,  1994).  Woodlands  are  found  on  slopes,  along  the rivers,  on  top  of  hills  and  on  plains.  There  is  no distinct slope  range for this land  use. Oper wood lands are located in all types of slope ranges. The commonest species of wood trees an Acacia,  Commiphora,  Eucalyptus  species,  Protea,  Erica,  arborea,  Hypericum  ,  poor  stands  o Juniperous  procera  a  nd  Hygenia.  Woodlands  are  important  sources  of  fuel  and  constructior materials  for  rural  as  well  as  for  the  urban  community.  They  are  also sources of minor fores products  such  as  myrrh  and  honey.  Open  wood  land  is  considered  to  be  the  main  source  o fuel wood and income for a family.
(v)  Wet or swamp
Wet or swamp areas are commonly existent on the lower banks of rivers and land sinks. Thesf lands are u sed a s grazing I and d uring the dry p eriods and i n s ome c ases used t o p roduct maize crops  by  the residual moisture. Cultivation of vegetable and some fruit trees  is  als< carried out by the nearest farmers when the water subsides during the dry periods after three t( four months  of the end of rainy  season. The area covers  about 0.86% of the total watershec area. It is located mainly on slopes less than 3 - 5%.
(vi)  Un-used land
Un-used lands include beds of seasonal rivers, and peaks of hills and small patches of abrade< steep areas. These areas have no any cover except in some cases where small plants of fern:
are found on hill peaks.
(vii)   Miscellaneous lands
Lands  which are mapped as  miscellaneous  refer to those areas  occupied by  scattered rura villages  and rural towns, roads  and other uses. Estimation of the size of such areas  seems  t( be tiresome. However, assumption was  made on the average size of plots  occupied by  eacl rural and urban house and this has been correlated with the total number of households locatec in the study area and the size of roads and width of river beds. Based on this area devoted t< miscellaneous use is reckoned to be 68560ha and is 12.3% of the total study area. It should bi
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Table.2.2 General slope categories of Arjo-Dedesa watershed area and proportions
Average slope (%)
Area coverage (Ha)
Proportions of total (%)
Flat or almost flat, 0-3
329698.4
59.2
Gently sloping, 3-8
121857.6
21.9
Sloping, 8-15
53348.7
9.6
Moderately steep, 15-30
30452.3
5.5
Steep, 30-50
16491.7
3.0
Very steep, >50
4587.3
0.8
Total
556,436
100
2.1.1.4 Topography
Slope of the watershed is categorized as indicated in Table 2.2 and shown in Figure 2.5. Th( categorization is  as  per practice prevalent in Ethiopia for soil a nd water conservation. Sucl classification and categorization is  also useful tool for land capability  classification. Th< characteristics  of the different land uses  and identified land class  units  (LCU) are indicated ii Table 2.3. Table 2.2 depicts  that the dominant slope of watershed is  in the range of 0 to : percent, a verage b eing 2.1 percent, which i s adequate s lope t o i nitiate e rosion. Cultivatioi takes  place in most of this slope range. Soil and water losses from field are influenced by thi steepness, length and shape of slopes. The shape of slope is expressed in terms of curvature Slopes  may  be roughly  convex  or concave. Convex  slopes  increases  in steepness  toward th* bottom. Thus, runoff velocity  also i ncreases  toward the bottom of slope. Whereas  concavi slopes  flatten out toward the bottom of the slope and sediment carried in runoff water settle out as  flow velocity  decreases. With intense rains  and high velocity  of flows, however, wate may  concentrate in concave slopes  and start gulling. If gulling does  not occur, the area towan the bottom of slope accumulates  high organic  matter and surface soil, and becomes  mon valuable as  cropland. On convex  slopes  there is  no deposition, only  removal, and these slope become progressively  poorer. Slopes  of Arjo-Dedesa watershed areas  are more of concav type of slope curvature that has minimal cause to generate erosion and run-off.
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200000
220000
240000      _________  260000FIG. 2.5 SLOPE CATEGORY MAP
ETHIOPIA
18000C
2000CO
220000
240000
260000
LEGEND
Slope class (%)
0-3
■ 3-8
H
8-15
15-30
Mi     30-50
■1    >50
Catchment area
Dam site Dedessa River Roads
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
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200000
220000
240000
SCALE
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SLOPE CATEGORY MAP
FIGURE n _
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2.1.2 Soils and Land Capability Classification
2.1.2.1 Soils
Soils have particular importance in watershed management. The significances of soils characteristics, which influence the process in a watershed, are soil permeability, soil erodibility and compositions of nutrients that help vegetative growth. These characteristics are influenced mainly by soil properties such as soil texture, structure, depth, organic matter content, soil fertility, soil reaction, soil colour and stoniness. These properties of soils are highly important
parameters in watershed development planning. The decisions taken during the planning process ought, therefore, to reflect at least a basic level of knowledge about the soil conditions According to FAO/UNESCO soils classification, six major soils have been identified for Arjo- Dedesa watershed; namely Vertisols. Fluvisols, Gleysols, Nitosols. Lithosols and Acrisols. The soil map for Arjo-Dedessa watershed is available in Figure 2.6 The details of the characteristics of these soils are given as follows.
(I)               Vertisols
Vertisols have strong brown or red B-horizon. Such types of soils possess vertic properties, containing a high content of swelling clays which crack in the dry season, and swell in the rainy season causing impeded drainage. Vertisols have a fairly good but limited agricultural potential because the land is rather difficult to prepare. Dry soils are hard and wet soils are very sticky. Vertisols are widespread in the lower slopes in the form of Chromic’ over 0.54% and of Pellic' over 6.61% of the watershed. They are broadly distributed and found commonly as Chromic Vertisols in the vicinity of Dedo and Lugo swampy located in Bera Werengo and Bera Kulubi (Figure 2.6). On the other hand. Pellic Vertisols occupy depressions around the lower sides of Didessa river that are somewhat waterlogged during the rainy season. Pellic Vertisols are dark. almost black. Vertisols are most difficult soils in management. They have black color and originate from volcanic or volcanic sediments. Vertisols are characterized by 5.5 - 8.2 pH. with very high CEC, more than 50 cm deep, poor drainage and difficult workability. These soils are often referred to as problematic soils owing to the behavior of creating difficulties for cultivation However, the soils have high agricultural potential under fertile conditions, because of their
nature to hold moisture for longer period. Run-off formation from Vertisols is high and hence Vertisols are susceptible to erosion unless properly managed. It becomes apparent that undertaking structural conservation measures is difficult on Vertisols owing to the instability of such soils. The organic matter content of Vertisols is often no more than 0.5 - 1.0%.
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(II)  Fluvisols
Fluvisols are recent alluvial deposits in river plains, former lakes and coastal regions with very little soil development. Most soils consist of stratified layers with different textures, because these layers were sediment deposited by water. The sediments consist of eroded material from uplands and mountains. In the project area, Fluvisols are found stratified over the upper middle and vicinity of watershed boundaries at the foot of hills and between rivers. They are distributed over 8.7% of the watershed, specifically in Dusta, Dapara, Timba Chala, Muje, Sisimo Hulet, Kubo, Girmo and Ulawata areas  (Figure 2.6). Fluvisols  exist in Dystric  sub-order and are generally good agricultural soils. Fluvisols are found in the sub-order called Dystric Fluvisols.
(Ill)  Gleysols
Gleysols are soils found in low-lying or depressions where groundwater influence is high and therefore show hydro-morphic properties. Gleysols have reducing conditions in the part of the soil that is continuously saturated by water because of the high ground water. There is no free or dissolved oxygen and the soil is, therefore, grayish blue. In the zone with a fluctuating groundwater table, grayish blue spots, orange or reddish spots (segregation of iron) or small blackish spots (segregation of manganese) are found. In the upper part of Gleysols, that is, not within the reach of the groundwater, the soil is permanently oxidized and the reduction spots do not occur (Merte, S. 1985). Gleysols  are distributed over 13.1% area of the Watershed, including areas of Seriti Borche, Yala Aliya, Kajelo and Basera in Sigmo Woreda; Gono, Jamiya and Berbere in Setema and over few areas of Bera Gogo (Figure 2.6).
(IV)  Nitosols
Nitosols  are tropical soils  with a deep clay-enriched B-horizon, with a low cat-ion-exchange capacity and without abrupt textural changes (Merete, S. 1985). Nitosols do not have plinthite within 125 cm from the surface and do not have ferric  or vertic  properties  and have good potential for agriculture owing to the presence of deep uniform profiles that are porous and well drained, have stable angular to sub-angular blocky structure and consequently a deep rooting volume. They have high moisture holding capacity. Nitosols are good for many types of crops and hence most of the areas in the watershed with Nitosols are cultivated and extensively used to grow various  crops. Moreover, natural fertility  of Nitosols  is  relatively  high, but use of fertilizers are required if high yield is needed.
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(V) Lithosols
These soils are as such dominantly found in the watershed. The lithosols are, by definition already degraded soils. According to EHRS, Lithosols are found in the Low Potential Cereals (LPC) zone. Lithosols have variable color and parent material. Their depth is less than 10crr and has  excessive drainage and unworkable due to degradation. Lithosols  are found ir relatively small areas of eroded, very shallow, stony and rocky and on slopes more than 8% Commonly these soils are low in clay, medium in silt and high in sand contents. The ares covered by these soils is nearly 0.21% of watershed area.
(VI) Acrisols
Acrisols are soils with distinct clay-enriched B-horizon and low base-saturation. They are olc tropical soils of regions with a dry and wet season. Acrisols are generally developed from acic parent material. The content of weather able minerals is in most cases low. Due to leachinc over a very long period, the soils are exhausted. The surface soil is low in its CEC. The subsurface soil may be toxic from Aluminum, Manganese or Iron. These soils are chemically poor and physically, the clay-enriched B-horizon may limit root distribution and structurally may be poor. They are used for growing crops, however yields are rather low. Orthic Acrisols can be improved by adding some lime and fertilizers. The best use of Acrisols is for forest or grazinc lands. Many  Acrisols  are highly  susceptible to erosion. Orthic  Acrisols  are usually  founc together with Dystric Fluvisols in the same areas. This characteristic has been observed to be the case in the current project area. Acrisols  are found over 8.42% of the Aro-Dedessj Watershed area. Orthic Acrisols are located in Toli Kido, Dusta, Dapara, Timba Chala, Muje Sisimo Hulet, Kubo, Girmo and Ulawata areas (Figure 2.6).
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36.10
36 20'                                                36 30
36 •40’
36'SO'
37 00’
44’
LEGEND
Chromic Vertisols
Dystric Fluvisols Dystric Gleysols Dystric Nitosols Eutric Nitosols Lithosols
Orthic Acrisols Pellic Vertisols
rock surface
Gen<
Ambuye
Reservoir area
Dam site
Dedessa River Roads
federal democratic republic
OF ETHIOPIA
PROJECT
CLEINT
ARJO-DEDESSA IRRIGATION PROJECT MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
consultant
Is
MAP TITLE
WATERWORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
IN ASSOCIATE WITH
INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT. LTD
MAJOR SOIL DISTRIBUTION MAP
36 10
36 20
36J4Q
36 5(7
37-00
'scale"
1: 400 000                           NOVEMBER, 2006 No.               Z.O
date
rgure                       z-Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
2.1.2.2 Land Capability Classification
May
Land capability  classification refers  to a systematic  arrangement of different kind according to those properties  that determine the ability  of the land to produce oi permanent basis. It is  the basis  of watershed management and development program basic  principle of soil and water conservation is  to use the land according to i Therefore, classifying the land according to its  capability  is  a prerequisite and imp planning, implementation and execution of soil and water conservation programmes.
The land capability  classes  for Arjo-Dedessa watershed have been identified base assessment of the major limiting factors  (directly  or indirectly) to use the land in a sl manner and the obtained class  units  are primarily  categorized as  SOIL CONSEI REQUIREMENT CLASSES. The major limiting factors  considered for this  purpose a two of land features  including Slope, Soil depth, Past erosion, Soil infiltration, Wate Top soil texture and Stoniness  or Rockiness. The assessment of each feature was each type of present land uses  in ranges  of slopes  as  indicated in Table 2.3 for the w Determination of the soil conservation requirement class  is  made following the pi adopted for Ethiopian conditions  by  Escobedo (1988). The land capability  classificatio Arjo-Dedessa watershed is available in Figure 2.7.
The different land uses classified in the same land class unit, however they vary in tt factors, are grouped under similar soil conservation requirement class. For example land that is identified as class llD means; it is classified as class two land capability major limiting factor being soil depth. A cultivated land that is identified as class llE m classified as class two land capability unit with major limiting factor being erosion these two land uses are different in their limiting factors, both belong to the same i cum-soil conservation requirement class and in final mapping they were put under Ian Table 2.3 indicates the features of different land uses. Table 2 4 gives the different with the major limiting factors and land capability class unit within which they belong
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Table. 2.3 Characteristics of different land uses of watershed and land class unit
May 2007
Land use and slope
(%)
Land Use
Slope (%)
Area
(Ha)
Proportions 
of LCU in %
Soil depth
(cm)
Soil
Texture
Infiltration
Stoniness/
Rockiness (%)
Water
logging
Past
Erosion
Land
Class Unit
(LCU)
Cultivated             0-3
3-8
8-15
15-30
30-50
>50
Forest/bush          0-3
3-8
8-15
15-30
1                             30-50
> 50
Grass land              0-3
3-8
8-15
15-30
30-50
>50
Wood land            0-3
3-8
8-15
117539 7
23321 4
17910 8 167914
10821 1 186 57
79614 5 28677 6 18299 0
6554 9
2185 0
1229 0
50514 7
16727 82
6956 1
5796 8
2732 8
82 8
17181 7 3227.8 1837 4
63
125
96
90
58
01
58.3
21 0
134
48
16
0.9
61.0
20 2
84
70
3.3
01
69.2
130
74 |
>150
100-150
100-150
75-125
50-95
50-95
>150
>150
100-150
100-150
55-95
55-95
>150
>150
>150
100-150
100-150
25-50
>150
>150
>150
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clay
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Loam
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clayey
Clayey
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clay
loam
Clayey
Clayey
Clayey
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
Moderate
Moderate
Good
Good
Good
Good
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
<15
<15
<15
<15
15-30
15-30
<15
<15
<15
15-30
15-30
15-30
<15
<15
<15
15-30
15-30
15-30
<15
<15
<15
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
Intermitt Intermill
ent
None
None
None
None
Inlermitl
ent
Intermitt
ent
None
Nil
Nil
Nil
Slight
Slight
Slight
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Slight
Slight
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Slight
Nil
Nil
Slight
I
II
III
IV
VI
VII
1
II
III
IV
VI
VII
III-
lll
w
III
IV
VI
VIIE
Illi
III,
IIIe—Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
May 2007
Wet or
swamp land
Miscellaneous
15-30
30-50
> 50
0-3
3-8
3- 8
8 - 15
30 - 50
1489 7
595.9
496.6
4666.4
124.6
50597.3
16591.5
1371.2
6.0
2.4
2.0
97 4
2.6
73.8
24.2
20
100-150 100-150
25-50
95-120
50-75
50-95
50-95
25-50
Silt loam silt loam
Sandy 
loam Clayey Clayey 
Clay loam
Clayey Sandy 
loam
Good
Good
Good
Poor
Poor Moderate
Moderate
good
15-30
15-30
15-30
<15
<15
<15
15-30
15-30
None
None
None
Swamp Regular Intermitt
ent
None
None
Slight
Slight
Slight
Nil
Nil
Moder
ate
Moder Moder
ale
ivE
VIE
Vll
o
V
V
IVo
ivD
Vll
oArjo Dedessa Irrigation Project Catchments Development Plan
15-30
30-50
> 56
Wet or              0-3 swamp land          3-e Miscellaneous              3-e
6-15 x - x
1469 7 595 9 496 6
4666 4 124.6
50597 3' '6%' .5
2
6.0 24 2.0
97 4 26
73 8 24 2
25
100-150 100-150
25-50
95-120
50-75
50-95
50-95
25-50
Silt loam silt loam
Sandy loam
Clayey Clayey
Clay loam
Clayey
Sandy loam
May 2007 Good
Good Good
Poor Poor
Moderate Moderate
good
IE^HIQP A
ir                       47         *5          48
XL* ja* ir
LEGfNC
I Land ' apaM<v CJaai
jjjj Land LapablMlY Cl«<«
III | Land C apptuMy -•••* '
Llnrt •P*brt<v
■I land CppebiUty 2>p<« vl V|| Land ■ apabHtfv '.las* *•!
■I Land CepakMv Ctoaa </
*5'         <"
O^Jaaaa Rtv«Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
May 2007
Table 2.4 Summary of Land Classification and Land Class Unit with Major Limiting Factors.
Present Land
Use
Slope
range (%)
Area (Ha)
(Refer to
Table 2.3)
Major
Limiting
factor (s)
Land capability or soil
conservation
requirement class
Land Class Ur
Area (Ha)
o
Cultivated
0-3
117539.7
None
I
197154.2
Forest
0-3
79614.5
Cultivated
3-8
23321.4
Slope
II
__________
102935.9
L
Forest
3-8
79614.5
Cultivated
8-15
17910.8
Forest
8-15
18299.0
Grazing
8-15
6956.1
Wood land
0-3
17181.7
Soil
depth,
Erosion
Slope
III
65412.8
Wood land
3-8
3227.8
Wood land
8-15
1837.4
Cultivated
15-30
16791.4
IV
97821.6
1
Forest
15-30
6554.9
Grazing
15-30
5796.8
Slope
Erosion
Infiltration
Wood land
15-30
1489.7
Miscellaneous
3-8
50597.3
Miscellaneous
8-15
16591.5
Cultivated
30-50
10821.1
Forest
30-50
2185.0
Grazing
30-50
2732.8
Wood land
30-50
595.9
Slope,
Soil
depth,
Erosion
VI
16334.8
Cultivated
>50
186.6
Slope
VII
3366.2
Forest
>50
1229.0
Grazing
>50
82.8
Wood land
>50
496.6
Miscellaneous
>50
1371.2
Wet/Swamp
0-3
4666.4
Wet/Swamp
3-8
124.6
Water-
logging
V
4791.0
-
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The results of the land capability or soil conservation requirement classification show that the major limiting factor of the land use in the watershed is slope. That means, with the existing condition even though the area receives high amount of rainfall, if the vegetal cover of the land is good and soil is deep, the soil erosion is affected by slope only. On the other hand, soil erosion in many places is none to slight owing to the fact that a thick vegetation cover neglects the effect of all other factors such as climate, topography, soil and others. A bare land on flat land is  more susceptible to erosion than sloppy  land covered with thick  vegetation. From categorization of the watershed according to crude land capability  classification (Table 2.4), about 197154.2ha (35.4%) is classified as class I. Class I land is characterized by very good land in all aspects and very favorable for agricultural purposes if other minor factors such as acidity  are not the limiting factors. Such type of land can be cultivated without any interventions. However, preventive measures are of tantamount importance for protection from misuse and further cause of degradation through adjustment of management practices. Table 2.4 shows that 18.5 percent of the watershed area is grouped under capability class II. About 11.8 percent of the watershed is classified as capability class III and the other major class is class IV, which accounts for about 17.6 percent. Class VI accounts for 2.9 percent, followed by class VII that covers 0.6 percent. The part of the watershed that is affected by water-logging or permanent or temporary  swamps  accounts  for only  0.9 percent. Class  II can be used for agricultural purposes with some adjustment in agronomic aspects such as crop rotation; strip cropping and manuring that helps to increase the yield of crops The rest of capability classes except class  I that requires  simple agronomic  and soil management measures, need some interventions, particularly  vegetative measures  and water disposing structures  to get ride of excess water in the form of run-off.
2.1.3 Forest resources
According to some studies in the high rainfall areas of the southwest highlands, including the current study  area, the original vegetation of the highlands  was  broad-leaved montane high forest (WBISPP. 2004). Moreover, in the wetter western lowlands, inclusive of the lower sides
of Arjo-Dedessa watershed, this is replaced by Combretum-Teminalia woodland. According to the  information  obtained  from  the  Agriculture  and  Rural  development  offices  of  respective Woredas, WBISPP (2004), RCSO (2000) and map delineation results about 136560ha of the watershed  is  covered  with  forest,  which  accounts  for  24.5  percent  of  the  watershed  This coverage  is  much  higher  than  the  regional  coverage  of  Oromia  representing  8.2  percent (RCSO, 2000). Where as, the national forest cover is 3.56 percent. On the other hand, among
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the  forty-three  identified  high  natural  forests  in  Oromia  as  Regional  Forest  Priority  Areas (RFPAs),  those  found  in  Wellega,  Jimma  and  lllubabor  are  dominantly  mixed  broad  leaves. These  broad  leaved  forests  consist  of  Aningeria  adolfi  friederici  spp.  in  association  with Ekebergia,  Albizia,  Bosqueca,  Fagaropsis,  Pegeum,  Syzygium,  Croton,  Celtis,  Polyscias  and Schefflera (RCSO, 2000). These are homes for coffee Arabica. The mixed broad leaved forests in these areas are under exploitation and provide parts of lumber which is now marketed in many parts of Ethiopia. Forest is the main sources of energy, construction material and income to the community in the watershed. It has been observed that in many areas of the watershed, forests  are  under  severe  threat  due  to  lack  of  proper  management  of  the  forest,  need  for opening  new  cultivated  lands  and  forest  tree  marketing.  The  high  forests  suffer  from  the problems and issues concerning lack of legal status, unclear land tenure for farmers, weakness of   institutional   capacity,   weak   or   absence   of   coexistent   extension   service,   absence   of collaboration of activities and integration of plans, archaic utilization procedures and access to revenue.
Trees  identified in the woodlands  on hills  and highlands  of the watershed include Acacia abysinica, Protea, Erica arborea, Hypericum, poor stands of Juniperous procera, Hyginia, etc. On the other hand the lowland woodlands  include various  species  of Acacia, Commiphora, Combretum, Croton, Oxythantera and so on. Constraint and issue concerning the management, conservation/protection of woodlands  and bush lands  are poor management system of these lands by the local communities (EFAP, 1994).
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Chora Aba Bora lAbdela
•Yanfa
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180000
’00000
20000
240000Catchments Development Plan
2.1.4 Soil erosion
May -am
Soil erosion is the three phase’s phenomena, consisting of the detachment of i ndividual soil particles from the soil mass and their transport by erosive agents such as running water and wind. When s ufficient energy is no longer available with the erosive agents to t ransport the particles, the third phase named as ‘deposition’ takes place. The causing agents of soil erosion could be many, but the type of causes varies with the conditions of a particular area. Both the inherent characteristics of soil and the ability of erosion causing agents determine the actual erosion. In Ethiopian highlands, including the current study area, the major agent of soil erosion is water in the form of raindrop and runoff. In soil erosion by water, raindrop impact is the primarily mechanism of detachment. When a rain drop strikes uncovered soil surface, it breaks a soil aggregates or individual soil particles, making them more susceptible to transportation.
Where as  transportation of detached material takes  place mainly  by  running water Flowing water may  also serve to detach particles, largely  through the abrasive effect of transported sediment. The capacity of water to transport detached soil particles is a function of the energy of flowing water which in turn is a function of the water depth and velocity. In all cases, the actions  of both detachment and transportation of soil can almost be entirely  controlled and affected by  land management practices  which maintain a vegetative cover on the soil, supported by soil management interventions that build soil structure and its structural stability.
Understanding of the mechanics of soil erosion process is important in order to arrive at finding the major type, form and degree of erosion that occurs over a certain area and consequently identify remedial measures to abate its effects.
For the purpose of this, the situation of soil erosion rate has been assessed for the watershed based on reports of previous studies, followed by ground-truthing. From these results a soil loss rate map, which is  available at Figure 2.8 was  generated. The Revised U niversal Soil Loss 
Equation (RUSLE), which is the standard model, has been employed tn aceooo
J
rate. The model employs the major parameters that determine the annual soil I
ine soil loss *oss Tcito The
parameters include the factors of soil erodibility (K). the rainfall erosivity (R), the slo e I and Steepness (S), the land cover (C) and the management practices (P) °whe
ppaarraammeetteerrs s aarree mmuullttiipplliieedd tthhee rreesusulltt wwoouulldd bbee tthhee sosoiill lIonss   ce rate
•
these
1    loss  rate  in  tons/ha  per  vear  tk
factors signify the characteristics of watershed that determine the rate of soil I work has been done in assessing the situation of soil erosion
hese
in
the
wa ’ershed               with               due
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consideration to these factors  by  the EHRS (1984) and BCEOM (1999). These reports  and information gathered from field visit are the basis for the development of soil loss rate map of Arjo-Dedessa watershed as indicated in Figure 2.8. Figure 2.8 shows that the annual rate of soil loss  in the watershed ranges  from 0 to more than 300tons/ha for different land uses/cover conditions and slopes. Soil erosion is seen to be higher in cultivated lands than any other form of land use in many places. Contrary to this reality, annual soil loss rate in cultivated lands is observed to be less than 5 tons/ha in some gentle slope areas, against a range of 31 to 50 tons/ha in steeply  patches  of dense forest and wood land area around Getchi. Of the total watershed area, annual soil loss rate is between 0 to 5 tons/ha over 34.0 percent of land. A rate of more than 300 tons/ha has  been estimated to occur over 8.61 percent of the watershed. Deforestation, high rainfall, poor management of land and weak awareness of the communities, existence of highly  erodible soil, intensive cultivation and others  could be listed as  the main factors  contributing to persistence of accelerated soil erosion Sheet and rill erosion are common in cultivated parts of the land. The development of rills is related with improper layout and grading of drainage and run-off diversion channels by the farmers It has been seen that traditionally developed drainage channels have slopes greater than 15 percent, which is more than adequate gradient to cause turbulent flow and erosive velocity of run-off. These channels are developed at a time of land preparation and sowing of crops. The extension service of the Woredas towards creating awareness among the farmers is seen to be weak. Thus, one of the main reasons  for causing erosion in cultivated lands  is  improperly  constructed drainage channels. Poorly adapted land management practices for soil and water conservation including row cropping/cultivation of up-and-down slopes, intense tillage(especially  for teff) are the most common reasons for high erosion in cultivated areas.
According  to  some  estimates  by  EHRS,  average  annual  soil  loss  of  the  project  area  ranges between 0 to 300t/ha. On the other hand the soil formation rate or tolerable soil loss rate for the same area is 14 - 18t/ha per year (Hurni 1983). This data has been reported long ago, before some 2 0 years a nd it may be argued that the information is too old to conclude for current situation.  However,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  current  situation  will  be  more  serious  than  that time  owing  to  the  increased  population  in  rural  areas  that  need  to  cultivate  more  land  than before. Moreover, lands which were covered by some vegetation are currently under cultivation However,   compared   to   many   places   in   Ethiop.a,   soil   erosion   is   not   widespread   in   the watershed. In practical sense, erosion is not readily apparent in many places.
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2.1.5    Water Resources
May 2007
The annual average rainfall of the watershed is 1835mm. The annual volume of water ex| from rainfall is estimated to be 1021060.06 ha-m or 10210.6 M m3 that is the water re; over the surface of the watershed. This is the amount of the surface water which coi available in one or another form excluding ground water.
There are many small intermittent and perennial rivers and springs in the watershed, the ones are Ater Geda which is originating from Gaway, Latten Chngo, Atara sugand Dap Sigmo hills; Yira which is originating fromMuje, Dusta, Dapara a nd Gabasa forest in
Aweyitu which is originating from Awanu, Buture Gabisa and Tiliku Bore in Agaro areas Geba which is originating from Keberecho forest, Kube forest and Weja forest in Dem
these rivers flow to Didessa River. All of these rivers join Didessa River in the up-stream s the proposed dam site. Most of these rivers are not used for irrigation. Few areas are traditional irrigation use. For example, in Mana Woreda 612.5 ha has been irrigated traditional irrigation. In Gomma Woreda alone, in 2004/5 it has been reported by the Wi Agriculture and Rural Development office that about 3745ha has been developed by tradi irrigation. The major source of water for many purposes is rivers. Almost all areas c watershed receive high rainfall although the amount varies from month to month. Thus,
are ample resources of water that can be developed for needy people.
2.1.6    Experiences in Soil and water conservation activities
Experiences in implementation of soil and water conservation activities are very poor, be Woreda  level  and  community  level.  However,  some  Woredas  have  tried  to  implement measures   in   steep   cultivated   lands   and   where   vegetation   cover   is   adverse.   Sorr implemented  measures  include  physical  measures  such  as  terraces,  soil  bunds,  check  c waterways,  cut-off  drains  and  biological  measures  like plantation of vetiver grasses acros slope to halt run-off and inter cropping. The quantities of soil and water conservation mea: indicated in Table 2.5 a nd are not exhaustive. Biological measures are not also given i attention.  However,  it  could  be  understood  from  the  findings  of  discussions  made  witl community and Woreda experts that some efforts have been made for promoting agro-for plantations  around  the  homestead.  But  the  success  of  these  activities  is  constraine reluctance of the farmers to establish the systems owing to the non-availability of adequate products for different u ses. The major b ottle-necks t o t he implementation o f s oil a nd > conservation in the Woredas of the project area are: low emphasis given to natural resot
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conservation in general and soil and water conservation in particular by the government in such potential area; poor awareness  of the community  on land degradation; existence of other alternative sources of income for the community other than crop production since the region is coffee growing areas; lack of training on the subject for the experts who are working in the field and the farmers; lack of budget for the sector; and reluctance of the farmers to implement the measures where erosion is found to happen. The country in general and the Oromia Region in particular have conducted much training on Community  Based Participatory  Watershed Management since 2004 to the Woreda experts. Focus of these trainings has been given to food insecure and droughtprone areas. However, the conditions  under those food insecure areas, once up on a time were similar to the current project areas in terms of abundance of natural resources such as vegetation and water. No doubt that if care is not taken for the current situation in the project areas, resources will dwindle inevitably and become part of the food insecure areas. Coffee production and cover of the land through out the year may contribute to reluctance of all the stakeholders  to give attention to resources  conservation particularly that of soil and water. This should not be taken as an excuse for not addressing the problems accordingly. In the other way, farmers lack commitment to implement and take care of already implemented measures. This could be attributed to lack of common thinking of the community towards the importance of these measures and reluctance to include soil and water conservation measures  in a farming practices. Moreover, there is  lack  of law enforcing individual farmer to protect the land he uses from degradation.
In spite of these problems, there have been valuable experiences in rehabilitation of gullies with vegetative measures. Menschen Fur Menschen has made some effort in Borecha Woreda in the past to demonstrate soil and water conservation measures such as soil bunds and grass strips. But the end result was discouraging and very poor since all the measures implemented were destroyed after the project terminated its programmes. Apart from the modern or improved soil  and  water  conservation  measures,  there  are  some  traditional  or  indigenous  types  of measures which are exercised by the farmers such as trash lines, buffer grass strips which are deliberately  left  between  two  consecutive  plots  and  manure  application.  These  need  to  be strengthened and scaled-up in modern farming systems.
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Table.2. 5 Soil and water conservation measures implemented by Woredas in the watershed between
2004 and 2006.
Woreda
Type of measures
Unit
Total
Mana
Goma  Didessa  I Borecha
Soil bunds
Cut off drains Terraces
Contour plough Check dams
Grass strips Intercropping
Seed ling production Seedling plantation Water ways
Km
Km
Km
Ha
M3 Km
Ha No. Ha Km
72
12
-
5460
-
12
1410 900,000
88
-            144.2
-
-
-
-
136.32 -
- 45.9 26.2
798.5
-
- 48.7
216.2
12
136.32
5460
45.9
38.2
2208.5
900,000
88
48.7
Quantities of measures implemented in other Woredas could not be obtained, and there is no any report of the activities in Borecha
Source: Agriculture and Rural Development offices of respective Woredas (June 2006.)
2.2 Socio-economic conditions
In  watershed  management,  socio-economic  information  is  important  and  survey  has  to  be carried out to get good understanding of the actual situation in the watershed and for the major problems to be identified, possible solutions should be given which are asked for or at least acceptable by the local community. Survey results of socio-economic situation of the watershed mainly  help  to  prioritize  the  main  problems  of  the  community  in  proposing  development interventions  and  choose  acceptable  and  technically  sound  measures.  Some  times  the  top priority  of  the  community  may  be  beyond  the  objectives  of  the  project  in  a  project-type development plan. In such cases integrated and multi-disciplinary approach would be a good solution. A survey of socio-economic conditions can give clear picture of the social set up of the community,  major  economic  occupation  and  status  also  helps  to  know  whether  there  i adequate number of working and able bodied group of people to carry out the implementatio9n of development plan of interventions.
ft survey ot.soprci nnoo-em^i"c conditions of the watershed has been carried out using semi
structured interviews
. ,ipws of sample households. Representative samples were drawn from the total
hold population of watershed for different agro-ecologic conditions. The survey was c(ed by enumerators selected from Woreda development agents. Moreover, group
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discussions and consultations with the representatives of communities, experts and heads of Woreda Agricultural and Rural development offices  have been conducted to have more understandings  to common interests  of the community  and the Woredas. The findings  are discussed in the following sections.
2.2.1 Demography
Population distribution for the watershed and the respective Woredas as a whole is indicated in Table 2.6. The total of population in the watershed is 923311, out of which 467224 (50.6%) is male and 456087(49.4%) is female.
Table.2.6 Population of respective Woredas in the watershed.
Number of population
Watershed
Total for the Woreda
Woreda
By age group
Male
Female
Total
<15
15-64
ij > 64
Male
Female
Total
Borecha
39003
35982
74985
30744
41241
7400
39003
35982
74985
Getchi
16638
15986
32624
14354
17291
978
31997
30742
62739
Gera
12814
25637
10511
14100
1026
51853
52183
104036
12823
Goma
172888
350882
143862
192985
14035
177994
172888
350882
177994
Limu Kosa
36400
36890
73290
30049
40309
2932
126141
128770
254911
Limu Seka
48175
49917
98092
40217
53951
3924
82846
86713
169559
Mana
67165
61999
129164
52957
71040
5167
79615
80481
160096
Setema
33852
34005
67856
27821
37321
2714
58206
59069
177275
Sigmo
4124
4141
8265
3389
4546
330
49643
50355
99998
Didessa
31050
31466
62516
25631
34384
2501
31050
31466
62516
Grand total
467224
456087
923311
379535
507168
41007
728348
728649
1456997
Percentage
50.6
49.4
100
40.7
54.9
4.4
50.1
49.9
-------------- J
100
_________
respective Woredas
The results of extrapolation of the population in the different age group from CSA 2005 data and the data obtained from the respective Woredas show that 40.7 percent of the population i< within the age less than 15, 54.9 percent has an age between 15 and 64 and the rest 4 4 percent has age more than 64. That means, out of the total population dwelling or benefiting
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directly or indirectly from the watershed 507168 (54.9 percent) are within the active working age group, irrespective of the actual physical condition of each individuals.
2.2.2 Economic Base
Agriculture is the main economic base of the community in the watershed. Both crop production and livestock  rearing are practiced in the watershed. Coffee production is  one of the main activities that are carried out by the farmers, and is the main source of foreign exchange. Coffee (Coffee Arabica) is the major perennial crop in the area and is the most important cash crop in value. The major sources  of income for most of the community in the watershed are crop production, livestock  production and coffee. Forest products  and chat are also important sources of income. Apart from these very few people are involved in off-farm employment and petty trade. Chat and coffee trading are the main off-farm activities practiced by some members of the community. Other perennial crops that are sources of income include oranges, bananas, mangos, avocado and lemons. In spite of good performance of these crops  in this  area, plantation is at very small scale and it is difficult to obtain satisfactory income from selling them because they are picked in time of need and marketed in small quantities.
Types of crops grown in the watershed, in accordance with importance, include Cereals (Teff, Wheat, Sorghum, Barley  and Finger millet), Pulses  (Horse beans, Field peas), Vegetables (Beet root, Carrot, Onion, Etc.), Spices, Root crops and Inset.
2.2.3 Farming system
According to regional classification of farming system of RCSO 2000, the project area has the highland mixed farming system of High Potential Perennial zone. It covers the Forest-coffee- inset-livestock system. Agriculture is  a basis  for the entire socio-economic  structure of the watershed as well as for the Region, and has a major influence on all other economic sectors and development processes. It provides higher level of employment and generates the highest portion of income in the watershed. Crop production under farming system is  diverse and multiple cropping with limited inter-cropping is intensively employed. Traditional farming system is the commonest as is the case in other parts of the country in general and the region in particular where-by  continuous  cropping is  exercised through crop rotation, where cereal production alternates  with the production of legume crops  as  a means  of maintaining soil fertility. The highland mixed farming system includes the mixed crop-livestock complex The livestock component within this system is a strong element. Traditional Mofer is used as T
implement for both land preparation and cultivation
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2.2.4 Livestock population and distribution
May 2007
The  project  area  supports  nearly  659,478  Tropical  Livestock  Units  comprising  about  537020 cattle, 112217 sheep, 66389 goats and 54153 equines (22567 horses, 22567 mules and 9010 donkey).  Table  2.7  shows  the  livestock  population  in  Woredas  in  the  watershed.  Cattle dominates the livestock numbers, accounting for 85.7 percent of all livestock, while other types constitute about 1.6 percent for sheep, 0.7 per cent for goat and 12 per cent for equines out of which 3.2 percent is horse, 8.3 percent mule and 0.5 per cent is donkey.
The stocking rate for grazing land in woredas  in the watershed is  available in Table 2.8. Comparing the total livestock units with the existing grazing areas in the watershed in different Woredas, Manna Woreda has the highest stocking rate of 39.6 TLU/ha followed by 12.9 TLU/ha for Sigmo. The minimum stocking rate has been estimated to be 0.6 TLU/ha for Limu Seka. For the rest of the Woredas, the stocking rates are more than 3 TLU/ha against the regional rate of 1.14 TLU/ha in the highland areas of Oromia. Livestock and their products serve as the main source of food, income, power as a draft animals and transportation and improving soil fertility. Farmers in the project area earn incomes from sales of livestock and livestock products. They are sources of cash for the purchase of food grains during bad harvest and for the purchase of agricultural inputs. Feed sources for livestock are grasslands, bush lands, open woodlands and fallowed farmlands. Supplementary  feeding is  practiced with crop residues  and by-products. Free grazing is the commonest one as is the case for other parts of the country. The commonly used crop residues are those of Teff, Wheat, Barley, maize and Sorghum stocks and enset. Grazing and browsing occur on permanent grazing areas and fallowed lands. In this watershed, farmers make living fences with erythrina and animals are feed with chopped branches as a source of protein during the dry season (RCSO, 2000). The main livestock diseases prevailing in the project area is Trypanosomiasis, locally known as Gendi.
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Table 2.7 Livestock population in the watershed by Woreda
May 2007
No.
Woreda
Cow
Ox                             Calf
Sheep|                         Goat
Horse
Mule
Num.
Donkev
TLU
Num.
TLU           Num          TLU
Num.
TLU
Num.
TLU
Num.        TLU
Num
TLU
1         Mana
2     Goma
3     L/Seka
4     L/Kosa
5 Dedesa
6 iBorecha
7 Setema
8      Sigmo
9     Gera
16283
78830 15771 42112 12423
44787
26415 23891 18615
16934.3
81983.2 16401.8 43796.5 12919.9
46578 5
27471.6
24846.6
19359 6
15536
5254 18415 40725 15476 9302 22766 31382 21818
17400.3
5884 5
20624 8
45612
17333.1
10418.2
25497 9
35147.8 24436 202354.
6
8047     3862.6
20310     9748.8 1828,      877.4
15163     7278.2 19087     9161.8
-- 1401        672.5
19606     9410.9 777       373 0
14683
29118 4398
7050
2793
6497 15213 11520 20945
1306.8
2591.1
391.4
627.5
248.6
578 2
1354 1025.3 1864.1
6760
20054 7046
8052
6667
5171
5796
3145
3698
Num       TLU
473.2
1403 8
493.2
563.6
466.7
362.0
405.7
220.2
258.9
1171
2638
922
7162
1489
756
3145
2294
2990
1053.9
2374.2
829 8
6445.8
1340.1
680.4
2830 5
2064.6
2691
755
3672
56
3415 1590
799
1982 1887 8420
981.5
4773.6
72.8
4439.5 2067.0
1038.7 2576.6 2453.1
10946
761
3562
46
1423
764
439
318
117
1580
2664
1246.7 16.1
498 0
267.4
153.7
111.3
41.0
553.0
Total for the watershed
279127
290292
17167
4
86219
41385.2
112217
9987
66389
4647.3
22567
[20310.3
22576
51426.7
9010
3153.6
Source: Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentArjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
Table 2.8 Stocking rate of grazing lands in the Woredas
May 2007
No.
Woreda
Area of grazing lan
(ria)
Total livestock ei           (TLU)
Stocking rate
(TLU/ha) I
1
Mana
1067
42278.9
39.6
2
iGoma
13579
110005.8
8.1
3
L/Seka
60615
39707.4
0.6
4
L/Kosa
55410
167261.2
3.0
5
Dedesa
9422
43804.6
4.6
6
3orecha
8005
59809.7
7.5
7
Setema
20128
60920.1
3.0
8
Sigmo
5850
75209.4 |
12.9
9( —la
□era
9352
60481.5
6.5
2.2.5    Agricultural activities
/) Land preparation
Clearing and tillage operations are parts of land preparation activities. In areas that were under forest fallow, trees are cut and bunt in situ (except those parts which are useful for construction and fire-wood). Clearing of forests are additionally carried out in order to keep out wildlife that are believed to be dangerous for damaging the planted crops Forest clearing is carried out during  the  dry  season  when  trees  are  felled  and  left  fora  week  or  two  before  being  burnt Clearing of  areas  under  bush fallow is done by cutting all bushes, which are then piled for burning.  If  the  field  was  already  under  cultivation,  the  residues  left  behind  in  the  previous season is put in fire just before tillage begins. Land clearing operation is usually done between February and March. Tillage that follows immediately after clearing is commonly done by oxen Tillage is performed once or in most cases twice except for land allotted for tef. A tef field needs to be tilled several times in order to adequately pulverize the soils owing to the small size of th seeds that require fine seedbeds. Tillage operation is often in the monUthl    oMf Anrii
P'*i   ror   maize   and sorghum and between May and June for tef.
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II) Planting
May 2007
Time of planting is an imperative part of crop cultivation as this manipulates crop performance and consequently  determines  the grown cover during periods  of rainfall. Planting time is influenced by the occurrence of the first rain and whether or not the farmers in the neighboring field are ready to plant. Planting time for maize and sorghum is in April, while July is the time for sowing tef.
Ill)         Weeding
In the project area, because of the high rainfall weeds emerge very quickly and weeding is performed frequently. Except for tef fields, which are weeded only once per cropping season, weeding is often done twice per cropping season. For maize and sorghum, weeding is carried out with oxen, locally termed as shilshalo. The advantage of shilshalo is two fold; thinning crop stand and removing weeds. The second weeding for these crops and tef is carried out by hand. The first weeding is done in the second half of May and the second one is between the last week of July and first half of August. For tef, weeding time is in the first week of August.
IV)         Harvesting
For maize and sorghum, only the cobs and the heads are removed and the rest part of the crops is left as standing stubble until the land preparation begins in March for the next cropping season. Harvesting time begins in October and extends up to December. Machetes and sickles are materials employed for harvesting.
2.2.6 Perceptions and priority needs of the community
Group discussion has been carried out with groups of the community regarding their perception on watershed degradation and problems, after knowing t heir perception on the d ynamics of watershed  resources,  trends  in  the  status  of  natural  resources  in  the  past,  present  and expectations  on  what  will  happen  in  the  future  if  the  current  trends  continue  unattended. Furthermore, priority areas that need to be addressed in watershed development plan were carefully  identified.  Extracted  information  has  been  evaluated  together  with  the  communities and the same has been documented. Apart from these, discussion was also conducted with the Woreda sectoral experts.
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The community expressed their understandings about the past conditions as saying that their surroundings were covered with dense vegetation and there were no restriction to the use of forest  resources.  The  land  was  also  so  fertile  that  there  was  no  need  of  using  artificial fertilizers. Currently the land has lost its productivity for which they should fallow the land for 2 to 3 years or apply artificial fertilizers. Run-off developed during the rainy season has been found to increase and soil erosion is becoming the serious problem. The farmers told that they are obliged to develop ditches right after tillage of the farm in order to eliminate excess run-off, which  otherwise  creates  water  logging  and  in  many  cases  the  run-off  collected  from  the upslope sides causes serious erosion, leading to gulling. According to them, this has been attributed to the continued removal of vegetation through deforestation seeking new land for cultivation,  production  of  fuel  wood  and  need  for  construction  materials  due  to  unabated increase in population, above all the backward, traditional and poor thinking of the community over  the  natural  resources  and  absence  of  support  from  the  government  side  in  natural resources conservation. They are despondent with low technical assistance they are getting from the government on top of this special issue.
They lack modern and scientific knowledge on how to use the natural resources at optimal level and develop interventions for prevention and control of resources degradation. This could be implications of the wrong assertion of the government of giving less attention to these areas, assuming them as potential and food secured areas. In contrary to this more attention has been given to areas with complete or partially degraded and of-course believed to be food in-secure areas.
They have further asserted that, in spite of such cases of injudicious exploitation of natural resources, due to the reason they called 'ignorance they are gifted and endowed with ample water resources  and many  appropriate land set for promotion of irrigation except in some intermittently water logged areas, which they locally call it as ‘Bone’ and excellent potential for all year production. They  praised the assistance of the government and concerned organizations and individuals to support them in identifying these areas and develop them for improvement in their livelihood.
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At the final brain storming and reviewing the trends in natural resources through vision exercise the community was requested to identify the main problems in the watershed together with their possible solution(s) and rank them in order of importance. The following are the major problems expedited by them in order of priority.
•    Vulnerability to epidemic diseases like malaria and typhoid.
•    Deforestation
•    Lack of knowledge on how to manage and protect natural resources
•    Low price for their coffee products
•    Increasing trends in soil erosion by water and loss of soil capacity to hold water.
•    Livestock diseases such as Trypanosomiasis.
•    Inadequate supply of tree seedlings such as Grevillia robusta
•    Shortage of land to cultivate and illegal encroachment on forest lands for cultivation and settlement
•    Shortage of livestock feed and grazing areas
In order to tackle those problems they have suggested the following development intervention options, which could be managed by them and require support from outside.
•    Development of soil bunds
•    Grass strips and agro-forestry plantations
•    Compost preparation
•    Provision of seeds and seedlings of grass, agro-forestry trees and fruits
•   Tree plantation
•    Prevention of diseases
•   Training on soil and water conservation techniques and natural resources conservation
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3. MAJOR PROBLEMS OF WATERSHED
May 2007
The  descriptions  of  watershed  given  in  previous  sections  show  the  existing  potentials  and constraints of watershed. There are quite a number of problems of watershed, which may offer challenge to the development and resource base. The problems identified are based on the results of technical analysis of bio-physical and socio-economic information of the watershed and results of discussions made with the community, Woreda experts and department of Soil and  Water  Conservation  of  Oromia  Agriculture  and  Rural  development  Bureau.  The  major problems can be grouped as land degradation in the form of deforestation and soil erosion and socio-economic. The detail is given in the succeeding sections.
3.1 Land degradation
Land degradation is a process that lowers the current and/or potential capability of land to produce goods such as crops, livestock, fodder, fiber, building materials and fuel. Continued deterioration of land may  lead to a permanent decrease of its  biological potential and a deterioration of living conditions for inhabitants. The causes of these processes are invariably a combination of natural phenomena amid man’s actions such as the destruction of vegetative cover, overgrazing and inappropriate agricultural practices  that are not in harmony  with the ecological environment. It is man’s actions, often as a result of increasing population pressure, that extend and accelerate the p rocesses o f degradation. Water erosion includes sheet, rill, gully erosion and mass movements; salinization and alkalization refer to the accumulation of excess salts and sodium, and chemical degradation to the leaching and removal of nutrients and the build up of toxicities  other than those due to excess  salts. Physical degradation includes  those processes  such as  poor cultivation practices, which adversely  affect soil physical properties  such as  infiltration rate, structural stability, root penetrability, and permeability. Some of these processes  which result in the exposure of the soil surface to rainfall are closely related to sheet and rill erosion. Biological degradation refers to processes which accelerate humus  mineralization rates, and largely  reflects  the moisture/temperature regimes of the environment and land use practices. Other than salinization and alkalimzation processes, all the rest are manifested in the project area with little occurrences  of mass movement, which is limited only to river banks.
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3.1.1 Soil erosion by water
May 2007
Physical degradation of soil is the most spectacular in the form of sheet, rill and gully erosion. The most common forms of water erosion observed in the watershed are splash, sheet and rills on cultivated lands. Soil erosion is  spectacular particularly  during the early  times  of land preparation and planting. It is exacerbated by traditional tillage methods that are practiced in up-down direction along the slope and improperly laid and developed drainage ditches aimed at removing excess run-off. Moreover, tillage of the land at shallow depths is the practice that is adopted by the farmers particularly in soils of vertic nature. Shallow tillage increases formation of hard pans at shallow depths. These hard pans hamper or retard the infiltration and deep percolation of rain water into the soil, consequently increases run-off. Also shallow tillage would not create adequate room for water accumulation in the soil layers  and profiles. Farm drainage ditches are developed by individual farmers at steep gradients (greater than 15 per cent) in order to remove excess  rain water at faster rate. Such grades  of drainage ditches cause generation of erosive velocity of run-off that can easily erode and transport soil. Since such drainage ditches are developed in all types of slopes, including nearly flat lands, erosion is spectacular in all types of lands used for cultivation of annual crops. Free grazing is found to be another reason for persistence of accelerated erosion. According to some reports of EHRS, the rate of annual soil loss ranges b etween 0 to 300tons/ha, the maximum being in intensively cultivated Borecha and Dembi hills. Furthermore, cultivation i s practiced close to the stream banks and there is no any possibility of de-silting and filtering the runoff entering the rivers or waterways. Again the water led to the river banks falls with certain energy, and consequently causes slide or mass movement of soil from the river banks.
3.1.2   Deforestation
One of the forms of land degradation is removal of vegetation cover. Deforestation of the existing forest areas by the people who are seeking cultivated land and illegal settlers are seen to be one of the reasons for degradation. During discussion held with the community, it has been observed that such activities are becoming the daily practices. It is attributed to the need of having new productive land and increased population in the rural areas aspiring to hold land Moreover, illegal settlers from surrounding areas and those of legal settlers who are close to forest vicinity practice tree cutting. Another important reason for forest clearing is related to the need to produce charcoal and collect firewood for sale and home consumption. Cutting of tree* for collecting construction material is also another reason for deforestation owing to the availability of these resources in forest areas. Wood land clearing for agriculture involves °
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complete change in land cover from shrub land, woodland or forest to “non forest land or bare land and almost complete removal of wood in the cleared area has been the case. However, wood removed for fuel does not involve a complete and instant change in land cover. In report of study conducted by WBISPP (2004), shrub land, woodland or forest may remain as those land cover types for a number of years showing gradual erosion of wood stocks.
Situation  can  also  be  correlated  with  livestock  population  and  size  of  available  areas  for grazing. The grazing in the watershed varies in quality and quantity, with the livestock species, each utilizing different portions of the natural vegetation To determine the overall demands by livestock  on  the  range  it  is  necessary  to  relate  their  varying  requirements  to  a  common standard, which is stocking rate of the area. Referring to Table 2.8, the number of livestock, to mention few Woredas, is estimated to be 39, 12.9, 8.1 and 7.5 TLU/ha in Mana, Sigmo, Goma and Borecha Woredas respectively, considering the livestock population and grazing lands in the  watershed  only.  These  rates  are  too  high  against  the  acceptable  standard  for  optimum livestock management, which is at 1 TLU/ha. These rates indicate that the existing sizes of grazing lands a re not adequate to carry the livestock except for Limu Seka woreda, whose stocking rate is estimated to be 0.6TLU/ha. The gap of feed is found to be filled by feeding the livestock  with  plant  residues  and  browsing  every  possible  left-over  after  crop  harvest.  The implication of free movement of livestock is that animals trampling accelerate land degradation through indiscriminate browsing of vegetation and disturbance to soil structure and established soil conservation measures.
3.2Shortage of grazing land and livestock feed
The main challenge in this watershed is the inadequate supply of livestock feed as compared to the  livestock  population.  The  rate  of  stocking  of  grazing  lands  is  too  high,  as  discussed  in previous section. The existing grazing lands are not to the expected standard. The number of livestock that is allowed to graze a given grazing land should be decided based on the carrying capacity of the grass lands. Grazing capacity refers to the ability of a grassland unit to give adequate  support  to  a  constant  number  of  livestock  for  a  stated  period  each  year  without deteriorating with respect to this and/or other proper land use. Grazing by domestic livestock must be considered as one of the factors of the environment affecting the stability of grassland vegetation and soil in a watershed. The effects of grazing will depend largely on the degree to which the forage is utilized. The quantity of herbage left after grazing will govern the growth and development of forage plant roots.
~~'
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The  resulting  damages  caused  by  the overstocked grasslands  are scant forage  production, poor development and low production of animals, and the catastrophic period starvation losses of  livestock.  In  addition,  heavy  grazing  affects  the  vegetation  as  a  whole  by  handicapping preferred species, thus favoring less palatable species; and by reducing the amount of foliage cover and litter, thus creating a drier micro-climate at the ground surface and inducing erosion.
Some estimates show that 1 TLU requires 5 ha for year-long grazing without supplements (TIDEMEN, 1996). However, the current use of grasslands in the project area is much less than this estimated value. The area of grasslands available for 1 TLU in the watershed becomes 0.025, 0.077, 0.123 and 0.133 ha for Mana, Sigmo, Goma and Borecha Woredas respectively. It is not expected that these areas could provide adequate feed to livestock in the respective areas.
The results of the socio-economic survey show that only 2% responded in support of having the grazing land as the only source of feed for their livestock. Those in favor of feed as the only source during post project period are 2.5%. The rest 95.5% votedin favor of livestock feed being obtained in combination with grasslands as main source in post project period.
3.3 Socio-economic problems
3.3.1 Inadequate extension service
Almost all farmers’ community, who were interviewed for this  study, elucidated that the extension service provided in respect of natural resources management was not concomitant with other forms of extension.
3.3.2    Problems related with water use
It is believed that there is ample rainfall in the watershed. There are also many rivers and springs  that  flow  throughout  the  year.  However,  these  water  resources  are  not  properly exploited. Furthermore, most of the people in the watershed benefit from traditional water supply schemes. These traditional schemes include rivers, hand dug wells and unprotected springs. The water obtained from the traditional schemes is not safe and in many cases people suffer from water born diseases such as typhoid. Rivers and hand-dug wells are yet the only sources of water for both drinking and livestock. The results of the socio-economic survey show that 91 percent get water for their livestock from rivers. 5 percent get from traditional hand-dug
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wells and 4 percent use the above combined sources. Likewise, 50 percent of the people get drinking water from rivers, 43 percent of them get from unprotected hand-dug, 2 percent get from  protected  springs,  1  percent  from  unprotected  springs  and  3  percent  is  found  to  get drinking  water  through  piped  water  with  public  fountain.  The  proportions  of  urban  and  rural population of few woredas that are supplied with potable water are given in Table 3.1. Table 3.1 is self explanatory and can be easily understood.
From the above survey results it could be seen that utilization of water from modern schemes is very minimal and is insignificant. In spite of the fact that the project site is endowed with ample and  sufficient  water  resources,  supply  of  quality  water  to  the  community  is  insignificant According  to  information  obtained  from  Woredas  water  desk,  the  main  reasons  for  low  and inadequate water supply and weakness in promotion of potable water are attributed to lack of budget to build modern schemes, lack of skilled manpower, lack of logistics and passivity of the local people in managing the existing water supply schemes.
In addition, in spite of much potential for irrigated agriculture, its expansion is constrained mainly by dependence on rain-fed agriculture and the traditional thinking of the farming community that rainfall is adequate to produce food crops. As is the case in many parts of Ethiopia, traditional irrigation is used in very few places with very poor water application systems. These need to be improved through technical support and trainings to the farmers. Table 3.1 Population of Woreda Supplied with Potable Water
No
Woreda
Total Population
Population suppliec
I with potable water
Urban
Rural
Urban
%
Rural
%
1
Gera
8185
95851
2087
25.5
16678
17.4
2
Gomma
71018
279864
28763
40.5
47297
16.9
3
L/Kosa
19932
234979
14590
73.2
19738
84
4
L/Seka
6082
163477
3211
52.8
21089
. 12 9
5
Manna
5471
154625
3228
59.0
27369
17 7
6
Setema
4147
173128
2422
58.4
176591
Sigmo
3494 |
96504
2096
60.0
10 2
Source: BPEDO (2002) and field investigation. 2006
9361
97
3.3.3 Improper land use
Improper land use refers to the use and exploitation of land beyond its capability without application of proper management. It also refers to the abuse of land in a way that is unsuitable to its potential. For, example steep slopes over 30% would be unsuitable for omr.
without bench terracing but might be suitable for fruit trees, which maintain a vear ™ a
. .. .          .
cro P Production
_____________________________ ____
-round cover
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on the ground. Shallow soils may not be suitable for continuous field crop cultivation but c< be used for this purpose in rotation with grasses. Balancing of the number of livestock with carrying capacity of the grazing lands is another issue that should be considered. OverstocJ of  these  grazing  lands  leads  to deterioration of land  and  result in  soil  erosion  and thro' selective browsing of animals to few plants, unwanted and unpalatable species of plants over take the grazing lands, consequently causing damage to the grazing lands.
In some areas of Arjo-Dedessa watershed, steep slopes are being cultivated without any 
and water conservation interventions. These lands should have been used for forest cover
for fruit tree production If they have to be used for crop cultivation owing to the land scare
they should have been utilized with implementation of proper soil conservation measures I
is lacking in the watershed.
Cultivations of up-and-down slope have been seen to be practiced by some farmers, which the worst case in accelerating soil erosion. Together with this practice, drainage channels he been established by almost all farmers met at a gradient more than 15% aimed at avoid excess runoff, a gradient which is more than adequate to cause erosive velocity of runoff. Si alignment  of  drainage  structures  will  cause  more  erosion  than  a  land  without  a  drains structures. Many steep and abraded lands are not good to feed the animals, which in princi should have been closed from any interference of livestock and human beings, however, th are left open for free grazing.
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4.        EXISTING OPPORTUNITIES AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
4.1 Development potentials
4.1.1 Abundant rainfall and water resources
The western parts of the country in general and the watershed in particular is endowed abundant rainfall and moisture. These could be considered as the main resources that ha' key role in fostering agricultural development. Water together with other inputs is a key fa for  boosting  agricultural  development  and  sustaining  it  further  to  transit  the  economy  of country  to  industrialization.  However,  such  existence  of  high  rainfall  is,  in  some  ca considered as a negative phenomenon. Of course, if this resource is not properly managed used, the consequence would be negative. The negative influences lie on flooding, soil eros and sedimentation in poorly managed areas. The abundance of water by itself does not brin development  unless  it  is  transformed  into  some  useful  things  and  made  productive  with causing its degradation. Moreover, the existence of adequate water resources offers a poter for future development, provided that the purpose is feasible and sustainable. In this reg; one of the purposes for which water is exploited is irrigation. The potentiality of water in project  site  is  reflected  in  terms  of  agricultural  development.  High  rainfall  contributes  to increase  in  water  availability  in  the  soil  profile  and  consequently  enriches  the  ground  w; potential  and  increases  discharges  of  spring,  rivers  and  the  like.  Implication  of  this  is increased  chances  of  availability  of  base  flows  through  out  the  year,  even  during  peak period. The resulting impact would create more room for expansion and promotion of irrigs agriculture.
4.1.2Availability of irrigable areas
Potential for irrigation is mainly related to the availability of water and land for developmer plain and crude prerequisites. Others like suitability of the land and climate for certain irrige crops, access to market for producing marketable crops and required infrastructures could considered. The availability of water has been discussed in earlier section. Regarding Ian, has been observed that there is ample area of land that has potential for irrigation. It has b learned  that  some  studies  on  irrigation  potential  have  been  conducted  by  Oromia  Irriga Development Authority (OIDA) in the past 10 years. The studies have been made on cer rivers and land which are located in different Woredas within the watershed. The details of study are available at Table 4.1. The studies have been made for 620 ha at reconnais
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4
and 338 ha at feasibility levels. In total about 958 ha of land has been identified as potential areas for irrigation. Despite this, it is estimated that about 97,281 ha of potential land with adequate source of water exists and needs to be studied further.
Table 4.1 Irrigation projects studied in the project area.
F
Project location
Pcfimato
Project
Zone
Woreda
PA
Irri
Are (ha
3 d HH
Study stag
Head e work 
type
Base
flow
(l/s)
Yea
of
stud
r
Remark
1
Tamsa'a
Jimma
Goma
Ganji dalecho
72
320
Feasibility
Weir
200
2000/
2
Melka Hida
Jimma
Goma
Jimate Oaru
1 SO
200
Reconnaissance
Weir
217
2000/1
3
Yore
l/A Bon
Gachi
Hurufa
60-70
65
Reconnaissance
Weir
259
2001/2
4
Fitte
Jimma
Goma
Dinu
40-50
66
Reconnaissance
Weir
580
2001/2
5
Tamsa'a
Jimma
Goma
Dalecho Ganji
72
350
Feasibility
, Weir
-
2002/3
6
Challe
Jimma
Gomma
Choche Lemi
25
9
Reconnaissance
Weir
-
2002/3
7
Kolombo
Jimma
|Goma
Kaso Hiti
30
58
Reconnaissance
Drainage
-
2002/3
8
Wanja
Jimma
Mana
Gube Bosoko
60
117
Reconnaissance
Weir
2002/3
510
9
Wanja
Jimma
Goma
Gube Bosoko
102
107
Feasibility
Weir
49
2003/4
10
Melka Hida
Jimma
Goma
Koye     Seja.     Chami chago, Jimate Deru
48
170
Feasibility
Weir with night
storage
2003/4 i
11
Gela
l/A Bora
Borecha
Gela
30
77
Reconnaissance
Weir
138
2003/4
12
Adobe
l/A Bora
Ale Didu
Jelo Koyami
44
73
Feasibility
Weir
•
2004/5
13
Aler Geda
Jimma
Sigmo
Ater Geda
100
160
Reconnaissance
Weir
121
2005/6
14
Dorna
l/A Bora
Didesa
Yembero
20
Reconnaissance
Weir
350
2005/6
4
15
Gicho
Jimma
3era
Gebisa & Sedi
60
-  M- 135
Reconnaissance
-
-
-
Not done
16
Arengema
Jima
imu Seka
Santo
25
90
Reconnaissance
■
-
•
Not done
17
Fite
Jimma C
Soma
Inkulu & Dinu
50
110
Reconnaissance
•
•
Not done
18
Chele
Jimma C
Soma       j
Choche Lemi
50
150
Reconnaissance
-
Not done
Total potential
Source: Oromia Irrigation Development Authority, August 2006.
4.1.3    Coffee development
Coffee is one of the genetically diverse crops in Ethiopia for which the country is the primary centre of its diversification (RCSO, 2000). Coffee is found in wild and as cultivated in almost all the woredas of the project area. There is genetically high potential in the wild heterogeneous coffee  populations,  thriving  all  in  some  intricate  ecosystems  which  is  not  yet  explored  but adversely  interfered.  The  existence  of  such  high  genetic  potential  in  this  crop  has  greater significance for the economy of the project area in particular and the region and the country ' general Coffee remains the leading commercial crop accounting for the higher portion of national  export  income.  On  the  other  hand,  where  land  is  under  this  croo  Arne  •  u   °
’  *on  is  believed  tn be low owing to all year cover of the land by the vegetation.
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Because of suitability of the project area for such economically important crop, some degraded lands can be kept under this crop after being rehabilitated with green manuring. In stead of growing cereal crops  on such lands, alternatively  coffee development would be the best alternative as compared to other non-marketable and less value crops. Exploration of such potentials can be well thought-out.
4.1.4    Soil fertility improvement with FYM
In many places of the country, use of animal dung as fuel is most common due to shortage of other alternative for energy such as wood. Contrary to this, the use of animal dung for such purpose is not practiced by many people in the project area. In stead of using animal dung for some purposes, many farmers dispose them without restraint. On the other hand, the farmers purchase  commercial  fertilizers  with  high  price  while  wasting  the  most  wanted  organic fertilizers. Availability of wood to be used as fuel source is good opportunity for improvement of soil fertility and enhancing agricultural productivity instead of consuming animal manure for energy. Some studies show that about 3.2 tones of manures can be collected from 1 TLU annually (ILCA, 1981 as quoted by Solomon Abate 1994). If proper system of collecting manure is  practiced,  from  a  total  of  604,116.8  TLU  about  2.0  million  tones  of  manures  could  be produced annually. This is equivalent to 10.4 tones of manure per each hectare of cultivated land a nnually. T his a mount h as very significant meaning and n eed t o be c onsidered a s u n- exploited potential for soil fertility improvement.
4.2 Opportunities
In watershed management, all the existing opportunities in terms of bio-physical resources and socio-economic conditions for development have been identified. The opportunities of bio physical resources include those resources of soils that can be developed, vegetation, agro- ecologic suitability, water resources and overall potential of the watershed. Where as the socio economic conditions are market outlets and related infrastructures to sell the products availability of able-bodied labor force; presence of conducive environment in terms of government policy and strategies, and above all commitment of the community to develop the watershed and benefit from it. The study identified the following opportunities that will support and achieve the development of the watershed in the future.
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4.1.1 Opportunities related to bio-physical resources
May 2007
■ Water harvesting is one opportunity as an integral part of watershed development and  needs  to  be  seen  as  a  key  factor  to  improve  people's  livelihoods  through providing  opportunities  for  income  generation,  restoring  and  enhancing  land productivity,   supporting   the   rehabilitation   of   degraded   lands,   enhancing   the development  of  natural  resources,  and  contributing  to  small-scale  infrastructure development.  This  will  help  to  increase  the  land  productivity  in  areas  where irrigation development from other water sources is not possible.
■ Agro-ecology is also suitable for introducing some multi-purpose trees and shrubs 
that could be used as animal feed
The possibility of reclaiming and rehabilitating the degraded lands and converting to productive units  for crops, fodder or trees  can also be taken as  another opportunity.
•  Possibility  of  carrying  out  animal  fattening  through  use  of  livestock  feed  from closure areas and consequently reducing pressure on grazing and cultivated land by practicing zero grazing.
4.1.2 Socio-economic opportunities
The opening of much foreign market of live livestock and possibility of establishing slaughter services and meat processing plants can be seen as an opportunity to holding few livestock and undertake fattening programmes at household level
The existence of many labours in the rural community and ample culture of the rural community to work together is also another opportunity to carry out watershed development intervention through free labour contribution.
There would be an enforcing policy and laws to avoid cultivation on steep slopes and implement proper land management practices on any land held by the user so that there would be scope of reducing land degradation. This is related to the land use policy  prevalent in the country  at present and enactment of rural land administration and land use proclamation by the regional and federal government
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•  The  closeness  of  institutions  such  as  Jimma  Agricultural  Research  Centre  < Jimma  University  to  conduct  some  adoptive  research  and  arrange  and  cond capacity  building  trainings  to  both  the  experts  and  the  community  in  waters!" management.
•  Another  opportunity,  which  is  probably  most  important,  is  that  the  Government Ethiopia has  put a strategy that soil conservation, water harvesting, afforestati and  land  rehabilitation  activities  in  general  should  be  implemented  following watershed approach.
4.2 Development Strategies
The  assessment  and  identification  of  major  problems  of  watershed  have  been  made  a discussed in previous topics. The problems are found to be much complicated and many issu of both bio-physical and socio-economic conditions need to be addressed while proposing a planning  the  development  interventions.  High  population  pressure  of  human  and  livestoc land degradation and low productivity of land, shortage of livestock feed, and problems relat with water use are the most important ones to be painstaking.
•  The  interventions  for  rehabilitation  of  land  degradation/soil  erosion  should  be  based  i local experiences, based on the existing experiences, integrated with other benefits, ai focus on the improvement of vegetation cover of the degraded areas for multiple use The implementation of interventions should be made based on watershed logic, whi* states  adaptation  of  ridge  to  valley  approach,  of  manageable  size  and  focuses  ( interactions between land use and their capability.
•      Interventions  of  physical  measures  would  not  be  implemented  alone.  Where  su measures  are a  must biological  or  multi-purpose  agro-forestry  plantation  must  be us. integrated with physical measures, so that problems of livestock feed and fuel wood c. be minimized.
•    Benefit of both upstream and downstream should be considered
•    Short term and long term benefits should be considered
.  Capacity  building  of  the  community  and  woreda  experts  through  training  should  I considered
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5.        PROPOSED WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT INTERVENTIONS
5.1 Criteria for selection
The selection of interventions for development of a watershed has been made based on.
(i)       existing experiences of the community with certain interventions,
(ii)       problems and opportunities and priorities expressed by the community during group discussion,
(iii)     suitability of agro-ecologic conditions,
(iv)     needs of women community groups,
(v)      land use and farming system and technical feasibility of the interventions,
(vi)       integration  options  of  different  interventions  at  technology  level  and  interactions between micro-watersheds to impact on the bigger Arjo-Dedessa watershed,
(vii)    potentials and constraints identified in the watershed and
(viii) the overall impact expected in reducing flood and sediment deposition on the
irrigation project at the downstream side.
The interventions  selected, hence, are grouped as  those of soil and water conservation, livestock management interventions, spring development, access road, protection of stream bank and interventions that need to be addressed strategically and those of land use policy and by-laws.
5.2 Soil and Water Conservation Interventions
Soil and water conservation involves the development of systems for the management and utilization of land, water and vegetation resources that are economic, productive and sustained in the long run. The soil and water conservation interventions implemented to reverse trends in land degradation will have the following impacts:
•    Improved land through control of runoff, drainage and irrigation and greater accessibility
•    Improved soil through return of organic matter, raising nutrient levels, improving water availability, structure and aeration
•    Improved water supply through dams, ponds, spring development, etc., leading to better distribution, quality and reliability
•   Improved microclimate through the creation of shelter belts to break the f
desiccating winds 
rce °'
•    Improved output of food, fiber, fuel, timber, cash crops, livestock and livestock products
• Improved incomes and living standards through the diversification of tho
..
creation of opportunities for employment and improving the returns to labour
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With regard to soil and water conservation, maximizing useful cover is essential for productive and sustainable land use. Water and cover are very closely related. Lack of water leads to poor cover, but lack of cover leads to loss of water as runoff and causes erosion on uncovered land through raindrop impact and surface wash. Therefore, improving infiltration, controlling runoff and reducing wastage of available water are essential to productive and sustainable land use. There is no single approach to soil and water conservation that can be adopted in all situations. Blanket recommendations are of little value. In any given situation there are many alternative measures that can be used and any recommendation should aim to adopt the conservation measures  to local  situation.  The main bio-physical factors to be considered when making recommendations on conservation are the climate, soil, and slope and farming system.
In more wet areas like that of the present study area, there is greater need for runoff disposal structures  but there is  also greater opportunity  to use biological measures  for controlling erosion. With shallow or very erodible soils, more intensive measures are required to prevent any further reduction in depth which would limit the water and nutrient storage capacity. With respect to farming systems, on small and fragmented farms labour intensive measures such as grass strips or fanya juu terracing are usually more appropriate.
The basic principle of soil and water conservation is to use the land according to its needs. Therefore, the knowledge of land capability  classification, which refers  to a systematic arrangement of different kinds of land according to those properties that determine the ability of the land to reproduce on virtually permanent basis, is prerequisite and important for planning, implementation and execution of soil and water conservation programmes.
Thus the recommendations of soil and water conservation for Arjo-Dedessa watershed is made on the basis of identified soil conservation requirement class and with due consideration to socio-economic conditions. To identify the soil conservation requirement class, the procedures and methodology adopted for land classification for use in soil conservation in Ethiopia by Escobedo (1988) is used. The method has been used widely in Ethiopia by many planners for long  and  found  to  be  appropriate  for  current  study.  Table  5.1  gives  the  soil  and conservation options for different land uses based on land class unit.
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Table 5.1 Options of interventions for Soil and water conservation in Arjo-Dedessa watershed
May 2007
Land Class Unit
II
Present land use
Forest
Cultivated
Selected SWC measures
- development of buffer-zone
- Re-enforcement planting
Total area (Ha)
10,2935.9
- Establish agro-forestry system
- Graded soil bunds, cut-off drains, waterways. - Agronomic measures (Crop rotation, srip
& mixed cropping, Farm yard and green manuring, composting, residue management, etc.)
- Training
Ilf
Forest
Grazing
Cultivated
- The same as above
- Grassland improvement
- The same as Class II
65,412.8
IV
Cultivated
- Combination of grass strip with bunds
I
- Soil amendments, agro-forestry
Wood land
- Establish under growth and plantation
- Structural measures
I
Settlement
- Homestead plantation
- Composting
I
I
Forest
- The same as options for class II
Grazing
- Convert to agro-silvipasture + cutoff drains
30,632.8
VI
Forest
- Enrichment plantation
- Establish buffer-zone agro-forestry
16,334.8
VII
Grazing
- Convert to agro-silvipasture + cutoff drains
- Soil bund, cutoff drains, gully control
Wood land
- Enrichment plantation
- Tree plantation
Cultivated
- Boundary plantation with multipurpose trees
- The same as measures for Class III
1,995.0
5.2.1 Physical Measures
al measures are those soil and water conservation measures, which lead to change in land s urface a rrangement a no pruine
yS '
„ om0ntand Drofile These measures i nclude s uch as bunds t hat d ivide a smaller and separate segments and measures such as bench terraces that break the
S '0Pe '         of land into benches of table-shaped bottom. They involve the purposive movement oStfSsoP il or sion
tones but still may arise naturally from planting of grass strips. Usually such measures are
ro not complete in themselves fully effective and permanent. However, where necessary j
they must come first and followed by other biological measures. Physical measures 
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are effective for retarding runoff velocity, and consequently store sediment that is carried runoff and store or safely dispose excess runoff water.
There are various physical measures that can be applied on different land uses particularly cultivated and grazing lands. The following measures are proposed for the project area bas< on the Land Class Unit identified for different areas of cultivated lands
5.2.1.1    Soil bunds
Soil bunds are earth banks thrown across the slope to act as a barrier to runoff, to form a wat storage area on their upslope side and break up a slope into segments shorter in length than required to generate overland flow They are suitable on slopes between 3 to 15 percent c cultivated lands. Soil bunds are graded type for removing excess rainfall from the fields at sa velocity. The project area receives high rainfall and characterized by relatively better veget cover, thus graded bunds at 1 250 is recommended. It is proposed to treat a total of 82139 6 h with these measures, which need to be spaced at 15 to 20m and vertical interval bein between 1 and 2m, depending on (he actual field condition Tied ridges at every 10m along th bunds are compulsory The maximum length for graded bund should not exceed 500m m ordr to avoid risks of breakage and overtopping. The bunds could be stone-faced in areas with hig stoniness  and stable soils  Planting of grasses  and other multi-purpose agro-foreslry specie should be integrated with such measures Nearly 54759 7 km of soil bunds will be in place Th detail of placement is indicated in Figure 5 1
5.2.1.2 Fanya juu terrace
Fania iuu is a type of terrace developed by a channel which is duo and = .
upper side Such terrace has ,he advamage of holdlng
removmg
P 'acM
side    o<    the    emhankmenl    and    down-slope    Throwing    s„|,    uphj„    ma„e      a      S'    UpS'op reduction in slope, which in Used makes a ma|or conlribuiion lo reducing „o
The c ombmation of t browing soil u phill coupled w ith n atural process development of bench type terrace For this project area, terrace should be
percent slope Fanya juu terraces are more effective than bunds beca^^ reduction in slope angle but their effectiveness denende
jepenas as with other simn
°
ec ause they lead (o
efficiency with which they intercept run-off Because of ih» r . ' act that the effective*"uciures on th
intervention depend on the proper integration with
~ .u
jioos on the embank
________________________________ _ '
maintenance, planting of suitable grass species should he a
made Im
mediatelv after
^‘'veness of sue me nfs and periodi
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and maintenance should be considered after every rainy season. The measure is applicable if cultivated and grazing lands with 5 to 15 percent ranges of slopes. Fanya juu terrace helps tc partially reduce slope, which is the main advantage over conventional bunds steeper land.
Recommendation is made to treat many parts of Borecha Woreda and Haro kebele of Goma Woreda, which cover about 24,867 ha. Thus, the total length of fanya juu terrace to be developed is estimated to be 16578 km.
5.2.1.3 Cutoff drains
Cut-off drains  are graded channel constructed to intercept and divert the surface run-off from higher ground/slopes  and protect downstream cultivated land. They  divert the run-off to a waterway, rivers, etc. The structures  are constructed based on estimated runoff expected to carry, particularly  at the foot of steep hillsides  and uncultivated lands  without treatment under which cultivated fields are exposed. In addition, they are constructed above gully head and help to divert run-off from active gullies to treated/stable ones.
The amount of cut-off drains required depends on the actual conditions in the field and usually decided at the time of the implementation. In spite of this, they could be estimated as 10 to 20% of  the  quantity  of  soil  bunds.  In  this  case,  15%  of  the  estimated  amount  of  soil  bunds  is adequate  to  be  considered;  hence  8214  km  of  cut-off  drain  will  be  required.  It  is  important  to link  cut-off  drains  to  waterways  (artificial/natural)  to  safely  divert  run-off  and  at  the  same  time construct scour checks with stones and grasses at a width of 50 cm for 10 - 20 meters before the  outlet to  a waterway. Construction  of  drop structures,  as  required to minimize  the effect of water  dropping  into  the  waterway  or  gully  is  vital  in  avoiding  the  risk  of  creating  additional erosion  at  the  outlet  level.  Cut-off  drains  are  proposed  to  be  implemented  in  all  types  of capability class units.
5.2.1.4 Sediment Storage and Overflow earth dams
Sediment storage (SS) and overflow earth dams are stone-faced earth dams constructed across medium to large gullies to trap sediments, collect water and divert excess run-off They accommodate the run-off generated by the catchment located above the gully and are ofte constructed in series along the gully just like creating a land that does not exist SS dams contribute significantly to protect cultivated lands, arrest gully expansion and recharge r
water. The potential of SS dams to increase or sustain productivity and environ^ ^ Water Works Design & Supervision Enterorf^- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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protection lies on provision of opportunities for income generation to small land holders and landless through introduction of fruit trees and valuable trees.
The construction of SS dams wherever required in the watershed is justifiable in view of the role they play in stabilizing many gullies and reducing sediment that would have been supplied to the proposed irrigation dam. Size of gullies estimated to be treated with SS dams is 32 km length with average width (top) of 1 to 7m (with various depths of gullies), including the upper reaches of rivers. This is required to allow fine and fertile sediments to be trapped behind the SS dam and avoid coarse materials  accumulation. SS dams  are then constructed simultaneously  or preferably  after closer and treatment of fragile/unstable parts  of the catchment with conservation measures. Similar gullies feeding into the main one where SS dams are placed should also be treated with check-dams. The activity needs to be integrated with re-vegetation of gully sides after sedimentation is completed.
Estimation of the size of the structure
After knowing the catchment area, length, depth and bottom width of the gully, estimation of dimensions of the SS dam can be made using the following formula simplified for trapezoidal shape.
Height of dam = H
Base width = Bw, Top width = Tw Top length = Tl Bottom length = Bl
H<2m
H = 2-3.5m
H = 3.5-5m
H: Bw is 1:2-25 H: Bw is 1:2.5-3 H: Bw is 1:3
Tw = 1.5m
Tw = 1.5m
Tw = 3m
3
From which, Volume of embankment earth/stone work, V, (m ) = H x (Tw + Bw) x (Tl + Bl)
4
Volume of spillway (SP) earth work (m ) = SP x base width of SP x total depth of channel Thus, Vi + V  = Total volume of earth work (including foundation).
3
2
The design of spillways can be made based on the catchment area, which contributes water to the dam. For this  purpose dimensions  of the spillway  corresponding to the catchment area indicated in Annexure A/3 can be used.
5 2.2 Agronomic/biological Interventions
Soil erosion is mainly caused or aggravated by poor cultural practices like overgrazing over cultivation, deforestation, cultivating along the slopes, continuous depletion of soil organic
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matter and soil organic residues or vegetation cover from the ground. Replacement of such management operations by sound land, crops and livestock management principles warrants conservation of resource base on sustainable basis. The first step in water erosion control is the control of splash (detachment of soil particles) resulting from the impact of raindrops followed by the conservation of transported soils through runoff water. Agronomic practices for soil conservation help in reducing the impact of raindrops through interception and thus reduce splash erosion. These practices also help in increasing infiltration rates and thereby reduce run off and overland flow. Reduction in run-off and soil losses  is  achieved through land management practices, choice of crop, crop management practices and associated agronomic practices. Therefore, the best land management practices  for ensuring proper watershed management may be defined as the most intensive and productive use of which the land is capable without causing degradation. Hudson (as quoted in TIDEMN, 1996) suggests that land management specifications for good erosion control are exactly the same as for maximum production and profit. In other words, if one adopts an appropriate conservation agronomic practice, the soil loss from the problem area of a watershed can be reduced to much more less than its pre-treatment value. Agronomic measures also play vital role in increasing the soil resistance to erosion. This calls for increasing stability of soil aggregates through soil organic matter management. Organic matter makes the soil more elastic to absorb kinetic energy of rain drops without being broken. In addition, the soil aggregates that are rich in organic matter have more pores that enhance infiltration.
Thus, agronomic/biological soil and water conservation measures utilize the role of land management practices and vegetation in helping to minimize soil erosion. On the other hand, the effectiveness of physical measures will depend on the integration of these measures as the ultimate goal of any soil and water conservation intervention is improvement of surface cover. Therefore, recommendation of agronomic measures is justifiable under the current conditions of the watershed and those measures identified are incognizance with the existing farming systems and potentials.
5.2.2.1 Crop rotation
Crop rotation involves incorporation of legumes with cereals in a sequence in order to take advantage of different feeding zones, both for nutrients and water, and to offset disadvantages of mono-cropping in controlling insects, pests and diseases. A crop rotation system that includes legumes in the rotation cycle helps to maintain and improve the organic status of a so l
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2
2
and enables development of a more stable aggregate structure, thereby helping to update soil quality. The order of rotation is also important and worth consideration. Morgan (1986) reported that a soil loss of 0.62kg/m was measured when cowpea was followed by maize, compared to only 0.02kg/m when this order was reversed, suggesting to grow crops that are known to be susceptible to erosion first when the soil is  still fertile enough. Crop rotation is seen to be practiced in the project area. However, the system has not included any legume in the rotation. Moreover, crops are rotated only when a single crop, after being planted continuously, fails to yield the required product, and it is not efficient owing to attempting to rehabilitate the soil after the soil is completely exhausted rather than maintaining soil quality. Tef, one of (he crops used in rotation, is reported to play a unique role in maintaining productivity. Since this crop has more characteristics of a ley grass than a grain crop, it combines the soil-restoring and fodder properties of a ley grass with food production. And since it has deeper roots than grass and also has an effect similar to fallow, it raises leached nutrients to the s urface and assists in restoring soil fertility  (MoA, 1988; Westphal 1976 quoted by  Solomon Abate, 1994). Recommendation of crop rotation is made for cereal crop lands, which a re estimated to be about 150,000ha.
5.2.2.2 Adoption of Organic manures, Green manure and Fertilizers
Organic manures and green manures not only supply plant food elements as fertilizers do but also  help  in  improving  the  soil’s  physical  conditions.  The  effect  of  fertilizer  by  improving vegetative  growth  of  crop/crop-canopy  and  thereby  reducing  soil  erosion  is  distinct.  Organic manures and green manures improve the rate of infiltration and soil structure and thereby affect the soil erosion process. Unlike FYM (farm yard manure), green manuring is more important in view  of  improvement  in  soil  physical  conditions  as  decomposition  occurs  in  situ.  Green manuring is a common practice in irrigated or high-rainfall tracts of the current study area. Both organic and green manures add organic matter which is responsible for influencing physical properties-mainly the stability of soil aggregates. The practice of manure application is a small part of the cropping system in the project area; however its availability is immense. In spite of existence of very high potential, very little effort has been made for compost preparation and application  during  recent  days  though  an  adequate  amount  of  biomass  is  availableand  the climate  favors  efficient  compost  preparation.  In  addition,  from  the  total  of  604117  TLU  of livestock, excluding poultry, about 2.0 million tons of manures would be collected annually if the proper collection and management of manures is practiced. This amount of manure is r
equivalent to 125.000 tons of DAP. Some study showed that the value of manure in teTms of
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macro nutrients, it can easily be quantified in terms of Nitrogen and phosphorus. Cow manure contains approximately 1.5 percent nitrogen and 1.3 percent phosphorus per unit dry weight (NEDECO, 1998).
5.2.2.3 Strip, Mixed and Intercropping
Strip cropping is a system under which ordinary farm crops are planted in relatively narrow strips, across the slope of land. The strips of erosion-permitting crops are always separated by strips of close-growing or erosion-resisting crops. Mixed cropping is a practice of growing more than one crop in the field simultaneously. In mixed cropping, there is one main crop and one or two subsidiary crops. This system of practice is adopted by the farmers especially in coffee farms in the project area, but they lack scientific knowledge in managing the system. Mixed cropping gives better cover on land, good protection from soil erosion and assurance of one or more crops to the farmers, ensuring diversification to cope with risks. The roots of various crop species in mixed cropping make use of soil moisture and nutrients from different depths in the soil. Suitable crops for mixed cropping in the project area are maize with chickpea, sorghum with chickpea and others as the case may be. Moreover, intercropping of leguminous and other plants with coffee should be considered. On the other hand, intercropping provides similar effect as is done by mixed cropping except that in intercropping sequencing is possible. One of good experiences on intercropping is found in Kobo woreda, North Wello, in Amhara Regional State where intercropping of sorghum with tef is practiced. Such type of intercropping may also be tried in sorghum and tef growing parts of the watershed, particularly at the lower side. Tef plant gives better ground cover and play a role in dispersing raindrop impact and keeps splash erosion to the minimum during the period of rainfall. Leguminous and non-leguminous crops are commonly intercropped. Intercropping if practiced in a well planned extension system on cultivated cereal lands can ensure the avoidance of risks of failure of crop, and can enhance food security for the farmer Intercropping practices should be considered as a day to day activity for the farmers and should be supported by extension agents as regular extension programmes.
5.2.2.4 Residue management
Crop residues, which are left in the field after harvesting can have tremendous influences onArjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
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from this, some weeds have also vital role in increasing soil fertility and improve infiltration thereby reducing run-off and soil erosion. One of the weed management options is burring of the picked weeds before its maturity and fruiting so that risks of weed regeneration could be avoided or minimized. In spite of such advantages, farmers of the project area remove the weeds out of the cultivated fields in open and unused sites. If such management alternative is considered, crop residues by and large have important role in protecting soil losses. Crop residue retention is found to be a valuable asset for the reduction of soil erosion.
5.2.2.5 Contour farming
Contour cultivation and contour plantings which are non-monetary inputs, are basic agronomic practices, which should be adopted on sloped lands. The up and down method of cultivation practices by many farmers in the project area is one of the causes of increasing man-made erosion. On steep slopes, this practice enables the rain-water to gain velocity, facilitating run-off water to erode soil and cause by stages what are called sheet, rill and gully erosion. Thus, the upper layer of the fertile soil is washed away and a considerable quantity of usable water is lost resulting in reduced yield. About 85 percent of farmers interviewed responded in favor of cultivating the land in up and down method. The reason behind this is attributed to easiness of cultivation in this method and facilitation of drainage owing to high run-off generated during the periods of rainfall. Easiness of cultivation is thought to be ensured by keeping the plough at shallow depth, a depth equivalent to a length of a finger, when plowing upslope and putting the plough at deeper depth when plowing in the down-slope direction. However, in reality this method of plowing for the sake of reducing labour has not been well proved. The practices of contour cultivation could be adequately popularized through intensive extension and awareness creation among the farmers of the project area.
5.2.2.6 Compost making
Compost making is a natural process of turning organic material into valuable plant food called humus. Humus is a brownish or blackish substance which gives a dark color to the top soil Compost has a capacity to retain water and cements soil particles together to give a crumb like
structure. When properly made and applied, compost provides readily available plant food does not contain as many weed seeds and pests as farm yard manure, because the generated in a compost heap is enough to destroy the viability of most weed seeds 
few pests can survive in it. Compost manure can be easily made on the farm residues, garden weeds, kitchen and household wastes, hedge cuttings
and
heat
only
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vegetative material. In this regard, there is ample potential for compost preparation because o availability of materials.
As a measure of improving soil fertility and enhancing crop production, compost making should be one of the interventions  in Arjo-Dedesa watershed management. During field visit, farmers have told that there is some experience with them owing to the popularization of the system by the government through regular extension programmes. The farmers  informed that those who have practiced it have benefited a lot. Therefore, strengthening the ongoing extension service with respect to compost making through training and support to the community as a project is very important. Heap method is appropriate for this area. The size of the heap should not be more than 2m by 1.5m. The standard procedures should be followed for making compost. The procedures  are clearly  indicated in InfoTech's  boxes  of CBPWD guideline. About 10,000 compost heaps are proposed in this document that would be implemented in each woredas in the watershed. Compost produced as part of the soil fertility improvement will help to fertilize conserved fields  and/or supplement artificial fertilizers  in cultivated lands  treated by  bunds Moreover, it helps to apply for high value crops within homesteads, particularly to increase the benefits of multi-storey gardening.
5.2.27 Grass strips
Grass strips are vegetative barriers made out of grass planted in narrow strips of 0.5 to 1.5 meters width laid along the contour or along the physical conservation measures. While contributing to protect soils against erosion they also provide valuable biomass meant to increase animal feed or used for different purposes. Grass strips can be used alone on slopes 3 to 8 percent and integrated with physical measures alternatively in 8 to 15 percent slopes They can be integrated with lines of legume shrubs such as pigeon peas, Sesbania Tree- Lucerne and Acacia saligna planted in dense rows. Advantage of grass strips is that they cause less interference than other measures as they can easily be crossed by oxen and plough Moreover, they take little amount of arable land. Cost of construction is much lower tha physical structures. In this project area, the land capability units of llL, |||DEL and cfass )V recommended to be treated with grass strips together with other recommended measures
A total of 41232.2ha of cultivated land of slopes 3 to15 percent is proposed to be
grass  strips.  Moreover,  it  is  required  to  establish  grass  strips  on  all  of  the proposed earlier. In addition to the advantage of controllinq erosion o             •
treated with soil bunds as
_______________________________________________
9 °n and imProvement of soil
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fertility, the p roduction of grass from this area will help to generate livestock feed for a bout
8246.44 TLU annually through cut and carry system.
Layout and type of species
The strips will be laid out at 1m vertical interval; widths of strips could vary (0.5-1.5m) based on density of plants in the strip. Spacing between the seedlings/splits should not be wider than
5cm to guarantee effective grass strip. Species such as Rhodes, Andropogon, Setaria, Phalaris 
and Vetiver could be used.
5.2.3   Agro-forestry interventions
Agro-forestry  is  defined  as  a  collective  name  for  land-use  systems  and  technologies  where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc) are deliberately used on the same land management units as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal  sequence  (Lundgren  and  Raintree,  1982  quoted  by  Nair  1993).  In  other  words  it’s  a sustainable   land   management   system   which   increases   the   yield   of   land,   combines   the production  of  crops  (including  trees)  and  forest  plants  or  animals  or  both  simultaneously  or sequentially  on  the  same  unit  of  land  and  applies  management  practices  that  are  compatible with cultural practices of the local population.
Agro-forestry   practices   play   major   role   in   solving   socio-economic   problems   besides   their advantages  in  erosion  control  and  rehabilitation  of  degraded  lands.  They  help  to  maintain  and improve  soil  fertility;  supply  livestock  feed,  fuel  wood,  construction  materials  and  generate income.   These   interventions   should   also   be   seen   as   appropriate   strategy   to   reduce   the pressure   on   forest   lands.   Qualitatively,   they   create   microclimate   and   make   environment conducive  for  human  being  and  livestock.  The  principle  by  which  agro-forestry  controls  erosion is the same as biological measures except that the system allows the combined use of land for trees  and  crops  or  trees  and  livestock  or  both  together  on  the  same  unit  of  land  Objective!^ agro-forestry   in   watershed   management   programmes   helps   in   obtaining   maximum   biomass 
production, conserving production base, improving soil conditions 
.•
luuiuiis, promoting agro-based
cottage industries and moderation of microclimate. The land-use system in the
all features of agro-forestry systems. Thus, interventions of aoro
on maintaining the existing situations and widen the scone bv invnk.i
6
luiebiry system should f
r involving individual farmo
their own plots of land and around their home. The following , recommended in the project area.
are some of the
h3S Ocus
ers on
Ie systems
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5.2.3.1 Alley cropping
May 2007
Alley  cropping is  the growing of the crops  in between 'hedgerows  or alleys  of trees  which are cutback and the leaves applied to the soil as green manure mulch. If the hedgerows are aligned along the contour on sloping ground they  provide control of erosion by  acting as  a barrier to runoff. The branches  of plants  established in alleys provide firewood and leaves  of some trees can be used as dry season fodder. One of the most important premises of alley cropping is that the addition of organic  mulch, especially  nutrient-rich mulch, has  favorable effects  on the physical and chemical properties  of soil, and hence on crop productivity. The primary  purpose of this  practice is  to maintain or increase crop yield by  improving soil fertility. This  is  achieved by  planting selected species  that fix  nitrogen and provide good litter and materials  for mulching and green manuring periodically. The choice of appropriate trees, position and spacing is crucial to obtain the optimum economic  a nd ecological benefits  and to suit local needs  and farming systems. In general, multipurpose trees are preferable for the system.
Recommended   species   for   this   purpose   include   Cajanus   cajan,   Cassia   siama,   Sesbania sesban and Leucaena leucocephala.
5.2.3.2 Multi-Storey Gardening
Multi-storey  gardening  is  a  way  of  planting  a  mixture  of  crops,  shrubs  and  t  rees  o  f  d  ifferent heights  and  different  uses:  food  crops,  cash  crops,  fruit  trees,  woody  perennials,  and  forage plants.   It   makes   the   land   more   productive   and   improves   soil   fertility,   reduces   temperature, provides  shade  and  increases  family  income  through  diversification  of  products.  It  is  the  best  if practiced   in   fields   close   or   within   homesteads.   Multi-storey   systems   are   usually   very   resilient because  of  relying  on  multiple  crops  and  responding  to  various  market  demands.  They  are  also environmentally    sound;    custodians    of    considerable    biodiversity;    and    erosion    proof    Such systems  have  good  potential  to  reduce  the  need  to  use  natural  forests  and  avoid  encroaching of  community  to  hilly  areas.  There  is  good  experience  of  this  system  in  Ethiopia,  particularly  in many  places  of  the  project  area.  Sidama,  South  Omo  and  Gedeo  areas  in  Southern  Nation and National Regional State.
5.2.3.3 Establishment of buffer-zone agro-forestry
.................. oioiiudius or tne rural
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these  protected  areas.  This  zone  helps  to  protect  pristine  forest  systems  from  effects  of  human encroachment.
5.3 Livestock management Interventions
The study  on the livestock  population showed that the existing grazing lands  and fodder sources  are not compatible with the total number of livestock  population. In order to solve this problem, a project is proposed under two options.
5.3.1   First option
This  option provides  for de-stocking the number of livestock  and encouraging the farmers  to raise only  few and improved livestock  with intensified management. As  a strategy  fattening program of cattle and sheep can be followed with either local or improved breeds. Such intervention option will help the farmers  to enter into business  of animal fattening and thereby improve their livelihood. In addition, the current situation of stress  on the environment would be less  and this  will play  a major role in halting land degradation whereby  free grazing may  be avoided. The de-stocking practices should consider those of old and unproductive animals.
5.3.2Second option
The    livestock   density   in   «   watershed   area   is   te.at.vety   high   as   compared   to   the   avadable grazing  land,  as  is  indicated  by  the  estimate  for  the  Woredas  On  the  other  han  ,  grazing  a
is  a2 35 percent of the watershed The proportion ot grazing lands  is  yen, tow as  exptamed in previous  sections. These grazing lands  are used communally  without any  mtervention and balancing of livestock  with the carrying capacity  of the grass  lands. On the other hand the average number of livestock  per house holds  is  6.87 TLU, while the average land holding per household is  only  2.72ha. Out of the land held by  the household, 60 percent (1.632 ha) is devoted to cultivation as  per results  of socio-economic  survey. The remaining proportion of land (1 09 ha) is  used for different purposes. The stocking rate, by  considering the whole land held by  the each household, at household level becomes  2.52 TLU/ha. This  seems  to be quite close to standard and recommended stocking rate of 1 TLU/ha. However, the real situation is different from the stocking rate estimated by  taking the whole land area of the household. Implication of this  is  that even if the whole land holding of the family  is  devoted to grazing lands, which is  not possible, the land is  not capable of carrying the livestock. For the farmer, in order to retain all of his  livestock, there s  hould be adequate source of feed for o ptimum livestock production. But this  is  hardly  possible because of absence of other alternatives  to supply  feed other than open grazing on unproductive lands and feeding from crops by-products Thus
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the second option de-stocking some numbers of livestock and at the same time, devoting some parts of the cultivated lands to grazing lands is considered. Moreover, given the suitability of the area for livestock  and if the prevailing livestock  diseases could be controlled through provision of efficient health services, it would be possible to focus  on specialization of the livestock rearing, including animal fattening and dairy  farming and consequently  design strategies  for facilitating market outlets. Establishment of meat and milk  processing industries  can also be seen as a strategic solution owing to the closeness of the project site to one of the big towns in the country, Jimma. The live animals  and their products  can also be easily  supplied to the center of the country  owing to the availability  of all whether high quality  asphalt road and air transportation.
To reiterate the dimension of the problem, assume that about 2 tons  of dry  matter can be produced annually  from 1ha of pasture/grazing land as  maintenance requirement and the amount of feed required by  1TLU per year as  3.2 tons  of hay. Thus, the total amount of hay needed by the livestock in the watershed annually just for maintenance, is 2 million tons. Where as, the estimated annual hay  production from the current grazing lands  is  only  165,622 tons, which is  adequate for 51756.9 TLU only. For optimum and productive livestock  rearing by keeping the existing number of livestock, about 917,189 ha of additional land is  required, which is  much more than even the watershed size. On the other hand, about 552.356 TLU should be de-stocked, which is  again practically  insurmountable. This  calls  for the integrated approach for solving the livestock feed and relieve the land from over exploitation.
In  general,  these  are  indicative  options;  both  have  their  own  advantages  and  disadvantages. However,  it  is  the  decision  of  the  government  together  with  the  community  to  implement  which ever  option  is  considered  suitable  and  convenient;  it  is  advisable  to  opt  for  the  second  option owing   to   its   suitability   in   integrated   approach.   Further,   detailed   studies   of   livestock   in   the watershed need to be undertaken.
5.4      River bank protection
Stream and river bank protection is one of other interventions for solving specific
problem.
Stream and river bank erosion is a kind of water erosion, in which soil is, removed either by the
run-off flowing over the sides of the stream, coming into the stream from upstream ar,
' aiii areas or bv scouring and undercutting of soil below the water surface. Removal of soil from stream bank
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—■■ 11 ■ ■ 1
mainly  aggravated  by  the  run-off  falling  over  the  banks  of  the  river  from  the  nearby  areas without appropriate measures for soil conservation. The stream bank erosion
problems  such  as  continuous  destruction  of  adjoining  productive  cropped  lands  right  up  to  the stream  banks  and  sometimes  badly  damages  the  lands,  during  flood.  In  addition  strea
erosion also causes  several damages  to the bridges  and other structures, located across  or near the streams. Apart from this, the eroded materials  from upstream areas  and stream section are carried away  by  the flow. The eroded materials  are deposited over the stream bed after decrease in flow velocity, and finally  get intercepted in the reservoirs. It causes  clogging of the stream/channels  and consequently  flooding. A considerable part of the eroded materials/sediments is also deposited in the reservoirs and reduces their effective capacity.
Problem of stream bank  erosion is  as  important as  other types  of erosion for Arjo-Dedesa watershed. In few areas  of the watershed, cultivation is  practiced close to the edges  of the rivers. Such cultivation practices  are made without any  interventions  that may  protect the cut and slide of river banks. In spite of this, most of the stream sides  of many  rivers  in the watershed have good vegetal cover and stable banks. However, there is  a yellow light signal in some areas, particularly  in Borecha and Gechi woredas. Moreover, the cutting of trees  from sites  away  from river banks  would inevitably  lead to encroachment of cutting to the river banks. Therefore, protective and preventive measures need to be taken in future
The measures for the protection of river banks are to be implemented. The intervention involves establishment of buffer zones on the sides of the river banks and preserve the existin productive and well developed cover and/or establish new plantations of economical.! important vegetation of various types. This zone will act as a de-silting and sediment traooinn zone and dispersing the concentrated run-off before entering into the rivers so that th
have non erosive effecl. in ibis regard, a buffer zone of 5-20 meters away from ,h °
the river banks n eed Io b e delimited, b y I Uniting c ultivallon and o (her aori beyond t his zone a s a recommendation. The b uffer z one should b e 000
grass species that could be used for livestock feeding through cut a 6
can be used as fuel wood and construction materials and fruit tr '
generating income of community who owns the land adioini™ , .u
J ”"ng to the river banks
98 °' ° Perat'°nS
W 'th productive
meth°d' trees ^at
may b e u seful fOr
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Plants  proposed for this  purpose include, fruit trees  such as  Mango, Avocado, Banana, Guava and trees  like Grevillea robusta, Casia siamea, Arundo deluxe, and grass  species  as  the case may  be. One such species  could be Elephant (Napier) grass  (Pennisetum purpureum) and Sugar cane. Other plant species  which can be used as  livestock  feed through cut and carry method would be selected.
5.5 Spring development
It has  been observed during the field visit that many  springs, which are used as  source of drinking water, are open and unprotected. People fetch water from these springs  for drinking and for livestock, in addition to other sources. However, proper spring development will help to protect the water supply  from contamination. It is  aimed at collecting the flowing underground water and protects  it from surface contamination. Springs  are ideal water supply  sources  for drinking and irrigation if properly developed and protected
Thus, as  a part of watershed management interventions, upgrading and modernization of existing 10 springs  in the rural part of the watershed to the required standard could be considered. It involves  the upgrading of the springs  with concrete boxes  closer to the water bearing layer and installation cf collector tile following the acceptable standard. Moreover, spring development should also involve fencing of an area at least 30m in all directions around the spring box  to prevent contamination by  animals  and people. The water leaving the spring during idle time may  be used for irrigation. As  an integral part of spring development animal trough should be provided at the down stream side to ease the supply to livestock.
5.6Development of access road
Currently  there  are  many  all  whether  roads  and  farm  tracks.  The  farm  tracks  are  developed without  consideration  to  standards  that  need  to  be  fulfilled.  Almost  all  are  constructed  without provision  to  runoff  disposal  strudtures.  They  are  laid  out  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  generate runoff and d amage t he I and below them. I n a ddition t o p oorly d eveloped farm r oads many parts  of  the  watershed  are  not  accessible  and  thus,  implementation  of  watershed  management interventions  particularly  that  of  tree  planting,  which  require  vehicles  for  transporting  seedlings to  plantation  areas  may  be  constrained.  With  regard  to  exact  places  where  development access roads are required need to be studied further under the development of infrastructure °
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5.7      Establishment of New Nurseries and Strengthening of the old
Some efforts  have been observed in some woredas  in establishing both community  and government supported nurseries  aimed at raising seedlings  of trees  and grass  species. However, the existing nurseries a re not producing with their full capacity. The plantations of raised seedlings are often planted by individual farmers as homestead plantation of trees and grasses on traditionally established soil bunds. Most of the woredas could not provide actual data on the number and capacities  of the nurseries. However, according to available information from Mana and Borecha woredas, there are 5 and 1 government supported and 21 and nil community nurseries in the woredas, respectively. Because of the lack of attention on this  sector, these nurseries  could not function properly  and adequately. Moreover, the operations of existing government nurseries are constrained by the lack of capacity in terms of budget, logistics and manpower. These nurseries n eed to be supported a nd rehabilitated to enable them to work  with their full capacities. In addition to these, 10 new nurseries  (2 in Borechaandl in each remaining woredas) each having acapacity  of producing 0.5 million seedlings  need to be established. The established nurseries  should be capacitated with necessary  inputs  and operation costs  during the periods  of watershed management plan implementation and then transferred to the community  when awareness  is  fully  created. The types of tree species recommended are given in annuxure A/5.
5.8      Expansion of Small Scale irrigation schemes
The potential of irrigation expansion has been discussed in section 4.1.2. This potential needs to be exploited in a sustainable manner. The initiation of OIDA to expand small scale irrigation should  be  further  strengthened.  Small  scale  irrigation  works  have  also  been  receiving  greater attention by the Federal government and the Regional State as one of the means to attain food security.  In  this  regard,  due  attention  should  also  be  given  to  the  so-called  potential  areas Apart  from  expansion  of  irrigation  schemes,  traditional  irrigation  need  to  be  strengthened  with support  in  extension,  particularly  by  providing  or  availing  inputs  of  seeds  and  marketing  Th low awareness of the community in irrigated agriculture should be improved th™. r
'    eu    uirougn    continuous and step by step training.
5.9 Policy and Strategic issues
The main governing policy framework is the policy of the Federal Democratic Repub!' Ethiopia, wh..ichh ■is aaggrincucultnure led industrialization'. Under this umbrella
such as AAg.nricuruiutuuriec and Rural Development have been prepared at
-J policy, other policies regional and federal level.
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In order to strengthen and ease the implementation of such policy, Rural Land Use and Administration proclamation has  been enacted, which would be instrumental to protect agricultural and other lands  from degradation. The notable legislation of rural land use and administration proclamation enacted by  Oromia Regional State was  enacted in August 2002 as proclamation number 56/2002, which was  amended by  another proclamation number 70/2003. The Federal Government enacted rural land use and administration proclamation in July  2005 (proclamation no. 456/2005). Both these legislations  are relevant and important to be considered as  a tool to implement watershed management plan. It is  under this  legal basis  that successful implementation of proposed watershed management interventions  could be achieved, particularly  under the situation where shift of a land from one use to another is required. The main issues  that are relevant under the present study  and believed to be crucial for the implementation of proposed i nterventions  are considered under this  topic. Moreover, after indicating the existing strengths  and gaps  of the legislations  at regional and federal level, major policies  and strategies  that are required for forethought as  interventions  are also indicated.
5.9.1   Interventions with respect to policy
The  legislation  of  rural  land  use  and  administration  that  was  enacted  by  Oromia  Regional  State in  2002  recognizes  agriculture  as  the  main  source  of  livelihood  to  the  majority  of  the  population in  Oromia  and  the  seriousness  of  the  existing  problems  with  respect  to  improper  land  uses.  In recognition  of  these  the  Regional  State  sets  the  directions  of  the  policy  to  avert  the  situation, and  at  the  same  time  underlined  the  necessity  of  determining  and  implementing  the  use  right, security  and  obligation  of  the  land  users.  According  to  this  policy/legislation  the  land  user  has the    responsibility    to    maintain    and    improve    the    land    productivity.    Moreover,    the    policy encourages  the  abandonment  of  very  steep  slopes  and  supports  use  of  land  according  to  its capability.   To   implement   the   policy,   the   rural   land   use   and   administration   was   proclaimed   as indicated   earlier   (proclamation   number   56/2002).   In   this   proclamation,   articles   17   through   23 impose  responsibilities  to  the  different  groups  of  community  who  are  entitled  to  use  the  rural land.   The   major   responsibilities   of   the   land   users   are   stated   in   different   sub-articles   It considered worthwhile to mention few of them as follows:
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Any land user, who has got a use right on land, shall be obliged to co-operate with his neighbors, on proper management of land (article 17(1))
-  Any  land  user  shall  be  obliged  not  to  perform  activities  that  exacerbate  soil  erosion like   forest   clearing,   up   and   down   ploughing   and   unplanned   design   of   traditional drainage ditches (article 17(3).
Cultivation above a recommended slope is prohibited (article 17(4).
Any  land user shall be obliged to limit cultivation from gullies, ravines  and river boundaries  and slope of the land and shall be obliged to rehabilitate the boundaries (article 17(5)).
- Any land user, who is engaged in agricultural activities, shall be obliged to preserve
and maintain conservation structures (articles 23 (2)).
The proclamation of rural land use and administration of the federal government clearly indicates  the ranges  of slopes  which are allowed for cultivation with or without implementation of conservation measures  and slopes  beyond which cultivation is  prohibited. Though such legislation is  in place, its  practicability  at grass  root level is  constrained by  the absence of published bylaws  and guidelines  and strong institutions. At this  juncture these are not yet in place.
This  justifies  that unless  such enforcing legal issues  are considered in the watershed management like that of Arjo-Dedessa watershed, where much effort is  required to maintain relatively  better cover, it would be difficult to bring the proposed interventions  into practice and sustain further. In line with such efforts, the ongoing land certification programme should be strengthened and accelerated. The efforts  on land-use certification is  an excellent incentive to enable land users  to value their land holding and encourage investments  in degraded and marginal areas.
5.9.2 Strategic consideration
Conservation and management of resources through watershed annm^h
n
w—------------------ -----------------------------------;------------ -  °"uu,u De addressed in maintaining the existing relatively better areas and halting the degradation situation in other carts  _:
A
Pads of Arjo-
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May 2007
Dedessa watershed. Although the biophysical and socio-economic problems are not as high as in relatively food in secured woredas, the physical interventions proposed in this document should be integrated as implementation of measures in isolation is not expected to yield desired benefits. It has been indicated that the Arjo-Dedessa watershed is relatively good in vegetal cover. Thus, the strategy should be conservation and maintenance of the existing situation in which the land use and administration proclamation would be instrumental to ensure this.
It's customary that the effectiveness of any watershed management interventions in countries like Ethiopia is influenced by the practices of free grazing. The restriction of free grazing with due consideration to interventions  indicated in section 5.3 should be one of the strategic approach to ensure the success of watershed management. It has been learned during field visit that in some woredas of the watershed after land certification being started, people begin to avoid free grazing. Such green lights should be supported institutionally in order to make such experience a day  to day  activity  and initiate by-laws  to re-enforce the efforts  of the community.
79FIG. 5.1 WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT
240000■■
in
in
•n
N
6. IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
6.1 General schedule
The plan of implementation of the proposed watershed management interventions discussed in this  section includes  time schedule for implementation of the measures  for showing the sequence of activities; list of inputs  required; strategic  issues  that should be considered for successful implementation and institutions  that should be responsible for implementing the proposed development interventions, without disregarding the existing government structures. These all have been considered by  looking into the actual situation of the country  in general and the community and the Woredas in the watershed in particular.
6.2 Time schedule and phasing
Implementation of watershed management interventions  requires  sequencing of activities  on
the basis  of priority  and prerequisites. Planning for the implementation, thus, should take into
consideration  sequencing  and  phasing  of  interventions.  For  example,  it  is  not  wise  to  plan
N
implementation  of  tree  planting  before  seedling  production  is  carried  out.  As  a  general  rule,
physical  measures  should  be  constructed  where  necessary  before  plantations.  In  soil  and  water
N
It
conservation    for    watershed    management    the   first    year   of    the    watershed   management
programme   is   devoted   to   capacity   building   (where   required)   and   development   of   physica
measures  and  nursery  establishment  for  seedlings  production.  In  subsequent  years,  it  will  be
possible  to  take-up  construction  of  physical  measures  simultaneously  with  seedling  productior
W
I
n
and establishment of plantations.
Plan of implementation of watershed management intervention should also take int consideration the farming calendar of the farmers. As  such, it should not interfere with th
normal  agricultural  operations.  Therefore,  selection  of  appropriate  season  from  the  view
po
ii
of  technical  aspects  and  farming  systems  should  be  one  of  the  major  considerations  in  plannir implementations   of   interventions.   The   duration   of   implementation   period   will   depend   on   th quantity  of  work  involved  to  achieve  each  intervention  which  indirectly  depends  on  the  size areas to be treated, availability of inputs, etc.
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I
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I
With  the  basic  points  discussed  earlier,  the  plan  of  implementation  of  proposed  activities  for Arjo-Dedessa  watershed  has  been  prepared  and  presented  in  Table  6.1.  Implementation  of  the proposed   watershed   development   interventions   has   been   planned   to   be   carried-out   in   two phases,  each  phase  having  a  period  of  three  years.  Thus,  all  the  proposed  measures  would  be in place at the end of sixth year.
Table 6.1 Implementation schedule by phase and years
Phase II—
Activity
Soil bund
Fanya juu terrace SS dams
Cutoff drains
Quantity
54759.7
1
2
2015
su
1200
10000
, Km           16578.(
)           51! 5        564C           2050
M3
M3
90C 131424C
12800 371 862
20616 10,000
18 10 10
250 50
65
56.C)           225           281.5
36800C 5760
60 230
1000 1000
9
10
145600        240000
4
15000 3400 112.5
28000 0
50 150
5000 2000
5
1500 0
2470 112.5 1600
00 50
100 5000
1500
6
11544.7 2503 112.5
120000
su
Grassed waterways              M3
Stone check dams Live check dams Grass strips Compost making Nursery rehabilitation Nursery establishment Seed collection
Trees Legumes Grasses
Fruit trees
M3 M3
Km No. No. No. QI. Kg Kg
Kg
6400
150 120
1750 2000
9
640 61
165 7500 2000
97 366
1500
-
55
100
20
30
150
30
35
Pitting
No.
110M
22M
22M
Seedling production
22M
No.
100M
20M
20M
Seedling plantation
No.
20M
90M
18M
18M
Access road
Km
18M
954
200
150
Spring development
200
10
2
22M
20M
18M
4
No.
2
22M
20M
18M
M = Million
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6.3 Requirement of inputs
May 2007
Inputs  are resources  such as  labour, equipments, planting materials, etc., which are required for implementation of the activities. Table 6.2 shows  the list of inputs  along with their quantity and time when these inputs  are required. The period of time when these inputs  are required should correspond with quantities  of activities  that require the inputs. The inputs  identified as requirements  for implementation of the proposed development interventions  are those of labour, seedlings  of trees  and grasses, equipments  for nursery  and surveying activities  and the like. However, since labour and seedlings  are included in the activities  only  equipments  and other inputs  a re indicated in the Table 6.2. Table 6.2 gives  the detail of inputs  required for implementing the activities indicated in Table 6.1.
Table 6.2 Inputs required for implementation of watershed development activities
Type of input
1
Un
Inputs required by period year
if Quant
ti             Phase 1
Phase II
123                 456
Clinometers No
Water level No
Altimeter
No
Compass No
Measuring tape(50m) No
Axe No
Hoe
Rake
Shovel
Hand saw
No.
No.
No.
No.
Watering can No.
Wheel barrow No.
Root pruning scissors No.
Garden hose m
Hammer
Sickle
Garden fork
No.
No.
No.
I Spray (nap sack) No.
Sharpening file No.
Barbed wire m
Polythene tube QI.
Fertilizer
QI.
20          20
60          60
20          20
20          20
20          20
100       100
250       250
100       100 250       250 20          20 50          50
30          30
60          60
1800    1800
50          50
50          50
50          50
40          40 18          18
20000   2000 1000          0
55       1000
55
-
-
--
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6.4      Implementation strategies
The proposal and plan of watershed management interventions alone will not ensure
effectiveness  of  watershed  management  programmes.  Effective  implementations  of
proposed interventions should be part of watershed management plan, for which setting the
I
strategies that ensure effective implementation of the proposed development interventions is 
required. Consideration of the implementation strategies during the preparation of the project
I
plan is useful to make all preparations prior to embarking onto the implementation. With this 
logic, the strategies for implementation of the development interventions have been indicated
as follows:
6.4.1   Implementation of the interventions should be participatory
In real sense, there should be participation at all stages of watershed management planning, starting from problem identification throughout all processes up to resource mobilization and maintenance after implementation. Although an effort has been made to involve the community during  field  investigation  of  the  problems,  it  is  not  up  to  expected  level.  Thus  while implementing the proposed interventions, every land user and others should participate while deciding the exact position of the measures.
6.4.2   Watershed logic to be respected.
This strategy requires technical consideration of the orientation of the watershed, in which implementation of development interventions should commence from ridge that is the highest part of the watershed to the valley. This will help to systematically treat the bigger watershed through treating the smaller ones.
6.4.3   Community capacity building
With (he existing capacity of th. facets in pfenning a d|aying out physica| „
technical capacity of the dexeiopment agents, it „
|
ou d be djfflcu|t tp .
interventions. Building the capacity of both the community at the grass root level development agents through training and exchange of experiences of other areas 7' effective and successful watershed management programmes is very crucial
84ArJo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
6.4.4 Group work and local experiences
May 2007
The  community  in  the  watershed  and  surroundings  has  good  experience  of  working  together development   activities.   Working   together   has   both   positive   and   negative   sides.   One   of negative   sides  is  that  only  few  honest  people  work  and  others  are  overshadowed  with  such people.  However,  this  can  be  minimized  if  there  is  good  group  leadership  to  fully  involve  the community   and   obtain   the   required   involvement.   Moreover,   group   work   encourages   consensus of  the  community  to  common  interests  and  development  interventions.  This  group  work  should also  be  linked  with  the  implementation  of  common  interventions  such  as  area  closure.  In  this case traditional self-help groups could play significant role.
6.4.5 Linkage with regular extension service
Government efforts  to promote soil and water conservation measures  have been most successful where they  have been linked to the general extension service in degraded areas. However, the regular extension system under proposed project area is  too week  with regard to natural resources  conservation. Thus, watershed management interventions  have to be seen as  part and parcel of productive farming and not as  an optional extra and as  such it should be considered as preventive measure before the situation become irreversible.
6.4.6 Rural land certification
The Federal and Regional governments  should ensure land holding security  for the farmers  so that every  farmer is  able to develop the sense of belonging towards  the proposed development interventions.
6.4.7 Recognition of the role of women
Women  are  the  most  affected  part  of  society  in  the  watershed  and  elsewhere  in  Ethiopia  They travel  a  long  distance  to  fetch  water,  collect  firewood,  etc.  Their  role  in  watershed  management is   significant   especially   in   homestead   interventions   and   interventions   that   are   directly   linked with  their  day  to  day  activities.  Therefore,  their  role  should  be  recognized  in  all  aspects  of  the implementation and sincere efforts should be made to achieve their involvement
85Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
6.4.8   Project Cost-sharing
Cost-sharing by stakeholders helps in developing sense of ownership towards the imple
May 2007
interventions among the stakeholders and ensures sustainability of the development measures 
in this regard, those interventions requiring labor need to be implemented by community 
organizations and Investment on those measures and inputs, which can not be managed by t e community, should be made by other agencies.
6.4.9Flexibility in placing proposed measures
In watershed management there is no hard and fast rule that is peculiar to specific area
requires flexibility in locating the proposed interventions into practice depending on the
conditions at micro- level, physical features and social conditions.
6.5   Institutions
Implementation  of  the  proposed  development  interventions  should  b  e  made  through  existing government   structure.   However,   the   organizational   arrangement   of   Woredas   in   respect   of understanding   proposed   interventions   and   number   of   manpower   is   inadequate   of   handle   the implementation   of   the   plan   successfully.   Woredas   have   few   professionals’   with   little   or   no knowledge   on   watershed   management.   The   organizational   structure   of   Agriculture   and   Rural Development  offices  of  the  Woredas  shows  that  there  is  one  expert  for  each  of  the  following: soil and water conservation, Agro-forestry and Forestry and they are the only human resources
to  carry  out  the  natural  resources  development  programmes.  This  number  will  not  be  adequate to  handle  the  proposed  watershed  management  activities.  More  importantly  is  that  the  woreda experts  do  not  have  any  training  to  either  upgrade  their  knowledge  or  improve  their  skill  as  is the  case  for  degraded  and  so-called  food  in-secured  woredas  of  the  country  in  g  eneral  a  nd Oromia  region  in  particular.  Moreover,  the  Woredas  have  no  adequate  budget  and  logistics  for the  sector.  It  has  been  learned  during  the  discussions  that  the  attention  given  to  the  sector  is very   low.   the   reason   attributed   is   most   probably   the   negligence   and   overlooking   natural resource  sector  in  the  area  by  the  government.  However,  it  will  not  be  logical  to  establish  a separate  institution  for  implementing  the  proposed  interventions.  It  is  advisable  to  improve  the existing   manpower   by   recruiting   additional   experts   and   strengthening   the   capacity   of   Woredas in terms of skill and equipments. Moreover, the different experts in the Woreda such -
yainzeu     as     multidisciplinary     team with   those   experts   ,n   the   nature!   resources   sector.   The   recommendations   given   in   CBPWrt
road, water resources, social workers and etc. need to be orqanized
i.
guideline of the Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Develonment ;c „
°
S quite appropriate option for
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carrying out the watershed management activities.
t institutions identified to implement the
r ble 6 3.
a
watershed management programme along With their rotes is given in
« —» t.r.t. « adwsafcte ,o es,a sa community watershed teams
M
watershed, ooM »e tn th. rang. of 500 - 10005a. The d.uetopment agents may ac ooMtnaters and play tn. rot. <X liaison h.lwe.n different community watershed teams and the Woreda offices and provide technical support.
Table 6.3 Institutions proposed for implementation of development plan with their major roles.
Institution(s)
MoWR
Major roles and responsibility(ies)
I - Capacity building in consultation with MoARD and Regional BoARD
1
i - Avail budget and equipments
I - Monitoring and evaluation
MoARD
- Capacity building in consultation with MoWR and Regional BoARD
- Organize and provide trainings together with Regional BoARD
Oromia BoARD
- Monitoring and evaluation
- Ensure proper implementation of theplaF
- Give back-stop to the Weredas
-Arrange and provide trainings to Wereda staff
cm
: NGOs (Menschen Fur Menschen, etc.)
Weredas ARD
DeveiopmenTAgent(s)
Community WatershedTeam
- and !?°'S aS Per ,h&
management
and developmen't^ent
-Provide necessary inputs
I
I
- Liaisons the different CWTs
-Organize the communityfor thn
P mandates regarding watershed
technical support to the community
and ,ho larrner3
-------------------fanners
» s,
-e Pfcn
87Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
7. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT APPROACH AND ACTION PLAN
A twin-track approach needs to be adopted in the planning to meet growing demands o
May 2007
and to fulfill the aspiration of the resource-poor people. The productivity needs to be enhance
in better environment. To achieve this first strategy, it is necessary to make use o
biotechnology, transgenic crops, information technology (IT), geographical information system
(GIS), geographical positioning system (GPS), geographical information management system
(GMIS), precision farming and other high technology tools. Secondly, the degraded areas as 
well as resource poor situations (rain-fed areas) warrant simple, doable, economically viable,
socially acceptable and eco-friendly tools. Among these are non-pesticidal pest management (NPM), integrated nutrient management (INM), integrated water management (IWM), in village
seed production and easily manageable resource conservation methods. Indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) needs specific attention in such a scenario.
Multi-disciplinary   research   and   integrated   area   development   on   a   watershed   basis   is   the requirement.   This   needs   a   comprehensive   capacity   building   exercise   at   all   levels.   Structural adjustment   in   capacitating   primary   stake-holders   to   be   the   decision-maker   and   making   the women  and  the  poor  as  equal  partners  in  such  an  endeavor  is  the  first  requirements.  For  this, the  government  organizations  and  non-government  organization  will  have  to  play  a  promotional role    than    governance    role.    The    village    communities    will    be    encouraged    to    evolve    into homogenous    groups    to    manage    their    own    resources,    providing    an    access    to    knowledge systems and enabling them to withstand natural calamities like drought.
The efficient management of common pool or property resources (CPRs) to enhance their productivity in a watershed and growing of plants of choice of stake-holders is of paramount importance. This can also enhance the ground water recharge in the lower elements of slooe besides enabling production of both economic and other much needed bio-mass (fuel
manure, fruits, non-timber forest product etc.)
Thus for sustainable development, the four capitals namely nature huma social are to be considered together as they all are relevant in
security, specially in rain-fed ecosystems.
’ °dder'
" 'nS,'tUtlOnal and S ainability a^d livelihood
88Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
7.1         Social Structures
May 2007
The primary stake-holders are to be organized into homogeneous groups as proposed in figure 9  (Alternative  I).  The  Project  Implementing  Agency  (PIA)  would  mobilize  them  in  Self  Help Groups  (SHGs)  for  thrifts  and  credits  and  undertaking  groups  (UGs)  for  undertaking  works. These  groups  are  to  form  working  agency  (WA)  and  working  agency  has  to  elect  working committee  (WC).  The  working  committee  will  employ  a  secretary  to  help  both  working  agency and  working  committee.  Working  agency  a  nd  working  committee  will  elect  a  president  and chairmen  respectively.  Also  the  working  committee  would  employ  2  volunteers  (I  male  and  a female)  along  with  4  members  as  watershed  development  team  (WDT).  The  WDT  members will   be   Para-technical   in   expertise   to   help   in   social   mobilization,   soil   conservation,   water harvesting  and  production  systems.  In  alternative  II,  there  can  be  men,  women  inclusive  of SHGs,  UGs,  common  interest  groups  (CIGs),  Cattle  B  reeders  A  ssociations  (CBAs)  grazers, forest  protection  committee  etc.  In  this  alternative,  project  implementing  agency  will  involve  the above  and  other  concerned.  These  groups  shall  net  work  a  village  or  kebele  organization  who would  liaise  with  working  committee  (WC)  or  working  agency  (WA)  and  kebele  Administration or  woreda  a  Administration.  They  will  create  federation,  which  would  liaise  with  line  department of   Bureau   of   Agriculture   and   Rural   Development   (BOARD)   for   converging   existing   rural development program with watershed Development program.Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project Catchments Development Plan
May 2007
Alternative I:
Board
-----------------------------------
Federation (woreda)
L
Kebeles’ Administrative
Institution (KAI)
Village or kebele organization (V.O. or KO)
Groups
Working committee (WC) revolving
Working commutee (WC) or Working Agency (WA)
Volunteers
Alternative-ll:
Secretary
Water Development Team (WDT)
I!
Primary Stake Holders
Figure 7.1 Social Mobilization Alternatives.
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7.2 Action Plan
May 2007
The action plan would include the feasible technologies  that are eco-friendly, leading to sustainable development with equity being at upper most in agenda. The situation analyses by primary  stake-holders  provides  any  understanding of state-of-the art in natural resources, production systems, social and other institutional capitals. This  would help in identifying needed-capacity building particularly for reaching the un-reached. The component may include like natural resource management (NRM), Land-based activities  (LBAs), non-land-based activities (NBAs) and marketing.
7.2.1  Natural Resource Management
The Action Plan for Natural Resource Management is  available in Fig. 7.2 This  may  include land and water of common property  resources  (CPRS) and private (individual) stake-holders. The land includes  community  lands, wastelands  and fallow lands, which need development, protection and food production respectively. The water from CP Rs  have two dimensions- retrieval of existing water harvesting structures  and provision of cost effective new water harvesting structures. The private lands need conservation and improvement to enhance their productivity. In this  watershed crops  like barley, teff, finger millet pulses, oilseed varieties requiring less water, should be popularized.
7.2.2  Land-based activities
The Action Plan for Land Based System (LBS) is  available in Figure 7.3. These activities include plants  and livestock  and their productivity  is  required to be enhanced. Among crops, food crops  would receive priority attention to reduce food insecurity and to ensure ecological access  tofood and nutrition as  per the government policy. According to land use capability classes, the crops, vegetables, flowers will be grown and land would be also assigned for other uses as given in Figure 7.3.
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Figure 7.2 Action plan For Natural Resource Management
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Figure 7.3 Action plan for Land-Based systems
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The livestock  categories  will be taken by  the stake-holders  as  per their resources, the resourc poor many  take poultry  or small ruminants. The farmers  or stakeholders  should take viable un of livestock for better income as given below:
Type of Livestock
Viable Unit
i) Cattle including cross-breads
03
ii) Sheep (Local improved)
50 ewes + 1 or 2 rams
ii) Goat (local improved)
30 does * 1 buck
v) Poultry
10-20 birds
The livestock  have an important role in nutrient recycling. A unit of 3 cows  + 2 calves  can adc 
113 kg N + 67 kg P O + 80kg K O per annum, where litter, dung and urine are converted in tc 
25
2
farm yard manure (figure - 3).
7.2.3 Non land-based activities
These activities  are important to be developed as  livelihood support systems  for the landless  o other poor in the habitation. (Fig. 7.4) These include services  and other activities. Among the services, the communication of information is  the most critical in creating the awareness. The> include telephone, cable network, audiovisual etc. There are several essential services  at rura level like black-smith, carpentry, tailoring etc. to be encouraged. Agricultural services  ma^ include preparation of vermin-compost, plant nursery, custom services  pertaining to improvec tools and machines etc. Skill and food may include embroidery, food processing etc.
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Figure 7 4 Action Plan for Non Land - Based Activities
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7.2.4  Marketing
May 2007
The proposed market systems for rural areas in a watershed are given in Figure 7.5 to reduce the cost of transport in a collective marketing system.
Figure 7.5 Action plan for marketing
The   marketing   may   cover   barter   system,   local processing units with value addition facilities.
7.2.5 Production systems
market, warehouse facilities and product
For   enhancing   productivity   of   crops   and   livestock,   training   and   capacity   building   are   very important.  This  is  a  two  way  process  and  needs  to  be  continuous  and  with  time,  it  may  become self-financing  institution.  The  production  system  involving  Land  -  based  activities  along  with  the need  of  training  and  capacity  building  is  represented  in  Figure  7.6.  Looking  at  relevance  and role  of  extension  system,  proper  thinking  needs  to  be  given  for  encouraging  private  extension service   providers   (PESOS).   At   the   rural   level,   private   farmers,   organizations   private   input dealers,  agncuitural  cooperative  banks.  NGOs  etc  may  play  a  very  important  role  in  transfer  of technologies    For    this,    the    first    attempt    needs    to    be    the    proper    documentation    of    the.r knowledge   in   venous   production   systems,   as   success   story.   Such   approach   would   enable   , identify  master  -  farmers  and  self-employed  youth  to  work  as  service  an»a«.
livestock production systems 
ln e croP and
The government and non-government organizations  with their role of promotion, and master farmers  with their success  stories  would work  through SHGs  on the systems  of less  external input-sustainable agriculture (LEISA). LEISA involves participatory technology development
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(PTD), farmers’ field schools (FFS) and integrated crop management (ICM). Integrated cro| management includes, in-village seed production, particularly of crops requiring higher rates, besides, integrated nutrient management (INM),
Training and Capacity
building
Self-employed youth (Service Providers)
Master farmers (Service Providers)
l
Cooperatives
Marketing
▼
Cattle Breeders’ Associations
CBAs Health care
-► Cattle rearing
Fodder
Self Help ^roups (SHGs)
Less External input-sustainable Agriculture (LEISA)
Participatory Technology Development (PTD)
Farmers’
Integrated crop
> Artificial insemination (Al)
Field school management
(FFS)
(ICM)
1’
In-village seed
▼ Integrated nutrient
Figure 7.6
Production (l-VSP) Management (INM)
Production systems Involving Land-based Activities
Non-pesnso ripest
Participatory
Hydrological
Management (NPM)          Monitoring (PHl
“ Association wttb X'M u„
cArjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
May 2007
Non-pesticidal pest management (NPM) of insects-pest, and participatory  hydrological monitoring (PHM) is  efficient use of scarce water. All these steps  will help in bringing out eco- friendly sustainable production.
7.2.6     Training and Capacity Building
The  practice  of  above  innovation  would  require  large  scale  training  and  capacity  building  that could  be  best  done  through  master  farmers,  need  to  be  promoted  by  GO  and  NGO  agencies. LELSA  approaches  are  low-cost  and  eco-friendly.  The  self-employed  youth  can  become  service providers  for  live  stock  and  encourage  Cattle  Breeders'  Associations  (CBAs)  to  outsource  Para extension  persons  for  health-care  and  artificial  insemination,  cattle  rearing  and  feed  and  fodder development.  The  training  and  capacity  building  will  include  resource  center  and  out  sourcing (service providers). Livestock will cover Al, fodder bank and health care.
7.2.7  Package of Production Practices
The integration of crops  with livestock  production would be the most economic  production system for the farmers  in the water shed. The package of production practices  has  been prepared which is available at Annex - A/6.
7.2.8  Management of Finances and Financial Resources
The  financial  structure  of  watershed  development  is  proposed  as  given  in  Figure7.7  and  fund flow  in  Figure  7.8.  In  financial  management  any  government  fund  will  be  routed  through  kebele administration  to  federation  or  village  organization.  They  may  get  donation  or  bank  loans  also. The  money  from  this  source  will  be  provided  to  groups  (SHG,  UGs,  CIGs.  CBAs  etc)  based  on approved  action  plan  submitted  by  individual  through  groups.  Such  fund  flow  can  also  include interest  on  savings.  These  funds  can  not  be  given  only  for  groups  for  livelihood  and  production systems   as   soft   loan   but   also   as   grant   through   federation   or   village   organization   for infrastructural development for training and capacity-building, livestock and marketing.
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Government grant
Bank
Village organization
Kebele Adm. Institution
II
Individuals
Figure 7.7 Financial Structure
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Funding Agency govt, through
Kebele Administration
Contribution of Primary Stakeholders
Watershed Development
l1
Interest on
Grants               Revolving found (RF)
(WDF)
savings
I
Soft loans (village organizatio
n)
Grants (Federation or village/kebele organization)
Non-land based
Activities
Training and
Capacity building
Livestock — Al
Land-based Activities
Marketing
l~ Local barter Market
— Resource center
__ Out sourcing L (Service providers)
— Fodder Bank — Warehouse
Health care
L Value addition
Groups
Members
Product processing and
Figure 7.8 Fund flow
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8. ESTIMATION OF COST FOR WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT
May 2007
The estimation of costs  for the watershed management component has  been made based or the standard work  norms  developed for soil and water conservation measures  and later revised in 2000 by  the then Ministry  of Agriculture in cooperation with WFP The work  norms  are given in Annexure A/5. The cost estimation is  categorized under three items, i.e. i) costs  for civil works, ii) costs for inputs and iii) costs for training and running costs.
Table 8.1 Costs for Civil works
Type of activity
Unit
Quantity
Unit cost*
(Birr)
Total  cost (Binj’000’
Remark
Soil bund
PD
8213955
10
82139 6
Fanya juu terrace
PD
3314000
10
33140
SS dams
PD
1440
10
14.4
Cutoff drain construction
PD
1877485.7
10
18774 8
Grassed waterways
PD
12800
10
128
Stone check dams
PD
742
10
7.42
Live check dams
PD
862
10
8.62
Grass strips along contours
PD
618480
10
6184.8
Compost making
PD
100000
10
1000
Nursery rehabilitation
No
18
10,000
180
Nursery establishment
No
10
20,000
200
Seed collection
- Trees
- Legumes
. Grasses
- Fruit trees
PD
PD
PD
PD
10
10
10
10
300
25
5
130
Pitting
PD
10
73333.3
"Seedling production
PD
10
15000
^Seedling plantation
PD
1800000
10
18000
Access road
PD
10
28620
^Springdevelopment
PD
30000 2500
500 13000
7333333 1500000
2862000 17000
10
170
'Subtotal
^Unit cost of 1PD is 10B,rr
27711086
277360.9
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Table 8.2 Costs for Inputs and materials
May 2007
Unit I Quantity
Remark
Type of
^ input/material
i Clinometers
' Water level
I Altimeter
' Compass
I Measuring tape(50m) Axe
; Hoe
I Rake
I Shovel
; Handsaw
i Watering can Wheelbarrow
I Root pruning scissors j Garden hose
; Hammer
' Sickle
: Garden fork
I Spray (nap sack)
I Sharpening file Barbed wire Polythene tube Fertilizer Chemicals
Sub-total
1.25
1.35
1.25 1
1.25 13.2 0.54
20000 1000
55 5,000
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Table 8.3 Stationary and other items
May 2007
Items                   Unit    Quantity
Unit cost      Total cos (Birr)     ' (Birr)’OOO
t        Remark
i Stationary
Scientific calculator Digital Camera
Hand bag
Motor bicycle Double-cup Vehicle
-
No.
No.
No.
No
No.
40
10
1000
20
9
100
120               4.8
5000    '           50
200              200
45000              900
450000            4050
Sub-total
5304.8
Table 8.4 Salary, Per Diem and transportation
Title
Description
Cost
(Birr)’OOO’
Salary
Two experts for each Woreda recruited 9x2000x12x6
One coordinator at the region
1x2500x12x6
1296
180
Per Diem
Three experts from each Woreda for 30 days per year 3x9x100x30x6
486
10 drivers for 30 days each year
10x70x30x6
126
Two experts from the Region for 20 days each year
2x100x20x6
24
Training of DA’s for 20 days. 4 DA’s from each Woreda
4X9X70x20
50.4
Training  of  1000  farmers  each  year  for  five years for five days
1000x50x5x5
1250
Transportation
Fuel, ointment, etc
100
<
Sub-total
3512.4
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Table 8.5 Summary of costs
May 2007
Nc
Description
Cost
(Birrj'OOO’
1
Watershed treatment activities
277360.9
2
Inputs and materials
775.04
3
Stationary and other items
5304.8
4
Salary, Per Diem and transportation
3512.4
total
286953.1I
Contingency (5%)
14347.655
Grand total
301300.755
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9. BENEFITS EXPECTED
May 2007
The benefits of watershed management interventions could be qualitative and quantitative. The quantitative benefits include the gain in economic terms from the implemented measures, which requires the comparison of the total cost incurred to develop a certain measure and the benefit obtained   after   the   measure   is   being   in   place.   This   involves   cost-benefit   analysis   of   the measures.  The  qualitative  benefits  involve  the  benefits  that  may  not  be  easily  or  directly quantified  in  monetary  terms.  For  example,  the  cooling  effect  and  increase  in  concentration  of oxygen due to plantation of trees in a certain area. But the quantity of biomass production can be  quantified  directly.  In  spite  of  such  differences,  cost-benefit  analysis  of  such  programmes can  be  made  when  the  analysis  is  stretched  over  time.  That  is,  the  benefits  from  watershed management  interventions  would  accrue  not  so  much  to  the  present  generation  but  would  be enjoyed  more  by  future  generations.  Such  analysis  is  not  part  of  the  present  study.  However, the following on-farm benefits of watershed management are expected:
•  Stabilization  or  increase  in  crop  or  pasture  yields.  Stabilization  of  yield  refers  to  those situations  where  conservation  prevents  a  decline  in  yields  that  would  occur  if  erosion  is unchecked.  Increased  in  yield  can  also  come  from  improved  nutrient  supply  through organic matter, compost additions, agro-forestry, etc.
•    Improved livestock production from increased quantity and quality of fodder, for example from grass strips, alley cropping or bund embankments
•    Prevention of sedimentation of reservoir a nd i rrigation dam a 11 he downstream of t he watershed
•    Improved supply of fuel wood and construction materials
•    Increased income and employment
> Increased value of land and diversification of products from a single plot of land
•    Improvement in water supply owing to increased infiltration of rainfall and reduction in
run-off
Prevention of flooding of both the reservoir and command area Better accessibility to market outlets
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10. MONITORING AND EVALUATION
Monitoring and evaluation of performance of interventions implemented as watershed
May 2007
management programmes is an important tool to value the proper implementation and out puts and impacts  there after. Therefore, it should be considered with serious  attention. Through monitoring, raw data or information can be collected from the project area which at later time may be u sed f or e valuating t he s uccess a nd impact o f a project. Moreover, m onitoring is a management tool which facilitates  continued learning and provides  quality  information for evaluation, which is a process in which judgments on success and/or failures are made.
Monitoring  and  evaluation  of  the  performance  of  the  activities  during  implementation  and afterwards  should  be  participatory  for  ensuring  effective  watershed  management  programme. For the current project it is recommended to carry out continuous monitoring at various stages as the condition permits. Evaluation should be made at the end of every year or completion of the plan of work for the year. Moreover, the impacts of the interventions should be evaluated. The following indicators are suggested for monitoring and evaluation:
•    Amount of activities achieved against the plan
•    Maintenance and improvement in the land productivity
•    Improvement in livestock feed supply either in terms of quantity or quality
•    Decrease in soil erosion and reduction in sedimentation
•    Change in the livelihood of the community through a longer period
•    Increase in vegetal cover on forest and grazing lands and decrease in deforestation of forest areas
•    Availability of water and increase in the yield of springs
•    Change in awareness of the community towards the need for watershed management, and the number of farmers community who have adapted the interventions on their farm land where required
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REFERENCES
Anonymous  (2002)  Proceedings  of  a  workshop  on  Watershed  Approach  to  Water  Supply, Food   Security   and   natural   Resources   Management,   Oromia   water,   Minerals   and   Energy Resources Development Bureau, Finfme.
Barber,  R  (1984)  An  Assessment  of  the  Dominant  Soil  Degradation  Processes,  Ethiopian Highlands Reclamation Study, LURD, MoA, Addis Ababa.
BCEOM (1999) Data Collection, Site Investigation, Survey a nd Analysis, Abbay River Basin Integrated Development Master Plan Project, Vol. XIII, Part 1, MoWR, Addis Ababa.
BPEDO (2002) Statistical Abstract for Jimma Zone, Jimma.
CSA, 2005. Statistical Abstract, Central Statistical Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
CSE, 1989. Conservation S trategies of E thiopia, Transitional Government of Ethiopia, Addis Ababa.
Donals,B.T (1984) Soil and water Conservation in the Ethiopian Highlands-An Assessment of Requirements and Evaluation of Activities, Ethiopian Highlands reclamation Study. LUPRD
MoA, Addis Ababa,
H984) Strategy Proposals for soil and water conservation in the Ethiopian
Ethi°pia" Hi9h,andS reClama,i°"S,Udy’LUPRD' M°A'AddiS Ababa'
EEPA (2003). statetp of Environment Report for Ethiopia, Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority. Addis              Ethiopia.
J U. (I900/* L
i and classification for Use in soil Conservation, Community forests 
soil conservation Depnaprntnar,tment MoA, Assistance to Soil and Water Conservation Escobeou, • 
programme Pnhase II. Addis Ababa. Ethiopia.
Action Program (1994). Ministry of Natural Resources Development and
Ethiopian Fore* Environmental Pro
Volume II and Volume III, Final Report, EFAP Secretariat, Addis
-------- —waterworks Design & Supervision Enterprise
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I07Arjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
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Hurni, 1983. Soil Formation Rates in Ethiopia, Working paper 2, EHRS, MoA, Addis Ababa.
IBARRA, R et al (1984). Soil Conservation in Arjo, Wellega Region, EHRS, Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department of Ministry of Agriculture in Cooperation with FAO, Addis Ababa.
John et al (1984). Methodology for Sub-watershed Development Planning and Implementation, Field document no.2, Assistance to soil and water conservation programme phase II, Harar, Ethiopia
Merete, S (1985). Guidelines  for Description and Interpretation of Soil Properties  for Subwatershed Development Planning, Field Document No. 10, Community  Forestry  and Soil Conservation Department, MoA-FAO, Harar, Ethiopia.
MoARD (2005) Community Based Participatory Watershed Development: A Guideline. Part 1 first edition, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
MoARD (2004) Woody Biomoss Inventory and straleg c planni„g Pr0)ec, A
,
plan for Biomass energy sector, final report, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Morgan, R.P.C.(1986) Soil Erosion and Conservation. Longman, London
,
NEDECO  (1998).  Tekeze  River  Basin  Integrated  Development  Master  Plan  Report.  Vol  XVI Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
RCSO   (2000).   Th.   Resource   Base,   its   Utilization   a„d   Planning   for    Susla,nab,   R Conservation Strategy. Oromia National Regional Government. Finfinne
Solomon  Abate (1994). Land Use  Dynamics, Soil Degradation  and Potential for Sus Use in Metu Area, lllubabor Region, Ethiopia, University of Berne, Switzerland f USta'nable TIDEMAN, 1996. WATERSHED MANAGEMENT, Guidelines for Indian r .
Scientific publishers, New Delhi, India.
00 ltlons- O MEGA
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Annexes
Muy 2007
ANNEXURE A/1
S/
N
Station Jan
1 ' Agaro J 36.0
2  Bedele
3 Dembi
4 ; Jimma
Average  monthly  rainfall  of  stations  in  and  around  the  Arjo-Dedessa Watershed (mm)
102.1 23.6     70.0
Dec
39.7
96.8      168.8' 289.6 326.6 325.'
346.9,    314.9 216.1
188.3>   129.4   55.
L - - JI
37.6
38.1
___
Annexure A/2 Monthly maximum and minimum temperature of stations in and around the Arjo- Dedesa Watershed
I S/N Station
level     Jan   Feb           Mar Apr May    June    July     Aug
Sep      Oct
Nov
Dec
! 1   Agaro
Min.       10.3  i 10.4
11.8 11.6 12.3      11.8      11.9     12.0     12.0
11.8
11.1
10.4
Max.       28.9    30.8
30.5 29.9 29.3      27.7      27.0 L — J--------------------- L
27.1      27.7
28.2
28 7
28.5
Ave. 19.6 20.6 21.11 20.8 20.8 19.8
-------- I-
19.5
19.5! 19.9 --------- ---------- 1
20.0
19.9
19.5
Min.
Bedele
11.81 12.,
12.4 11.6           11.5
Max.
Ave.
27.11 29.3 28.4(
22.4
24.9 25.7
26.6
19.41 21.0, 21.2, 21.4 20.2I
18.6      17.7,
18 6      18.7
19.1
Dembi Min.
12.9 13.5/ 13.
11.7
Max.
27.8 29.4' 29.1
26.9
27.5
4
Ave.
Jimma ‘ Min.
Na na
8.9      8.4
28.9    30.9
18.9
na
12.1
na         na
27.9      28.4 18 6      18.4
= data not available for some months
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Annexure A/3 Design dimensions of spillways for SS dams for rainfall intensity of 100 -150mm/hr
(Adopted from CBPWD, 2005)
May 2007
Catchmer
t area
(Hectare)
1           Base width of spillway (b)
Medium runoff
coefficient (0.4)
High runoff
coefficient (0.7)
Depth of flow
Total depth
|2
0.8
1.1
0.30
0 70
3
0.9
1.4
0 30
0.70
4
0.9
1.4
0.35
0.75
5
1.0
1.6
0 40
0 80
6
1.0
1.6
0 50
0 90
8
10
18 [
0 55
1 00
10
1.0
2.1
0.60
1 05
12
1.0 l
2.2
0 60
1 10
14
1.1
2.5
0 60
1.20
16
18"
To"
1.1
2.7
iT                                             28
“T
TT
0.60
0 60
0 60
1 20
1.20
T(F
24"
28
T
— HF
36
4.4
T"
060
T
"To
1.25
0.70
1 30
T
T
T"
0 70
1 30
61
0.75
T
"45“
To"
TF
TF
3.2
T"
7.0
0 75
1.35
“50”
42 ”
0 75
1 35
"60”
0 75
1 35
T“
1 40
80
80
T"
TT“
7J
1 45
8.1
0.75
T
0.75
1 50
100
91
16 5
0 75
1 50
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Annexure A/4
Revised work norms for activities proposed
Activity
Unit
Work norm
Soil bund
PD/Km
150PD/KM
Stone bund
PD/Km
250PD/Km
Planting on bund
PD/Km
16PD/Km
Cut-off drain construction
MJ/PD
0.70mJ/PD
Grassed waterway construction
m7pd
1.0mJ/PD
Stone check dam construction
MJ/PD
0.5 M7PD
Seedling production
PD/1000seedling
15PD/1000
Pitting
PD/Pits
1PD15Pits
Tree seed collection
PD/Kg
20PD/Kg
Grass/legume seed collection
PD/Kg
10PD/Kg
Seedling planting
PD/Plants
1PD/50 plants
Site guarding
PD/Ha/year
4PO/Ha/year
Spring development
-
1700PD/spnng
Compost making (heap:4mLx2mWx1.5mD)
-
1 PD/linear meter
Alley cropping
-
10PD/Km
Grass strips
PD/Km
30PD/Km
SS dam
1PD/0 75m earth/stone work
SS dam spillway construction
J
PD/0.5m spillway
■
- - - - - Waterworks Design & Supervision Enterprise ~~
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111Krjo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
M4NEXURE. AJ5 Recommended Species for Plating
May 2007
Ho.
Species
\ Pre
Uses
1     \ Acacia abyssinica
2     \ A saiigna
3     \ Alortihs
\      4 A Albina tbbek
\     5     \ Albina schimpenana
\     6     \ Apodyles dimidiate
\     7     \ Arundinana alpine
\     8     \ Arundo donax
\     9     \ Azadirachte tndica
\    10    \ Casuanna equiserrtolia
11 i Ekebergia capensis
12 i Enlada abyssinica
13    \ Erythnna abyssinica
14    t    3roton macrostechys
\ S aw timber               F uel wood
18-28
-1
X
X
1X
X
XtX
IX
xL           X
X
Fodder
X
X
X
X
X
X
N-fixing
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
5-18
6-18
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
15
16
17
18
19
Dodoma anguislrfolia
Ekebergia capensis
Enlada abyssinica
Erythnna abyssinica
Eucaly ptus camaldulensis
20
10-22
10-40
r
21
E globules
Euphorbia candelabrum
22        Grevillea robusta
5-10
23        Hagema abyssinica
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
_______________
X
X
X
X
X
24
25
------ ------------ —------------------------ Jumperus procera
Leucaena leucocephala
X
X
X
X
Protection
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Others
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-------------------- 1
X
X
—
X
X
X
26        Melia azadarach
X
X
X
X
27        Millettia fenuginea 28        Olea europea
X
X
X
7Q
1---------------
Phoenix rnclinala
X
Id
31 Producarpus falcatus
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
32        Rhamnus pnnoides
—
X
33
Sesbama sesban
•------ -■
34        Syzygiunr guineanse
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
35
Elephant grases
Water Works Design & Supervision Enterprise
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112^nnexure
Name
of
Cropy ^*ce(oryza- sativa) subgroups 
i »ndica &
I japomca
I Locally called i “Huz"
Climatic Need
IOn Pract'ces Of Crops
Land
Pr eparation
Sowing
times &
method
Seed
rate
< Q/ha)
k
Nutrient
needs
(kg/ha)
Inter
culture
Varieties ot
'ndicas and Japonicas Need Introduction and evaluation in the region of Ethiopia 'mmediately Photo insensitive Semi-dwarf vaneties
'rrigatlo
n&
Water
Diseases
& Pests
Tempera-lure between 13.
30 c , altitude U P to 2500m above mean sea level. Adequate water
textured, low
Permeabu ity, pH ranging
4 0 to 8 5
2-3 ploughing, flooding to a depth of 15 to 25 cm water and puddling
Transplanting 2-3 seedlings Per hill at 20 to 25 cm spacing or direct seeding in
rows 15-20 cm apart in June- July or Dec Jan
25-30 for Nursery, Direct seeding 80 90 kg
90-100kg N.
40-45kg P2O5& 30-40kg K?O as per soil test.
Manual seeding °r use of herbicide
like Butachlor
1 5 kg a.i lor weed control or see the text for details
K eep the soil near saturation through out the growing period Depth of irrigation 5-10 cm each time.
Harvest!
&
Yield
—dg/ha) Low kernels of panicles hard dough, yellow color and droop down 50-60 and some times 70 quintals or more with good
managemen
June-July or
pest are
From sea
Dec-Jan
stalk borer,
Dent & Flint corn hybridsand composites of medium duration
High yielding varieties and hybnds Alemaya- 70 and others
level to
2400m above s .i. sun and water loving with mean daily temperature
I of 20°c or even more
Drought tolerant, grows up to 2000m above mean sea
100-120
African boil
Maize (Zea mays)  Local "Bekolo"
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolorjocal
Deep heavy clay to light soil but well drained, with PH’ range
from 6-8
Fine seed bed. tree from wead. one deep ploughing followed by 2- 3 harrowings
June-July
crop at 70cm x 20cm and Dec Jan crop al 60 x 18 cm spacing 4 to 5 cm deep planting
May-June with first rain and Dec-Jan with irrigation with Inter crops. Line
20-25kg
Grows on wide range of soil, best on
kg N,
2O-40kg P2O5 and 3O-40kg K2O, 10- 15kg Zinc sulphate or As per soil test result
Use of Atrazine @ 1-1.5 kg/ha w.p or manual 2-3 weeding followed by earthing
Orie deep plughing followed by 2 to
1_3 harrowingto
Harvest at physiological matunty stage containing 25-30% moisture . Veld 30-35 quintals or 40-50 Quintals
60-70kgN 20-40kg p 2O5 and 40-80kg
j_K‘PL°r
;erprise
500-800 mm depending upon the climatic conditions 
•Avoid water ioggmg, 6- 7 'rogation 450 to 650 mm, mainly minfed 25- 30 quintals
Different species of hoppers and blight are common insect-pests and
diseases see details and control measures in the text.
Main Insect
worm, maize aphids, Army worm
and main
diseases are southern com blight and Brown spot Use control measure.
15-20kg
Application of Atrazine @ 1 Okg /ha W P or 2-3
When seed attain about 15-20% moisture and
er
Wa J   Works Design & Supervisi^t
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Major Insets are stalk borer and
_ st s.roMraaginepest 113Krjo Dedessa Irrigation Project Catchments Development Plan
May 2007
name “Zengada"
medium
break clods.
sown or
based on
texture -
broadcast
yellow
soil. PM
soil fertilily 
mechanical weeding
spacing 45cm x 
6.0 to 8.5
status
5 cm or 75cm x 
10 cm.
diseases are red, rot, foliar disease smut and grain mould, for control measure sea the text
Wheat
(I nticum aesbvum)
(T nticum durum) Local name "Sinde"
High yielding semi-dwad varieties of both species suitable to the area after
Temperature between 12.5 to 22 5° c at
1500 to
2600m above mean sea level
Wide range of soil from sandy to clayey, PM 6.0 to 8.0
Pulvensed soil with good tilth the. One deep ploughing and 4-5 harrowings for good plant stand
June to July and Nov.- December, seed sown in lines by drill 22.5cm apart
100-125 kg to 125- 130kg
80-120kg N, P and K as per the soil test Green manaring very use -
About
500-
700mm, 5- 6 irrigation during Nov. planted crop. See stages in text
Harvest when grains are dry with dry plants 40-45 quintal or more with good managemen
Is.
5       Barley (Hordeum vulgare) Local name “gebis"
One or
two weeding
or use of herbicide
1-2 weeding manually or chemicals like 2,4-D
@0.5 kg
a.i or Met-
Mainly disease problems like leaf and stem rust and loose smut See control measure
from text
sulfuron
Latest high yielding varieties of food types or malting type
Sandy loam to clayey soil P* with, 6.5 to 8.0,
.Adaptabl e to even marginal land.
June-July and Dec sowing in line 22.5 cm apart by seed drill or broad cast method Depth of seeding 5-8cm for rainfed
60kg N.
30kg P2O5 and K2O
and pendi
methaline
as per the soil test
s as given      350-550
I in text
mm.
When plants turn yellow and dry 25- 30 quintal
One or
Teff
20-30kg N
two
(Eragrostis 
teff) or Eabby 
+ 20- 4okg
manual
weeding
6
ssinica) Local
Dz-01-354. Dz-01-99.
P2O5 in
depending
name’ tef ’
Dz-01,787
Dz-01-196
Temperature 7.5 to 22.5 oc at 150° to 5000m above mean sea level
Average Temperature 15°-20°c at 1000 to 2400 m above sea level
Heavy 
textured
soil with PH 6-7.
Well
pulvenzed soil with good tilth, one deep ploughing followed by 2- 3 harrowings
Well pulvenzed soil with good tilth.
3-4 ploughings  or harrowings
July, by broad cast method
20-30kg
rainfall
per ha
assured
on weed
area
intensity.
Water Works Design & Supervision Enterprise
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Aphids, covered and loose smut, yellow rust etc. For control measures 
see the text.
Well bush cricket, Epilachna. Red left worm
| Diseases 
■ are
| Damping I off. Rust
114Ar Jo Be dess a Irrigation Project Catchments Development Plan
Finger millet (Eleucine coracana)
local name ’Dagussa’
Grown
on all
type of soils clay to sandy loam with PH 6.5 to 85
Does well
on all
(See text for control measure) Ear cater pillar, stem borer, leaf aphids.. Army 
worms and
cut worms 
Improved vanety
of the local area
Wide adaptability but above
15°c temp., upto 2500m above sea level
Requires smooth seed bed with fine
Sown any time of the year but rain fed crop sown in
When plants 
June-July by broad-cast
June-July and Dec -January planted in rows 40-50cm apart or broad cast sowing
NPK at the rate of 50 + 40 ♦ 25kg.
effective hand weeding
are yellow
Diseases 
and fingers 
are blast,
or head
brown spot
turns grey
and streak 
virus.
types of
Temperature
soils with
Field peas (pisum satiuum) Local name ’Ater’
Two vaneties 
10°c - 23°c 
pH
recommended
at 1800-
ranging
for the area Adel-
3200m above
from 5 5-
1 and sefmesh
sea level
7.0
Requires thorough field preparation with 2-3 ploughing and harrowings.
40kgN+
40-60 kg
P2O5 + 80- 150 kg
weeding
required
Harvested when plants are half dry & pods dry 15-20 q/ha
Requires deep
Chick Pea (Cicer arietmum) Local
name.'Shimbr
heavy 
When plants turn yellow and pods dry. 20-25 quintal
Lentil (Lens esculenta) Local name Misir’
Improve varieties should be grown
Only one good variety NEL-358 More may be introduced
Temperature between 15°- 25°c at the altitude of
1200-2800m above sea level
Temperature 15°-25° at 1800-3200m above sea level
soils with good water retaining capacity and PH 6- 7
Grown on wide range of soils, light loam to
[ black
Requires rough field preparation one or two ploughing or harrowing are enough.
August-Sept and December January
Broad cast or drill sown. 6-8 cm deep 30cm x 5-6 cm
15-20kg N* 40kg P Os
2
weeding 3 weeks 
after sowing enough
Doe not require very thorough land preparation but it should be weed free.
June-July and Dec-January Broadcast or line sowing at 25-30 cm row spacing
weeding
30-40kg
irrigation in dry season
350-550 mm but first irrigation 45days after
When plants turn brown and seeds dry 10-15 quintal
Pea aphids,
and pod
borer.
Diseases 
are powdery mildew leaf Spot
Cutworm
and
diseases 
are root wilt, collar rot
and wilt,
i control measures 
as 
suggested
fed in text
Pests is pea aphid and diseases like wilt, root rot. blight
I and rust J (see text for |
____
I 1
Water Works Design & Supervision Enterprise
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115Arjo Dodessa Irrigation Project Catchments Development Plan
2-3 harrowing
sowing
control)
Grown  on
wide | range of I
soils. 1
medium I
(
textured
weeding,
first 3-4
deep
weeks 
after
350-
Temperature
sandy 
One deep
550mm
Faba beans 
ploughing with
sowing
but first
When the
(vtcia faba)
10-20°c at
loam to
1800-3200m
June by 
clay loam
2-3 harrowing
and 2* 6-
irrigation
plants gels 
Insect pests 
Local name
Nc-58 and other
above sea
with PH
to have land
broadcast or
drill at 40cm x 
20-30kg
8 weeks 
after
45days
after
yellow and
pod borer,
Bakela*
varieties
level
5.5 to 6.5
i free from clods 
5cm spacing
N+ 20-
sowing
sowing
start drying
20-25 quintal
and disease
I and weeds
40kg P O
is rust
Hancot bean (phaseolus vulgaris ) Local name 'Boloke'
There are large number of varieties but improved one suit able foi area to be grown
Temperature 15-25°c at 1400-2100 m above sea level
Grown on wide range of soils light sandy to heavy clay PH 5 5 to 6.5
No need of fine filth. One ploughing and 2 harrowing free from weeds and big clods
June-July and December by broad cast and line sowing Duration vary from 80 days at 1200m. to 115 days at 2200m spacing 40-60cm x 7-
15cm
2?
40-60kg
20-30 kgN+ 40- 60 kg
P2O5
One weeding
3-4 weeks after sowing
300-500 mm Irngation at 5 critical stages of plant growth
Green pods 3-4 pickings. For seed harvested when leaves turn yellow and plants start drying,
15-20 quintal
Pests are Beetle, Jassids bean fly. bollworm Diseases are bean rot leaf spot, bacterial blight.
13
1-2 hoeing for weed control
' and earthling
| up
14
Ground nut (Arachis hypogaea) Local name Lewlh or ocholoni
Linseed (Linum usitatissi- mum) Local
Vaneties belong to two groups bunch and spreading more verieties to be introduced
Temperature 18-20°c at 1500 m above sea level
Required well pulverized good soil tilth One deep ploughing with 2-3 harrowings
100- 120kg kernels
20-40kg
N* 40-
60kg
P2O5 *
20-40kg
K2O + 4 quintal
i gypsum at I pegging.
500-
700mm at various critical growth stages
Yellowing of leaves and leaf shedding, dark tint color inside the shell. 30- 40 quintal
Introduction of good varieties for the area
Temperature 15-21 °c. at 1800-3000m asl
Grown on vide variety of soil types bul deep sandy loam is best
Grows all type of soils with pit 5-7
Well prepared weed and clod free soil one ploughing and 2-3
June- July and Dec -January Line sowing at 30-45 cm x 15cm for spreading and 20-30cm x 10- 15 cm bunch. Or 22.5cm x 1ocm
June-July or Dec. Broad cost or line sown 30cm apart harrowings
30-40 kg N ♦ 20- 30kg
P2O5 + 30kg suphur
350 - 500 mm/seaso n
When plants tern yellow
12-15 quaintal
1
Water Works Design & Supervision Enterprise
2
weeding,
1st 3-4 week of sowing and 2nd 6-
Pests are Aphids. African bollworm, pod borer and termite and major disease is rust.
Aphids and leaf roller. Diseases are rust and
i wilt
116
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Catchments Development Plan
Name T etba
weeks.
Sesame (Sesamum indicum)
Local name
Introduction o(
nets variety 
required
Susccefitable to frost. Temperature
15-20°c
Grown on sandy worn to heavy soils PH 5.5 to 8.2
pulverinzed
with fine/ tilth needed one deep ploughing with 2-3 harrowing Good land preparation needed with deep ploughing followed by 2- 3 harrowing and good leveling
June-July Nov- Dec. sown as broad cast
Depends, on variety and season 10 tons of
FYM+ 20kg N ♦
sulphur
Grown on variety of soils sandy loam to clay loam with PH rang 6.0- 7.5
weeding to keep the field free from weed, up to 25 days after sowing
irrigation given at critical stags of plant growth like flowering capsule formation and seed filling
When  plants turn yellow
12-15 quintal
Leaf roller capsule borer. Gall fly. cater pillor Diseases are seedling blight, bacterial blight, leaf spot, stem and root rot. phylloidy.
16
Niger
(Guizotia abyssimca) local name
‘Noug’
Only local
variety. No improved variety available
Temperature (7.5 -25°) al 1500- 2400m above sea level
Broad cast method of sowing or drilling in rows 30cm x 3cm in June or early
40-60 kg N+ 20-
20-25kg | 30kg P2O5
weeding and hoeing 3-4 weeks after sowing
Grown on variety of soils with moisture retaring capacity PG 6.5 to 7.5 Grown on wide range of soil
Noug fly and higer caterpillar Diseases are stem or leaf blight and downy mildew.
17
Rape seed and mustard (Brassica spp.) Local
name
‘Gomenzer’
T emperature s 15°c-20°c at altitude
1700 -3000. sensitive to frost.
Temperature 18°-25°c at altitude of 1100-2200m
Early June and January Broadcasting or line sown at 30-40 cm x 10- 15 cm spacing
One or
300-500 mm season
350-500
I mm at
When plants 
show golden
yellow color
8-10 quintal
two
I flowing
Introduction of improved varieties needed
Requires fine tilth one deep ploughing with 3-4 harrowings needed together free from weeds and clods
Grown on friable and weed free soil
I btained
' by 3-4.
| harrowings
40-50kg
hoeing
I and fod
l Cabbage
1 When plants      aphlids and 1 begin to turn   1 diamond
N+ 50-60
and
1 filling
kg P O
25
weeding
1 stages
Sun flower (Helianthus annus) Local name
’Suff
Number of
Introduced varieties and hybrids to be
grown
June - July or Dec.-January 
Drilled in line 40-60 cm row distance 15- 20cm planUo
2 hoeing
600-800
and
mm at
18
weeding
least 4
borer,
\
20kg
P2Os +
25 and 45
times at
above sea 1 coconnddition
level and free [ wiwtlqith PH 6
days after
critical
1 yellow. 15-
I 20 quintal
When plants get yellow color and leaves start
back moth.
1 Disease is
1 leaf spot
Cut worm. I caplull um I
40 kg N>
tobacco        I caterpillar, I
40kg K2O
sowing
growth
Water Works Design & Supervision Enterprise
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shedding 15- \ green semi- 117
ihjAr jo Dedessa Irrigation Project
Catchments Development Plan
May 2007
from long
-7.5
plant spacing
with the          s
>tages          2
0 quintals         k
soper, leaf
frost
F
>ractice of jarthling
jp of 60-
PO cm tall plants           •
t V
I
k
>opper
vhite fly 
diseases 
are leaf
slight. Rust. Root and <
collar rot.
Ddwny muildew,        y head rot
A^^1             1
19
Safflower (carthamus tinetorius) Local name
Use of improved varieties and
hybrids
Temperature 15-25°c Does not favor extreme of cold and heat
Fertile, deep well drained heavy soil with PH 5-8, salt tolerant crop
Requires clod- free seed bed. one ploughing with 3-4
harrowing, clean seed
bed
June, Dec-Jan, Drilled at the spacing of 30- 40cm to
achieve,
110,000
plants/ha
8-10kg
30-50kg
N+ 15-20 kg sulphur + P2O5 as per soil
test
One
weeding enough
Rainfed
on
residual moisture as inter
crop
When plants start drying
15-20
quintals
Aphids.caps 
ule borer
diseases 
are
Alternaria          . * leaf spot. _ 1
rust, wilt
roots rot.
1 20
Potato
(Solanum tuberosum) local name
'Tinich'
Local and Imported. Need to have more
variety
Temperature 15°-25°c,
more
tuberization below 21 °c in short day conditions
Grows on all types of soil but well
drained loam best Ph5.5 -
7.5
Requires good seed bed free from weeds and clods, one deep ploughing and 3-4 harrowings
Can be planted in August and December- January in rows 60cm apart at 20cm from tuber to
tuber
25-35
quintal
120-150kg N* 45kg
P2O5 ♦ 100-115kg K2O
One
weeding
and
earthing up when plants are 8-10cm
tall.
Irrigation immediate ly after
planting and al 12-
15 days interval
(22.25
mm)
As soon as plants gel yellows and tubers mature 300- 350 quintals
Late and
early blight,
leaf spot
complex,
stem can
keer. will,
soft rot,
common
scab,
crinkle
mosaic.
Aphids,
tuber moth,
cut worm
Li
2’ (
c
)nion (Allium epa)Local
ame
Jhinkurt’
— 1
Local and mported. Need o have more
/ariety
Temperature 160c°-25°c. more Ideal tern. 12.8°c-
21°c
Grows on all soils but deep friable soils are best. PH 5.8-65.
Requires well prepared, weed free seed bed for transplanting the seedlings 7-8 weeks old
Can be planted in June-July and January at 30-35 cm apart in line.
10-15
kg
150 kg N* 50kg P+ 50kg K
Kept weed free at
initial stage. Us of stomp at 3.5 lite
| per ha
Frequent and light
e irrigation
required (12.5 mm
When leaf starts falling and dry 150
- 180
) quintals
Thrips, mite, 1 onion fly.
I cutworm
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118

Summery

Project Overview

The Arjo-Dedessa Irrigation Project is a comprehensive development initiative in Ethiopia's Oromia Region, focusing on natural resource management, forestry, energy, and watershed development. The project aims to enhance agricultural productivity while ensuring sustainable resource use.

Key Components

Component	Key Focus Areas
Forestry	Conservation, agroforestry, species selection, and management plans to address deforestation
Energy	Assessment of energy needs, biomass resources, and sustainable energy strategies
Watershed Development	Soil conservation, land management, and water resource protection

Key Findings

Ethiopia has experienced significant deforestation (150,000-200,000 ha/year)
Project area has 14.1% forest cover, under pressure from agriculture expansion
Households rely heavily on woody biomass for fuel (12-15kg wood/day)
Watershed faces soil erosion, land degradation, and improper land use

Proposed Interventions

Forest conservation and sustainable management
Agroforestry development with multipurpose species
Soil and water conservation measures
Improved energy technologies (efficient stoves)
Watershed protection and rehabilitation
Capacity building and community participation

Implementation Plan

The project proposes a 4-year implementation period with:

Establishment of 18 state and 10 farmers' nurseries
Production of 56 million seedlings
Planting on 16,800 hectares
Total estimated investment of ~$4.84 million USD

Expected Benefits

Improved watershed protection and reduced sedimentation
Sustainable forest resource management
Enhanced agricultural productivity
Better energy access and efficiency
Improved livelihoods for local communities