IMPERIAL ETHIOPIAN GOVERNMENT
AWASH VALLEY AUTHOR nA'
ADDIS ABABA
MELKA SADI-AMIBARA PROPOSED IRRIGATION PROJECT
FEASIBILITY STUDY
PART II
STUDIES AND SURVEYS
VOL 7 - SOCIOLOG ICAL AND HEALTH ASPECTSCONTENTS
PART I -
PART II -
GENERAL REPORT
STUDIES AND SURVEYS
VOL. I - HYDROLOGY AND CLIMATOLOGY VOL. 2 - SOIL SCIENCE
VOL. 3         -     GEOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY VOL. 4         -     IRRIGATION ENGINEERING VOL. 5 - AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK
VOL. 6 - ECONOMIC AND FINANCIAL ASPECTS VOL. 7 - SOCIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH ASPECTS
PART III-              OUTLINE OF THE PROJECTIMPERIAL ETHIOPIAN GOVERNMENT
AWASH VALLEY AUTHOR TTY
ADDIS ABABA
MELKA SAD1-AM1BARA PROPOSED
IRRIGATION PROJECT
FEASIBILITY STUDY
PART 11
STUDIES AND SURVEYS
VOL 7 - SOCIOLOGICAL AND HEALTH ASPECTS
ITALCONSIJLT
Rome, July 1969CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SETTLING
SMALL FARMERS
2. 1 SCOPE
2. 2 SOURCES
2.3        THE GROUPS TO BE SETTLED
2. 3. 1 The Afar
2. 3. 2 The Highlanders
2. 3. 3 The Cultural Gap
2.4        THE PROBLEMS OF THE REQUIRED CULTURE CHANGE
2. 4. 1 The Change of Diet and Physical Effort 2. 4. 2 The Change to Agricultural Life
2. 4. 3 Fitting into Commercial Agriculture
2. 4.4 Operating a Modern Organizational
Frame
2. 4. 5 A New Associational Life
2. 5 THE MEANS FOR SUPPORTING THE CULTURE CHANGE
2. 5. 1 Framework of the Settlement
2. 5. 2 Timing and Phasing
2. 5. 3 Training
2, 5. 4 Technical Assistance
2. 5. 5 Incentives
2. 5. 6 Livestock in the Settlement Scheme. 
Provision of Milk
2.6 PRELIMINARY FEATURES OF THE PROJECT 2. 6. 1 Age of Candidates and Composition 
of the Families2.6.2
2.6. 3
2.6.4
2. 6. 5
3, HEALTH ASPECTS
Estimated Productivity
Size of Holdings and Choice of Cropping Patterns
Integration of Labor I orce Intermingling
3. 1 PRESENT CONDITIONS
3. 2 FUTURE POSSIBILITIES FOR THE AREA 3.3 FUTURE POPULATION OF THE AR EA
Page 27
30
32
32
36 36 43
43
TABLES
1       - RIVER LOOPS
2        - MILK. AND TO A LESSER EXTENT MEAT PRODUCTION
IN THE AFAR SETTLEMENT VILLAGES
3        - FORECASTED PRODUCTIVITY OF THE AFAR FAMILY
4  - FORECASTED PRODUCTIVITY OF THE HIGHLANDER FAMILY
5        - MONTHLY WORK HOUR REQUIREMENTS HOURS/MONTH UNSKILLED
6        - COMPARISON BETWEEN SIZE OF HOLDINGS AND CROPPING PATTERNS
7        - MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS
- CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND CALORIE VALUE PER 100 c
OF VARIOUS TYPES OF MILK
R
9 
- DISEASES CLINICALLY EXAMINED
10 
- CALORIES PER 1 00 g OF SOME FOODS1. INTRODUCTION
This volume gives the basic facts regarding the sociological conditions in the Project Area, and indicates the main avenues to be followed in considering the possibility of implementing a settlement scheme for small farmers. The second part of the volume concerns the health aspects
of the Project Area and indicates the major effects that modern-type irrigation can have.
As for other aspects of this report, the emphasis throughout this volume is less one on description of existing or Likely future conditions, and much more one on pinpointing the major problem areas that have required the Consultants' special attention.
For a fuller description of the social phenomena, recourse can be had to the reports on sociological aspects provided to AVA by FAO experts. Such reports competently illustrate the present social stage of the Project Area, and have been taken as a basis for the elaborations which follow.- 2 -
2.
SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SETTLING SMALL FARMERS
2. 1 SCOPE
In the Project Area,nearly 30% of the gross area has been allocated by AVA to a settlement scheme destined in the fol lowing order of priority, to:
a)
b)
the     Afar     pastoral     population     which     exploited     the     Area     up to now, and
farming families coming from the overpopulated Highlands.
The scope of the following section is to describe the conditions of such a settlement project and to evaluate its feasibility, from a sociological viewpoint.
2.2 SOURCES
The studies and the analyses included herein are supported by: a) bibliographic references:
Report on "The Economy of Ethiopia”. IBRD; Survey of the Awash River Basin, UNSF-FAO;
Report    to    FAO Awash Valley d
on      social      problems      connected      with      the evelopment, by Prof. Van Lier;
Report    on    settlement    in    the    Awash    Valley,    by    H.    G. Levy, FAO;
Writings on settlement experiences in North .Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia in ”R6vue interna tionale des Sciences Socinles'1 - Unesco;
Reports on Settlement Projects in Saudi Arabia;- 3 -
”Gli Etiopici” by  Puccioni ’’The Galla of Ethiopia" by Inst. , London;
and Grottanelli, UTET; Huntingford. Intern. Afr
b)
-Missione di studio al Iago Tana", by Grottanelli Royal Accademy of Italy;
"Land Tenure in Chore (Shoa)", by H. S. Maun;
"Desert and forest", by Nesbitt, 1 929.
VisitB to. and direct information from, the following zones:
AVA Settlement Pilot Scheme. Amibara;
AVA Settlement Scheme, Dubti. Aoussa;
AVA Extension Scheme, Assaita, Aoussa: Community Center of Gewani (Min. of Community Dev. );
Settlement Scheme in Arba Minch (Regional Govern. )
Settlement Scheme in Wollamo Soddo (Regional Govern.) Awasa Community Dev. Training Center (Min. of Community Dev. ).
c) Contacts with management personnel of the following organizations:
AVA;
FAO/UNDP Mission;
Mini.,,, of Community D.veIopme
„  and Social Affairs
t
Ministry of Education; Ail4 Selassie University.the GROUPS
TO BE SETTLED
The Afar
the opposite bank of the Awash.
Clanic organization is still effective, but the basic social unit
is generally the extended family, composed of few nuclear
families.
The      whole      group      is      Muslim,      polygamic;      almost      100%      illiterate; very few apeak also Amhara or Galla.
The Afar have been mere pastoralists until this decade: their
seasonal wandering for pasture and water between the right
bank of the Awash (6-8 months) and the Aledeghi plains (4-6 
months), forced them to permanent semi-nomadism. This
trend and the complete ignorance of agriculture emphasized 
their dependence on cattle and on a diet mainly based on milk, 
whilst limiting their handicraft almost exclusively to primitive
huts, and to making milking pots. Their only marketable pro-
duct    -    animal    ghee    -    helped    them    in    getting    the    few    cotton    clothes they wear, iron spear-points, knives and guns and a little durrah- 5 -
r i:/  was suddenly up-
e
In the 6O's the Afar isolation an W^werful actors: men and set by the intrusion of
and irrigation. Faced
machines employed in lan 
traditional pasture lands, the
Afar reacted by asking f
labor to the newcomers: thence came Scheme of the AVA.
2, 3. 2 The Highlanders
with      the      danger      of      lo®‘^      seltlement      and      by      offering      hired 
pilot Settlement
Although the general term Highlander covers populations of
Considerable Ethnic and cultural divnr.it,. it also ind.cates
some common characteristics of all the rural groups of the
Highlands.
In fact, they all practise traditional agriculture - almost always
cereal growing - mostly combined with herding. Their basic
social unit is the nuclear family (from 4. 4 to 5. 0 members on 
average per family). The majority are ChristianB, and speak 
or understand Amharic. Most of them are illiterate.
On account of the archaic land tenure system, aggravated by 
the pressure of the increasing population, about 2/3rds of the
families own less than 1. 5 ha of land, an area insufficient, be
cause of the low productivity, to ensure subsistence, This has
led to a widespread tendency to supplement family incomes by 
short term letting.
A,  >r«>uU or Ihi.  precarious situation,  there Is a powerful
X'dt'I’i. 
») Immigration to the town
—: —- -
Ag"™’   “ "
d
National   and 
wi'.MnX’ rahe'Z'Tn thh*, 'enlXbt'r b *“«“?•
in excess of the Area's
s
•                iH be grjUJ-ttyi—-
Cnt 9cherne w
could be supplied from all
th    I   1
a    d       ln
"  ^'    'l^trfj the',' • Nire
Considering      only      the      surrounding      regions      on      which      data      a
are
available     (Shoa     and     Arussi),     it     may     be     noted     that     there     ar
more than  70,  000  households without land  in  these two  regions(l
No  data
the two L
Sina and 
and Ar ba
the
 J t rural populations who live between are
are    available    on 
banks of the Awash Valley and the Highlands - the Debre Ankober (Shoa) area on the left; the Tafari Birhan 
(Arussi and Harar) on the right.
It may be assumed that the greatest flow of Highlanders wishing to settle in the Awash could come from the latter areas, whose rural population, especially the Galla, is very poor.
The Cultural Gap
The gap between the conditions of departure of the groups to be settled and the point of arrival of the Settlement Scheme - cooperative self-management of industrial agriculture - raises many preliminary problems. Essentially it is a question of a cultural gap which could be overcome by a long and difficult process of cultural change, should the necessary steps be taken to facilitate this.
The following paragraphs will, in fact, deal with the various aspect inherent to the Project of culture change, and of the means suitable to foster this.
CHANGE
The Change of Diw nnd Physical Effort a) This problem essentially
concerns the Afar.
Under the original pastoral conditions the traditional diet
(of which extensive data arc not available) seems to con-
“) S" "The Ethiopia„
V °l- IL IBRD, 1967<- 7 -
sist of milk, meat and a possible supplement of durrah. 
The information collected converges in indicating an AveT' age consumption of 3-4 liters of milk per capita per day (I) (sheep's and goat's milk for children, cow's milk for adults, and camel's milk for male adults only), and over 50 kg of meat per year - especially for adult males - concentrat ed on special occasions (weddings, funerals and festivals).
This diet, according to the medical health reconnaissance, seems to fit the minimum physical effort of the African herdsman, but not to a greater and more sustained effort, such as that which would be called for by irrigated agri culture. The diet should thus be gradually modified. But changes in diet can only be achieved over a long period of years. This is necessary not only to allow for human or ganism to adapt itself to the new conditions of nutrition but also for psychological and cultural reasons.
With regard to the problems of modifying the diet, the on going Pilot Settlement Scheme does not provide a sufficient picture. The settled Afar families cannot bring their herds and flocks into the Study Area (only 4-5 sheep and goats) and should have an essentially cereal diet (receiving 1 ql. of maize a month per family). In fact, today the herds are within easy reach for their milk to be brought to the village, and it is not impossible for the maize to be bartered with milk, butter, durrah and other products. Indeed, a check made 3-4 dayB after the allocation of maize, showed that the families were then in possession of only l/3 of it.
In an other settlement experiment (involving 20 Afar fami - lies at Dubti, in the lower Awash), the herds were kept
tar from the village and from the cotton fields, and thus the bringing in of daily supplies was much harder.
>t, <.R
8        8Ure’ hOWeVer' 8eem3 contradiction both 
with the estimate of the cattle population and with the presumable carrying capacity of the Area used by theIn compensation, it often happens that the new farmers leave the settlement for a week or more. It seems that
the pretext given, to visit a sick relative hides a visit to the herds and a desultory’ but intensive supply of milk. Another type of subterfuge (this occurred on the day of the visit to Dubti) seems to be the "accidental” entry of the herds into the cotton growing district, i. e. nearer
the vi llage.
It is thus probable that the settled Afar families are organ ized so as to keep to their traditional diet as far as possible, and thus guarantee the gradual change over in their diet that the nutrition experts recommend.
An Afar head of family settled for 7 years at Assaita (where the population has been for a long time based on both herd ing and agriculture, unlike that of the Study Area), has given as the ideal diet of this family, besides maize,
1 liter of milk per head per day. In fact the settled Afars have entrusted their herd to relatives at a number of kilo meters from the agricultural zone and "from time to time" (so it is said) brought to the property a few milking cows for family requirements.
From this evidence it can be deduced that the nearness of the herds to the settlement, responds, in the first place, to a dietetic requirement. The problem in this case would consist in ensuring milk supplies, at least one liter per head per day, besides the milk of a few sheep and goats to be kept with the family.
The possible solutions of this problem are set out in para graph ’’Livestock in the Settlement Scheme, Provision of Milk”, below .
There remains the problem of physical effort, which is not only bound up with the change in diet, but also with the change in physical activity. At present the Afar adult does not expend physical energy beyond that required for walking and for the supervision and milking of his live stock. The physical efforts called for by the traditional- 9 -
« t life.-
xs: :°.maXXepx> 7^— agricultural work.
A—the
the heavier physical tasks, 
_          thp river, building of the dairy pr=<—-
- — -bfx ixr
-—°f
t’f
* number
ix   ind   fnr   a   few   hours work and for a 1 
E  per   day.   o   y
Afar can supply
b)
“aZeity — to that of the M.hiand.r
farmer.
Such     problems     do     not     normally     exist     tor     the     highland     f
ers,      whose      diet      is      already      essentially      based      on      cereals      (if milk      is      available,      it      seems      that      their      per-capita      consump tion     does     not     exceed     1/2     liter     per     day)     and     whose     traditions and      physical      build      have      from      time      immemorial      been      bound up with agricultural work.
2. 4. 2 The Change to Agricultural Life
a) The problem of the changeover to agriculture concerns only the Afar, since they come from a purely pastoral way of life. The Highlanders are not affected.
It is useless to stress that this is a corner stone for the
"culture change" connected with the settlement. It involves the change from a "harvest" mentality to a mentality of pro- duction; from an attitude of total passivity vis-i-vis the forces of nature to that of active domination; from an atti-
ude of providing for day-to-day supplies of food to an atti-
separation from the herd and with .he soil end water supply of foodstuffs. 
tO  final
P °"“°n °‘ »"'hSOhi.m ^ust e worked to guarantee- 10
The query as to whether and in what time the Afar wish and are capable of becoming settled farmers, for the moment cannot be answered with certainty, even by analyzing the numerous experiments .already completed in other countries.
In fact, practically none of the experiments in the agricultur al settlement of pastoral populations have taken place under conditions similar to those of the project: in North Africa
as in the Sudan. Saudi Arabia or in other Middle Eastern countries, the populations involved were herders who had already some connections with agriculture, either because they owned palms or land in the agricultural zones or be cause a part of the tribal group or of the family was already settled, or then again because in periods of prolonged drought they supported themselves on the agricultural zones as temporary or seasonal farmers.
The Afar of the Lower Awash also belong to this typology. Pure herdsmen are now rare among them and in any case they form part of a society that has become agro-pastora 1 since, a few generations ago, the sultans of Aoussa obliged their subjects to produce maize (l).
Nor are the experiments in settlement completed in Central Asia (U.S.S.R. ), acceptable. In this country there were also totally pastoral populations, but the settlement, as far as it is known, was the result of compulsory action with high human, social and economic costs.
Other settlement schemes (for instance of Masai in Kenya and in Tanzania) seem still to be in the planning stage.
Only a little more advanced is the experiment taking place at Gewani (Ministry of Community Development and Social Affairs), in which a small area on the territory belonging to a few clans (8 out of 18) has been put down to maize during the winter, without, however, still altering the pastoral way of life of the Afar group.
(1) See "Desert and Fo                  rest”, by Nesbitt. 1929.- 11
The sole example which could be usable because it is entirely similar is that of the ongoing Pilot Settlement Scheme of Amibara: but this is of too short a duration (2 years) to be decisive and is rendered all the more un certain because of the recent abandonment of and later returning to the settlement by 30 families out of 67, al though the reasons for such movements are unknown.
The problem thus remains open, and it can only be af firmed that, if the Afar accept to settle definitively. thei r change over to an agricultural way of life will call for a gradual culture change that will be both long and arduous and which will require a series of specific measures, and accurate planning.
It may be noted that the Afar settled both at Assaita and at Amibara have never given away their herds, which seem to be entrusted to relatives, while remaining their property.
The behavior           of the Afar in these
cases may mean that:
the families of herdsmen deciding to change to agri culture, have already renounced to some extent the
"herdsman-herd" symbiosis around which their lives have been centered so far; they are thus willing to se parate themselves from this;
. they do not renounce, however, ownership of the herd, 
at least for many years, since this represents in any eventuality, a sure source of subsistence;
. this sure source of subsistence is based on:
1)      the daily supply of milk, the main element in the herdsmen’s diet, and on the occasional supply
of meat;
2)      the provision of marketable animal products, need ed to procure goods other than foodstuffs (cloth, sandals, arms, cartridges, etc. ).
It may be supposed that the final separation from the herd will occur only when the agricultural activity provides the- 12 -
Afar with greater security than herding, and assumes a permanent character. That is. when agriculture shall
not only give them higher and growing incomes, but when nossession of the land gives them security.
b) With regard to the Highlanders, it i» a. well to recall
that their recruitment requires their agricultural experience and their need for settlement to be ascertained. Indeed, it has occurred in many countries and also in Ethiopia (Arba Minch) that the recruitment commissions select for settle ment projects either elements without any agricultural ex- perience or farmers owning lands, which they already know they will return to very soon.
It is also well to bear in mind that* generally* the Lind less Highland farmer rents land for short periods after which he changes farm, zone or region. For instance, among the Highland tenants of the cotton growing lands of the medium land-owners of Assaita. in 1968. the turn over was reported to be 57%.
The turnover problem can be sharply reduced through the provision of special incentives for permanence.
2.4.3 Fitting into Commercial Agriculture
Assuming that the Afar adapt themselves to living as farmers, there arises a common problem both for the Afar and for the Highlanders: that of forming part of modern and intensive com mercial agriculture, called for by the technical level of irri gation and by the high costs of investment in and of run-
rung the Area.
It is not
only a question of learning agricultural techniques that
are new also for the Highlanders (irrigation, new crops, mecha-
ruzation, etc.), but also of overcoming the traditional mentality
’ m'fH
"O-O”? »■>« « acquiring a menuli.y of
accumulation.       of       market,       and       of       inye.tmenf.,       capable       of       proved, mg and organizing productive resources.- 13 -
Although both the Afar and the Highlanders are accustomed to some extent to exchanging goods, they have so far used th< market essentially as a bartering zone for the purpose of pro curing the goods necessary for their subsistence, whi< h tht y do not produce themselves and which supplement their own production. Hence, the Highland farmer exchanges a small quantity of "tef" in order to procure corrugated iron to cover his hut. In the same way, the Afar barters butter for spear heads and cattle against firearms and cartridges; both obtain by barter those modest trinkets which their culture considers essential for feminine adornment. Yet, the two groups are vastly different when it comes to organizing production: the Highlanders have the concept of reward for labor well engrain ed, and for centuries have been accustomed to organize, mix and appropriately change factors of production (land, water, labor, tools). Not so for the Afars, who have developed a
livestock productive system based only have never attempted to force nature to spontaneously provides.
on      rainfall,      but      who yield more than it
In the new Area, on the other hand, the market will become the final objective for most of the agricultural production; incomes should increase considerably beyond the subsistence level,while new needs are likely to arise. Furthermore, the productive operations will become very complex and relatively rigid in time; the settlers will have gradually to learn to plan the vari ous cropping operations, providing the implements and labor necessary for each of them, and establishing the appropriate time-schedule. They will not only have to absorb fresh agri cultural techniques, but also other techniques which are en tirely new to a subsistence economy.
This problem has already been tackled in many countries where new irrigation districts arc exploited by commercial farms with favorable results where adequate vocational training and exten- sion services are applied (Ghezira, in the Sudan, Metaponto and the Pontine marshes in Italy, etc. ).
Vocational training should combine a theoretical part, involving technical explanations with on-the-job training, which alone would not lead to a full assimilation of new techniques but only to an exterior veneer (which might be sufficient for paid work on commercial farms, but not for farmers who will become in dependent) .- 14 -
Under this aspect it must be noted that the training imparted in the Pilot Scheme of Amibara (and even more so at Dubti) does not seem to be sufficiently well based nor does the per sonnel seem to be sufficient in numbers.
2. 4. 4 Operating a Modern Organizational Frame
Commercial farming does not only involve fresh technical problems but even more so organizational ones, which in 
fact characterize the industrial feature of agriculture.
In practice, it is necessary to organize the work over large
areas, to plan the cropping pattern and the various cultural operations in both space and time; to provide for and foresee
in time and with adequate quantities both technical and finan cial means, and the specialized personnel required; or pro
vide and implement the commercial operations of buying and selling, and the destination of incomes, etc.
These complex functions are solved in the commercial farms by the management of the concessionaire. On their settlement, the producers will have to attain the capacity of resolving them by themselves, gradually replacing the management which AVA will supply at the beginning - otherwise either the settlement will become a chaotic ensemble of disorganized family farms, deprived of the industrial character which is an indispensable counterweight of such heavy investments, or AVA will never relinquish the management of the Area.
The capacity of self-management in commercial agriculture does not only depend on a thorough educational program, but also on an efficient organizational frame, which has no al ternatives but cooperation. The absence of cooperative organ ization and management for instance at Arba Minch or at Dubti. is the main reason for the present inability of the assignees
for self-management, and of the consequent reluctance of the responsible agencies to withdraw.- 15 -
Preparation for management calls for a long period of training in the various technical, economic and organizational sectors
of management, and requires at the same time practical ex perience and the gradual assuming of responsibility at various levels within the organizational frame, flanked by a series of extension services.
2. 4. 5 A New Associational Life
The need of associational life at various levels - with the ob
ject of ensuring both unity and sufficient size for the cultural
and commercial operations and for the services - leads to the serious problem of cooperation in agriculture which forms a bottleneck typical of many developing countries.
In the traditional agricultural societies there are generally associative forms of inter-aid: for instance, the study of
’’Land Tenure in Chotc (Shoa)11 reveals the existence of three forms of inter-aid for agricultural work and two for financial assistance. In the traditional pastoral society there are col lective social institutions: among the Afar the extended family, clan organization, and the meeting of adult males are encounter ed. It is thus natural to ask oneself whether these associative forms can form a solid basis, a starting point, for the attain ment of modern cooperation.
At the present it seems difficult to provide an answer: in fact, there exist, besides failures, also successes. In Ethiopia
itself, consumers' cooperatives, and those providing serv
ices and marketing facilities have occasionally been establish ed. The AVA is preparing to set up a multipurpose cooperative in the Pilot Scheme.
Most of the existing cooperatives are of 1st grade: but it may 
be asked if everything has been done to develop participation and control by the members in order to create the necessary capacity of enterprise and of management. Accordingly it is
a question of an open problem influenced by too many unknown factors or ones ignored up to now.- 16 -
The aspects examined up to now on the one hand stress the diffi culties and the extent of the culture change needed to provide a favorable solution of the settlement problems, and, on the other hand, enable the means which will facilitate the culture change to be more clearly indicated: i. e. adequate timing
and phasing; a complex training program; types of incentive and extension activities. These are briefly outlined in the following paragraph.
2. 5 THE MEANS FOR SUPPORTING THE CULTURE CHANGE
2. 5. 1 Framework of the Settlement
The problems of the culture change call for a specific organ ization of AVA capable of using all the means necessary to fa cilitate their solution in the Settlement Area. It could be cal led the Melka Sadi-Amibara Settlement Office. This Office would control the settlement farms. The farms (large enough to permit commercial agriculture with reasonable overhead costs) should be much different from the commercial farms not only because the producers will be farmers instead of hired hands, but also because the scope is the transformation of the settlers into modern producers, organized and capable of cooperative self-management. There will thus be Instruc tion (or Training) Farms.
The Instruction Farms shall adapt their activities to a pre determined timing and phasing, carry out specified training activity, guarantee certain incentives to the settlers, and provide them with extension services: the AVA Settlement Office will have to coordinate the entire activity.- 17 -
2,5.2 Timing and Phasing
• It is necessary to provide for a period of years for the evolu
tion of the diet, of the work capacity, and of the cultural pat
terns of the Afar: a time which enables both - the Afar and
the Highlanders - to achieve the necessary development of
their organizational activity and of the gradual taking on of
responsibility up to self-management.
The scheduled time has been fixed in 15 years, broken down
into:
I-  5        years = selection phase
6-10        years = experimental phase
II-   15 years - assisted management phase
From    16th    year    onwards    it    should    be    possible    to    achieve    self management with only external assistance from the AVA.
This period has not been fixed arbitrarily. In spite of all education facilities that could be created in the Settlement Scheme for achieving the necessary evolution, it is unlikely that a complete change in outlook can take place in the in dividual settlers who will begin the experience. Attention, therefore, should be fixed on the second generation of settlers, the sons of the original ones, who after 15 years will be
on its own.
2. 5. 3 Training
The technical,  cultural and organizational evolution spoken of does not only  require a  certain period of time,  but even more so intense training activities, variable in the diverse phases- 18 -
The following types of training have been envisaged:
Literacy course
Adult education on cooperation, marketing and management Home economics for women
Vocational training (agricultural irrigation techniques, etc. )
Such a program should be as broad as possible, especially in the first 2 phases, gradually limiting itself to selected elements in the third phase.
2. 5. 4 Technical Assistance
To ensure the technical evolution of the settlers up to the level required, AVA will have to provide them with intense technical assistance. The technical assistance will embrace both the productive operations (to guarantee that the cropping pattern is adapted to the work capacity of the settlers; assist the set tlers in the cropping operations; provide for and organize me chanization; distribute selected seeds; and provide irrigation water), and the commercial side (marketing contracts, organ ization of transport). It should also arrange for medium term credits to be granted to the settlers, helping them to prepare their applications. Moreover, it should provide the technical management personnel and experts at all levels, until they can be replaced by trained personnel coming from the settlers families themselves.
2. 5. 5 Incentives
Settlement will require an enormous effort towards cultural adaptation from the families, especially the Afar, and suf ficient incentives will have to be provided as a counterweight Incentives are necessary also for the Highlanders to induce them to break their habit of shifting cultivation.- 19 -
The following incentives are proposed for each family:
-     a minimum income;
1 chica house with about 500 sq. m of family garden; immediate setting up of a consumer cooperative for the settlers;
primary school for all boys between 6 and 10 years;
-     health facilities;
1 place of worship (Christian or Muslim) for each In struction Farm.
Furthermore, for the Afar, it will be necessary to guarantee one liter of milk per head per day.
2. 5. 6 Livestock in the Settlement Scheme, Provision of Milk
There are two distinct facets of the livestock in the Settlement Scheme. For the Highlanders, possession of livestock does not assume the same significance it has for the Afars. For the former, livestock is not a sign and depository of wealth, pres tige and security. Also, milk consumption is not an absolute dietary necessity. For the Afars, on the other hand, livestock is both valuable per sc and for the milk it provides.
The problem thus arises as to how milk can be provided, and whether cattle breeding should be a pent of the activities of the Settlement Scheme. The analysis of this problem can be based on purely economic considerations - as also recommended by the steering committee - since settled Afars can still maintain possession of their cattle outside the Project Area entrusting them to their non settled relatives. Therefore, the problem to be solved reduces itself to that of how to provide milk for the Afar settlers.- 20 -
The alternatives examined for the provision of milk are:
a)       Cattle raising on overhead irrigated pasture in the loops
of the Awash River;
b)       Cattle raising on irrigated permanent pasture on areas outlying the irrigation project;
c)       Milk supply from stockraising on the Alledeghi plains;
d)      Stockraising in the Afar settlement;
e)       Milk supply from diluted powdered milk.
For solution (a), according to the estimates made by the AVA technical department, the cows in production should be chosen among the livestock of the settlers’ relatives who carry out pastoral activities in the zones bordering the irrigation Area.
For each group of 50 cows, 12 ha should be made available, divided into 6 paddocks to be used by turn (4-6 days per paddock). The grass established would be the perennial grass indigenous
to the Area.
The cost of building of the paddocks, of materials needed and of irrigation equipment, has been estimated in Eth. $ 13, 000 and the running annual costs in Eth. $ 3, 500. We have review ed these data, by contacting suppliers and by utilizing sprinkler irrigation experience elsewhere. Results are shown in Table 1.. Total investment costs increase to Eth. $ 24. 700, while annual running costs exceed Eth. $ 5, 335 (on a per ha basis, these costs work out at Eth. $ 2, 000 for investment, and at Eth. $ 460 for running costs, the latter increasing regularly through
time, as wage rates rise).
The production of usable grass should be about 500 ql.per ha which is enough for feeding 4 cows in production. Supposing that the production of milk per head for human consumption is 250 kg, the group of 50 cows would supply 12, 500 kg per year or a total benefit of Eth. $ 4, 625 ($ 385/ha). Production may increase, if efficient health measures and calves breed ing were effected, but these actions are practically impossible- 21 -
Table 1
RIVER LOOPS Overhead Irrigation System (Paddocks: 12 ha)
Description
Eth. $
Investment Costs
Tractor (60-70 HP) with pump
Pipes, 450 meters (120” diameter)
No. 4 sprinklers
Total
Annual Running Costs
Tractor and pump renewal and
maintenance (200 hours/annum)
Labor (2 unskilled workers and one
mechanic x 25 days)
Renewal and maintenance of sprin klers and pipes (20%  of investment
cost)
Total
of which: Labor
14, 000
4. 500
800
19. 300
920
145
1, 060
2, 085
145
--------------------- 22 -
Table 1 (Cont,)
b) Livestock
Description
Eth. $
Investment Costs
Clearing
Finishing (labor, 120 unskilled
man/days)
Fencing (labor, 43 unskilled man/days,
4 foreman man/days)
Grass planting and collecting
(labor, 720 unskilled man/days,
10 foreman man/days)
-        Materials
Total
Running Costs
Maintenance of fencing
(2 unskilled man/year)
Herdsmen (1 head cattleman, 1
cattle hand every 25 cows, I hand
for calves)
Spares
Total
of which: Labor
1. 800
150
70
930
2. 500
5, 400
650
1.600
1, 000
3, 250
2. 250
L——_________________________________________________• 23 -
in an uncontrolled environment. Thus, the scheme is clearly not viable per se: leaving aside investment costs, annual benefits would not cover annual expenditures, and a loss would be incurred. The scheme is also inferior to a commercial-type production of milk and meat (see Part II, Vol,5), which although less profitable than crop cultivation, is still not a loosing proportion.
Solution (b) could have the same initial premises as solution
(a). Its implementation would require considerable invest ment for laying out the lands (similar to that for livestock raising in the Project Area) without which efficient irriga
tion would be impossible. On the other hand, running costs would be certainly less than those of the river loops and those of commercial-type stockraising. However, for these lower
costs to offset the lower productivity of this alternative in comparison with that of commercial-type stockraising, it
would be necessary for the costs of the latter to be 3. 6 times more than the costs of the former, which is unrealistic.
In fact, bearing in mind the running costs of commercial-type stockraising, in the present scheme it would not be possible
to have running costs of over 25 $/ha; in other words, it would not be possible to have available more than one L. U. per 18 ha; i.   e. $ 480 per 18 ha. Considering, on the other hand, only the cost of the herdsmen necessary for such a scheme, at least
$ 2, 400 per 18 ha are required.
Solution (c) seems to be of interest, but important data for a final decision to be made are missing; Inter alia, the follow
ing are not known:
1)      the value of the supplementary foodstuffs to be supplied to the livestock to guarantee satisfactory and constant pro
duction;
2)
the organization to be created and the costs for collecting
and transporting the milk;
3)
whether the cost for setting up and running a range manage
ment and animal production development project for the
Alledeghi Plains could be covered by the value of the in crease in the present production of the stock-breeding
units which would use the Plains. The results of specific
studies on the Area or on similar areas seem too contra dictory to be considered.- 24 -
For solution (d) the fundamental data of the elaboration regard ing stock-breeding in the commercial farms can be used. It must, in fact, be considered that, with suitable technical as sistance and with a rigorous organization of the settlers’ stock- raising units, the same levels of production .and cost could be easily achieved.
The various hypotheses which may be formulated with these stockraising units are shown in Table 2. The number of cows remaining unchanged, there is an increase in food requirements and thus in the ha needed for the production of forage, to which corresponds an increase in the production of milk per head and per ha. Assuming the production of milk per village (2, 686 ql) remains constant, the number of cows to be kept decreases pro gressively and at the same time there is a drop in the acreage to be put down to forage crops. On the contrary, keeping the number of ha under forage crops unchanged, there is a sharp increase in production corresponding to a small drop in the number of head to be kept.
On the economic level, the most convenient solution to be adopted is that of keeping milk production unchanged and of progressively reducing the forage area and the number of head: in fact the advantage of other productive processes with respect to livestock-raising has been shown. This solution will, how ever, give rise to problems, which concern the progressive ad justment of the livestock unit (among others, some initial in vestments would remain unused) and whose solution is difficult to foresee. Certainly the personnel employed with the surplus livestock could occupy the areas used previously for forage crops. However, it is not easy to see how things will really
turn out.
It seems, therefore, advisable to adopt the second solution, based on the maintenance of the Area under forage crops. In this case, the same ratio of costs and benefits as set out for the commercial farms will be attained.
It remains to examine the solution as per point(e). The price of powdered milk is Eth. $2. 04 per kg (price in North Europe 1.88 FOB; freight, via the Cape, 0.05; other costs 5% of price, 0. 09; transport Assab- Project Area. 0. 02). Twelve kg• 25 -
Table 2
MILK. AND TO A LESSER EXTENT MEAT PRODUCTION IN THE AFAR SETTLEMENT VILLAGES
Description
1974-78
1979-82
1983-86
1987-91
1992-98
1999-2001
A.U. fe«d on the farm per groups of
100 cow*
Feed    Units    requirements    in    fodder,    for (roups of 100 cowfl
Hectares    for    fodder    production    for
(roepi of 100 cow«
Milk   production   per   groups   of
coirs in qt.
Milk production per ha in ql.
Hvnothe
Milk   requirement   per   village   of   160 ftntiUee in q|.
Ccwa necdet
Xectarea needed for milk
Production p   village
212
226. 000
13.7
351
25.6
239
269. 000
16.4
508
30.9
constant the
229
283.000
17.2
777
45. 1
^reduction of mil
215
287. 000
17. 5
1,011
57.7
k
210
281.000
17. I
1. 140
66. 6
210
2B1,000
17. 1
1, 140
66.'6
or
Hypothc
2,686
765
105 ate B* Kacoinff
2.686
528
87
constant the t
2.686
344
59
ia under (or*fl
2.686
265
46
g firopfi
2. 686
235
40
2. 686
235
40
Production per 105 ha
’ ' °° »■** farm per 105 ha
Cow,P«r IOS h.
AU
2,686
1,624
766
3, 144
1.530
640
4,735
1. 397
610
6. 058
1.290
600
6. 993
1, 289
614
6. 993
1. 289
614- 26 -
of powdered milk produces 100 kg of milk. The cost of 100 kg
of milk amounts therefore to Eth. $ 24. 48 or Eth. $ 
Thus, in the final analysis, the comparison restricts itself to alternatives (d) and (e). For a proper comparison, alterna
tive (e) - powdered milks - should show, as an added benefit,
the production of crops, other than fodder, on the areas which would not be utilized for fodder production.
The choice is, therefore, easy. It is already known that crop production in Melka Sadi-Amibara is more profitable than live stock raising. In these conditions, if livestock-raising were chosen, the price of milk would be Eth. $ 0. 37/kg and a cer
tain profit rate would be obtained; if crop production plus powder ed milk were chosen, the price of milk would be Eth. $ 0. 24,/kg and a higher profit rate would be obtained. The second alterna tive is clearly the best.
0. 24 per Kg.
2.6 PRELIMINARY FEATURES OF THE PROJECT
2.  6. 1 Age of Candidates and Composition of the Families
Since the period needed to acquire sufficient capacity for self management has been estimated at 15 years, the age of the can didate who is also a head of family should not be over 30, so that he may still be in good physical condition during the final period. Furthermore, 15 years are necessary for a certain number of boys to complete the entire school program (at least up to High School), which will enable them to replace most of the AVA technical and administrative personnel.
In fact it is a basic condition of self-management to be able to dispose of one's own cadres and not to depend on outside ones.
To  achieve this end,  it is also  necessary  to  limit the recruit ment to  families whose sons are not over 10  years of age and thus can start the school cycle.- 27 -
These conditions of age eliminate a large number of potential
Afar candidates. In fact, out of a total of 1. 000-1, 200 families
gravitating around the Project Area (for the sake of simplicity
it is assumed that the number is 1, 100) the families whose head
is not over 30 may be estimated at 50%, i. e. 550 families. Ex
cluding from these the families with sons over 10 years old, it is
probable that the total available drops to 450.
It is highly improbable that all these families submit their can
didature for settlement, leaving only the older members as herds
men. It may well be that the assumption that at least 10% do
not apply is optimistic, and the total of candidates may only
be 400.
Out of this total, it may be envisaged that the number of fami
lies to be settled will be reduced to 300-350. Age limits, how
ever. have another inevitable consequence, that is the elimina
tion as assignees of all the authoritative members of the class,
from the "balabat” to the ”aba faema”, thus upsetting the tradi
tional structure of the Afar clan, leaving the Afar families
without their elders. This prevents the utilization of the tradi
tional social structure in community-type settlement organiza
tions.
Estimated Productivity
In estimating the levels of productivity (or the supply of work
force) that can be reached in the different stages of the settle
ment life due weight has been given to the problems raised
above. Productivity has been estimated (taking the Highland
farmer as reference) in terms of average daily hours of work
and of average number of days worked annually. Productivity
is based on the work hours done by I male and 1 female unit
per family.
The relative productivity  estimates for the Afar are set out in Table 3.  Productivity  estimates for the Highlanders are set out in Table 4.FORECASTED PRODUCTIVITY OF THE AFAR FAMILY
0-5 years
5-10 years
10-15 years
Description
I a. u.
male
1 a. u.
female
I a. u.
male
1 a. u.
female
1 a. u.
male
1 a. u.
female
- Productivity coeff.
• Avenge daily hour a
- Average number
of days/year
-Average number of
work hours/year
- Average number of hours productivity
in hours/year
Total Family
0.6
6
160
960
0. 6
4
180
480
576
288
0. 8
7
200
1,400
1,120
0. 8
5
140
700
1
8
240
1.920
1
5
200
1.000
560
1,920
1.000
864
I. 680
2,920FORECASTED PRODUCTIVITY OF THE HIGHLANDER FAMILY
0-5 years
after 5 years
Description
1 A. U..
male
1 A. U. .
fe male
1 A. U.,
male
1 A. U.
female
Productivity
coefficient
- Average daily
hours
Average numbers
□f days/year
Average number
of work hours/year
- Average number of hours productivity
in hours/year
Total Family
0. 9
8
240
1.920
0. 9
5
200
1, 000
1
8
240
1.920
1
5
200
1. 000
1,730
900
1.920
1.000
2, 630
2, 920
Table 4- 30 -
As may be noted, traditional coefficients - which give different estimates for male and female hourly productivity respective
ly - have not been used since the distinction disappears in com mercial farming, where the physical effort involved is largely supplied by mechanized equipment, and where it is possible to divide the agricultural operations between the aexes according
to their respective degrees of efficiency.
Once the productivity estimate has been matched to the chosen cropping pattern, it will also indicate the optimal size of the family plot, i. e. that which does not regularly require hired labor.
2,6.3 Size of Holdings and Choice of Cropping Patterns
Volume 5 of Part II has shown the two major alternative cropping patterns proposed for the Settlement Scheme. To establish the feasible size of holdings within the Scheme, the principle has been adopted that the family’s supply of manpower should be the major source of labor - calculated at the time when, through suitable education and technical assistance, the family’s work force reaches its maximum. Thus, for the Afar family it has
been assumed that it will take some 10 years before it will reach the level of the Highlanders’’ families.
On the basis of the labor requirements, Table 5 gives the month ly man/hours needed for cropping pattern B (cotton based) and cropping pattern A (tobacco based). Inspection of the table shows immediately that with one hectare of cropping pattern A, the Emily’s maximum work force when it reaches full productivity (260 man/hours/month, with possible peaks of 390 man/hours/ rnonth) is fully exploited. On the other hand, one ha of cropping pattern B underutilizes the family work force; two hectares
°f cropping pattern B - with complement of seasonal labor in Practically only one month - could be fit within the family work
force.- 31 -
Table 5
MONTHLY WORK HOUR REQUIREMENTS
(HOUR ;/month) unskilled
Month
Cropping Pattern B
Cotton-based
Cropping Pattern A
Tobacco-based (1)
1 ha
2 ha
1 ha
2 ha
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
Septe mbc r
October
Member
December
104
64
24
157
90
29
1 38
127
86
83
373
205
208
128
48
314
180
58
276
254
172
166
746 (2)
410 (2)
347
230
IIO
279
223
181
353
236
129
143
291
261
694 (2)
460 (2)
220
558 (2)
446 (2)
3 62
706 (2)
472 (2)
258
286
582 (2)
522 (2)
1,480
2,960
2,783
5, 566
Total anaily rnonthly work for
L^^^^anaily annual work fore
h \               -------------------- --------------
ce supply =
:e supply = 2.
390 hours
920 hours
(2)
Excluding manpower for curing operations. Seasonal labor needed.- 32 -
A choice is therefore open. Table 6 gives the essential ele
ments for making the choice. It shows that the family sutdIus per ha is maximum in the case of tobacco (1 ha) if a high quali ty leaf is produced (case I). In all other cases, the surplus per
ha is higher in the case of cotton (2 ha). Not calculated here,
are certain costs which bear more heavily on the first than on the second solution: housing, social infrastructure, technical assistance costs (based on the number of families, rather than on the number of ha). In any case, the table shows that, coete- ris paribus, and with a realistic hypothesis on the quality of the tobacco leaf that could be produced, the cotton-based cropping pattern appears a better solution. This will, therefore, be as sumed for the Settlement Scheme.
2.6.4 Integration of Labor Force
Comparing the forecasted productivity of the Afar and High lander families with the yearly work hour requirements, the amount of integrative hired labor can be determined as shown in Table 7.
It appears that in the third phase for the Afar and already in the second phase for the Highlanders no integration will be needed. However, from Table 5 a small amount of labor for peak require ments (November and December), will have to continue.
*•6.5
Int er mi ng li ng
The integration of the Afar group with the Highlander group must at the beginning be restricted to settling Afar villages close to those of the Highlanders on the same farm. The ex pected availability of Afar families (300-350) permits the settle ment of 2 Afar villages out of 12 and excludes the possibility of Providing the Afar with a community organization in a single ^  m with 3 Afar villages.
ar- 33 -
Table 6
ARISON between size of holdings and cropping patterns
C0^pA
(Eth. $)
Cropping Pattern A (lha)
Description
Cropping
Pattern B
(2 ha)
Case I
Case II
Case III
Cultivation costs
of which: Labor
Gross    value    of
sales
Earnings (C-A)
Family  earnings
(d+b)
Assumed         family income (x)
Surplus Surplus per ha
I, 399
(791)0
2,414
I, 015
1,806
1,265
541
270
1,005
(590)
2,161
1, 156
1,746
1,265
481
481
I, 005
(590)
I, 898
893
1,483
1,265
218
218
1, 005
(590)
I, 636
631
1,221
I, 265
- 44
- 44
Excluding payment for seasonal labor of Eth. $ 99.
Ba sed   on    a    present    family    income    of    Eth.    $    750,    increased    at    the    rate    of ? °wth of wages and salaries throughout the project time-life.
r- 34 -
Table 7
MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS
Description
1-5 years
6-10 years
11-15 years
Afar s
Total     work     hours     re quired per family
Total    supply    of    work hours per family
Outsided laborers
work hours required
per family
Highlanders
Total    work    hours    re quired per family
Total    supply    of    work hours per family
Outside laborers
w ork hours required
P r family
2, 920
864
2, 920
1,680
2. 920
2. 920
2, 056
1, 240
-
2, 920
2. 630
2. 920
2, 920
2, 920
2. 920
e
290
-
-- 35 -
It must be stressed that actual integration will take place in the next generation, among the boys who have attended the Farm Primary School, and that it will commence among the adults attending the literacy courses and taking part in other educational activities on the farm. In the opinion of the Con sultants to hurry on this process, by mixing the two grouns in the same village, for example, would be useless and con- trary to the general interest.- 36 -
3. HEALTH ASPECTS
present conditions
The population of the Melka Sadi-Amibara Area consists mainly of Danakil Afar tribes, who live in fairly large scattered family groups, and are transhumant between the Area and the surround ing plateau.
The population's only activity is pastoralism.
Sanitary conditions are extremely precarious. The people live crowded in "tukuls" (up to 10-12 adults and children live in
2 x 4 m tukuls). These dwellings are without any sanitary fa cilities.
Although there are water sources in the Area, the villages are far away and the inhabitants use the turbulent water of the river, or, when it rains, that of puddles, both for drinking and for sanitary uses, although this does not often happen.
In this vast area the only sanitary service is a surgery run by 
a  male nurse in the village of Melka-Warar.
The physical conditions of these tribes are usually satisfactory, particularly in the male members . In fact, while the men are rarely active, the women, besides the household tasks (milking the animals, making butter, carrying water, etc.) nearly all have a large number of pregnancies (about 10-15).
Apart from sickness, these factors contribute to making the
w °men's physical condition worse than that of men.
rhe Afars are fairly thin and wiry and the men’s muscular frame is well developed.- 37 -
These people usually live almost exclusively on milk. Informa tion obtained directly shows that each adult drinks a daily aver age of 3-4 liters of either camel's, cow's, sheep's or goat's
milk according to the animals they possess, which are mostly cows and camels. The women do not usually drink camel's milk *nd children prefer sheep's or goat’s milk.
Normally milk is drunk twice daily, once in the morning and again in the evening after milking. When they are thirsty, 
the inhabitants also drink during the day. And sometimes, 
but only for children ground maize is added to the milk.
Despite the fact that the diet consists solely of milk, the
quantity of calories taken is considerable, as shown in the
table which gives the chemical composition and calorie value of the various types of milk consumed by the population 
in question (see Table 8).
The table shows that, with the quantity of milk consumed, the caloric intake is high when considering the kind of life they lead (the. men spend most of the day either sitting or lying down and therefore their calorie consumption is limited).
The analysis of the contents of the various types of milk con sumed by these people shows that although they do not con sume vegetables or fresh fruit, they absorb a considerable amount of vitamins and mineral salts.
1 hi s diet explains the sound physical constitution of the popula tion and the total absence of cases of malnutrition and avitami nosis which are so frequent among the other populations of the tropical regions.
The investigations carried out among this population also show- e d that frequently, at an average of every 30 days, meat is consumed, and each time this occurs, each person takes in excessive quantities of up to 7-8 kg each.CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND CALORIE VALUE PER 100 g OF VARIOUS TYPES OF MILK
Organic Substances and Calorie Value
Inorganic Substances
Type of Milk
Protide      or Proteins
Lipids
or Fats
Calcium
Phosphorus
(b)
Giycide or Cvbohydratss
(i)
Cow's
Sheep's
1. 5
1 6. 52
35
6 St
4. 63
4. 91
65, 18 3
109.289
Goll' ■
T»bl«»- 39 -
The occasion on which meat is consumed are the following:
1)      At the death of an adult
2)       At weddings
3)       When someone has committed an offense. The community punishes him by making him give one or more head of live stock .
Sheep and goats are eaten at home whe reas for group celebra tions an ox or a camel is eaten.
Meat is consumed either boiled or roast; the offal is not eaten and the camel's hump is eaten raw.
In conclusion, it can be said that the diet of this population, although normally consisting solely of milk, is complete and even hyper proteic, even if only a negligible part of the enor mous occasional consumption of meat is used, since the great er part is eliminated.
In order to determine the health conditions of these tribes, a
total of 916 persons were examined, broken down as follows:
Age
Up to
1 0 Years
10-20
Years
20-40
Years
40-45
Years
Over 55
Years
Men
565
172
137
188
45
23
Women
351
98
66
122
35
30
T otal
916
270
203
310
80
53
The persons examined belong to the various family nuclei scattered throughout the area under study. It is to be noted 
that  although it was intended to examine healthy or apparently healthy and sick persons indiscriminately, mainly sick per sons or those who thought they were sick presented themselves. ° ut of the 916 persons examined. 447 (i. e. 48.68%) were fund to  be in good health and without any signs of previous diseases.- 40 -
y/hen considering that about i/5 of the entire population in question was examined and that, as indicated above, the per sons who presented themselves thought that they were sick, it can be stated that there morbidity is not high among these tribes.
Table 9 indicates all the pathologic conditions observed only clinically in the persons examined, except for three cases of recurrent fever which were confirmed by the smears examin ed in Italy.
In this table the cases of plenomegaly and hepatosplenomegaly have been quoted separately since their identification was a major objective of the survey. Case history shows that these diseases are to be almost exclusively attributed to acute to chronic forms of malaria.
The cases of hepatomegaly alone were encountered in persons suffering from cardiac sub-decompensation. Therefore, there are a total of 171 persons suffering from possible malaria (30 suffer from hepatosplenomegaly and 141 from splenomegaly) which is the most common endemic disease.
It is important to note that the cases of this disease were not encountered to the same degree among the entire population but were clearly more frequent among family nuclei living nearest the river.
Diseases of the eyes are extremely common and range from simple conjunctivitis to the most serious forms of trachoma, *nd so are diseases of the ears which mainly affect children a nd women. This is due to the fact that children, \n particular, s P nd their time playing on the ground where, among other
e
things, animals eliminate their excrement, for which reason la *ge number of insects are carriers of numerous germs.
Or  the same reasons, different forms ly c °mmon and mainly affect children.
of diarrhea are extreme-- 4!
DISEASES clinically examined
Up to
10 yrt
Up to
20 yrt
Up to
40 yr«
*    -q Up to
55  yrl
T
Over
55yri
Tout
Taken
Td-
«•«*»*
£
£umi h ed
[Uteri
M
F
M
F
M
r
M
F
M
F
M
F
E^e dl
0lUl*
29
14
Hr]ia la « pie nomr (• al y    11
SpjiBomegaly
H MtomegalV
fl
Diarrhea
21
J
JI
12
11
b
10
I
19
12
-
b
H
6
1
J
1
*
fe
5
*
■
5
2
1
5
■■
2
Dyienlery                             1
Can! rue site r oc al itk«       1
|4e m-S hi. ria
VitLuffl rordlit
Z
J
Par a >L Lisa                       2 Recurrent fewer
Feeer 111                             6 ArLhrnika
Pyogenic inlertiani             1 Paisa f pa it all! ack)            - Srr<4illpoM fpatf attack    —■
1 Tube rcuiaii a 1Z1 -
■
1
4
’■     i 12
1
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1
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1
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15
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1
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2
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6
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4
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2
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1
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1
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1 Rett ill calle                         p
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Il Thin ihelLnJSi.it all patieniB thawing a rite !■« lemperaluw with dm e .any other clinical; «Lgn« The pLika ikgR iftdl cdffit a ■.ue of acrd-I-dIidr, the other* ari caae* of pulmonary r ate* mil an I.
f > M T*y are rate* of Lngnmai ratal hernia -ind one u umbilical hernia- 42 -
The   clinical   elements   observed   show   that   dysentery caused by amoeba, and is not very common.
is mainly
forms   of   gastroenterocohtis   observed   were   highly very serious (two of the three patients died)
Bilharziasis    (bilharzial    dysentery    and    urinary    schistomiasis) doe9 occur at present but is not common.
Past  case  history  shows  that  many  people  suffering  from  this disease caught it in other areas.
There were few cases of intestinal parasites, but there is
reason to believe that they are very common, as is usual in 
tropical zones, and have already been confirmed in other
areas of Ethiopia.
The   number   of   cases   of   vitium   cordis   as   a   result   of   rheumatic diseases, (42 cases) was surprisingly high.
There was no evidence of present or relatively recent epidemics
of poliomyelitis or of smallpox. The effects of two cases of the
former and two cases of the latter disease were observe
Tuberculosis   is   not   very   common.   Five   cases   were   observed three of which in the same family nucleus.
In short, it can be said that the most common endemic disease,
in the Area are malaria, trachoma, pyogenic diseases and di
eses caused by paras.tes. Tuberculosis, polio, typhoid,
recurrent fevers, bilharxiasis, mycosis, ame tas s an
tumors are all less frequent.
the causes of death among
’* >0 extremely difficult to 
•hi, tribe. view of .be <«•
v ®ry  long  especially  if ^uC
aCC  U
° ^^|
high rate of infant mortality
114     114 mmararrriieedd wwomomeenn, from I7 ***^,1^^ wwiitthh rreecgar ardd tto o tthhiiss:: 20 had
ing 94 had given birth to
°f slx children each.
av erooe lifetime 1, not
i not
of tthbe. eext xtrreemmeellyy
were interviewed
whereas the remain-
born alive, with an average- 43 -
It is to be noted that many of the women were still young and could have had other children. It is therefore assumed that the average for each woman is 10-12 children, as had been observed in the majority of older women interviewed.
Of these 569 children, 260 (45,7%) had died from birth to 12 years. These are among the highest figures of infant mortality ever known.
3.2 FUTURE POSSIBILITIES FOR THE AREA (l)
The outline scheme for the development of this area provides for the exploitation of about 20, 000 ha of land, utilizing river water (by means of canals) for irrigation, and the creation of villages with relative services (schools, offices, sanitary cen ters, etc.). It is estimated that a population of not less than 50,000 will live in the Area.
All these installations and transformations will have a marked influence on the sanitary conditions of the Area and of its in habitants. For this reason, the transformations and new in stallations will be carried out according to the fundamental elements of modern sanitary engineering.
3. 3 FUTURE POPULATION OF THE AREA
The population of this new irrigation Area should consist of a
small number of the Afar and of a Larger number of Highlanders
coming from the areas surrounding the valley, and mainly from
the mountains ,
(1) This section is based on information obtained from Mr,
Ronald A, Williams, WHO Sanitary Engineer in Ethiopia.- 44 -
Potentially, the Afars because of their general physical and 
sanitary condition, are capable of carrying out the work re
quired for the irrigated agriculture in question. But it is to 
be noted that the change of certain living habits, and in particu 
lar work and feeding habits, will give rise to imbalances of
adaptation in the Afar, if the transformation is not effected in 
a gradual and rational manner.
It has already been observed that their present diet, almost
exclusively based on milk and occasionally on meat, is Suf
ficient for the number of calorics required for their calm life
without any excessive physical effort. But when working they 
will need to absorb a greater number of calories, so that they 
will have to modify their diet.
It is believed that milk cannot and must not be eliminated: it
should be reduced to about I liter a day per person and the
calorie intake should be completed by meat, maize or durrah, 
flour orbread, pulses, sugar, cheese, fats, fruit and vegeta
bles.   alternating   them,   to   obtain   a   total   daily   intake   of   3,   000cals (See Table 10).
Furthermore, the daily food consumption should be distributed in a more rational manner, that is in three meals instead of two (morning and evening) as is the present case.
In order to be able to give an opinion, from the sanitary view point, of the other population to settle in this district, that is
the Highlanders, visits were made to 250 of them living in various centers (Debre Sina, Assaita, Erer Gota and Awara Malka.).
Generally their physical condition was found to be satisfactory even if in certain centers (Assaita and Erer Gota) malaria is
a very common disease and has left its mark. On the whole, however, these Highlanders have no difficulty in adapting them- selves to working in the fields, as has been observed in a large number of them who have already been working for many years in a concession (Montanari concession at Awara MeLka) which is very similar to the Area under study in climate and in ele vation.- 45 -
Table 1 (J
CALORIES PER 100 g OP SOME FOODS
Food
Milk
Lean beef Semi-fat be el Fat beef Mutton
Lamb
Butter
Marga rinc Olive oil Vegetable oil Cheese (aver, ) Honey
Calories
65 f 00 136 335 360 103 767 765 901 910 350 31 0
--- “T*—“
,             F ood
1 Dried bean fl
Calorics |
317
Dried peas                                    340 
1
|
Dried broad bean      si
332
Dried lentils                                  332 
|
i
Hens' eggs 160
Chicken 198
340           i 144           |
93           j 38           1 25
46
20
32           i 92
Fold toe s Bread Macaroni, etc... Rice
Maize flour Wheat flour Sugar
J a m
80 260 360 353 366 350 410 230
Dried chick peas F re sb beans Fresh peas
Fresh bro-ad beam Tomatoes
li
Carrots
11
Lettuce Cauliflower
1 Bananas
i Oranges
Il
| Apples
| Pears
1  Grapes Peaches Dates Melon Manda rines
I
J5  1
47
50
1
75 1
75
231
30
43Moreover, tt is to be noted that the Highlander* will fco 
problem a of adapting themselves to a nr# dirt as th«y »r- lI- ready used to .1 mlxrtl dirt.
At present, no organised community sanitation service t? $v* - dent tn the nomad village* on the plains, in the firm settle* ments, or in the village growing .it random outside the Agri* cultural Research Station nt M<dk.i Warnr. It 1* clear that thr low socio •economic conditions of the Aren ar« reflected Hi the absence of environmental sanitation* either individual
nets of community control measures. The one exception to MI this is the Research Station itself.
These conditions should be corrected^ not only for guaranteeing 
•1 minimum level u! public health, but also for vatisfying th** wri<Mcigir il requirnmofiH of mndorn agriculture* Furthermore, the future increases m population density in the Area automati cally me in Im re.irtns In the communicability of communicable diseases. Such increases make the need for preventive mriisur^* more md more urgent.
Experience In Egypt and other plat rs show* that uru emtrolled Lru reasns tn farm populations are likely to lead to small and scatter cd communltlnx throughout irrigated lands, Such a loose situation is excellent for the spread of lomodKcaaiu; and for most dinuaNcn it makes control difficult DtlharzUMa, for instance, lx assisted a» follows:
Small. nc alternd Milage* are more likely to be on or clote to irrigation cAnaln where water pollution and contact by humane arc frequent enough to rnakn the ttriftui develop ment of the disease inevitable.
Small villages arc not autonomous, *o that th*- in?<3r•vil lage movement of children and others to school*, ru. it likely to be greater, and so too may thetr water polKticA and contact.
These factor* become more and more important -it con .muni- tie* are more scattered.• r
A small <i.*e ind scattering <*f village* is <ho i handt *p to
the provision of either environmental control works or ?n »rr- vtronmcnt.il health service It is more feasible to prijvH* * 
pipe-bo me water mt ppi y. healthful low* cost housing *ewrr~g*« 4nd drainage facilities. etc tn a few* large villages than tn 
m.mr small ones, It tf tlso more convent ent to provide >n environmental health service to « few large arid well tonne •? . rd village!* than to small. sc literrd. ind sometimes nacres
sible villages
Rut one must i onside r bevend the difficulty of providing thrs* works inc! services If they am not provided it >1L what is
the natural result’ * The |tkrllhiH»d is definitely in i nereis*- ;n 
1
rnterii diseases
The use r»f .in unlenc ed open pond Of r.iw wafer for drinking makes it easy for a typhoid carrier^ for instance. to spread 
hlS disease to the rest of the village \ nd the inadequacy 
the witrr supply means less wishing of < lathes md the prrsor which in turn means t mure suit ible environment for (htrstr (omrminH itiori (fraihauna firing i prime example)
In parti* ular, i number nf rlcseasr factors c »ti be identified 
tn a major irrigated agrlrulliirr scheme
a) fhj*_ Water envi ronment The high ve Im dim (0 5-0, 75 
meters soc) that often prevail in primary canals -ire
gradually rerhu trd to zero at th* end of th** t law - net war < l fi the small field channels Therefore, velocities m
secondary and tertiary < ■ rials ire usually low enough 
(less than 0 i meters net ) for mads to thrive Food is provided hy th*’ rrcurring growth of aquatic plants and b> domestic pollution, especially nea r villages After some
time, many ureasi of stagnant water may develop to allow
the intensive breeding of both snails and mo< iu;to«s suah examples hemg < mat dead-ends. pci nd* tram canal aver* flow, eroded are is it the ends of culverts. b!o* krd ixcua
and so on. To these can be added watering points for am* mats, reservoirs md ponds and m.ifty areas tn the future drainage network A* long as spec Lal prec .vutior.. * *v meas ures are not taken tn the design and operation of aa lfFixa tion iyitcrr. of open earth c ituli tn a tropic il climateonr mU5t expert th** development of snail habitat* iwi
mosquito - breeding 
throughout th” « irfate *!*'-•?
Disease vectors As i resu it of the development of • ich vector breeding-place*. « proliferation of sn.nh ind mosqutlnm can be expected Th** * nail - vector « of bith-ar- ziasis are believed to be vl ready in the Are* ind *ilj naturally increase with other development* So too will
the mosquito • vector of malirta, which even now, sv th* worst disease problem tn the Are i rhe irrious develop ment of other water related diseases such a * yellow frv*r (mosquito). filhiriisi* (mosquito), onchocerciasis ■ bL& * fly). i nd I rypnuimimh si * (tsetse fly}. cannot be ruled a:r is long is potential breeding places for their vector* srr
to be allowed to increase so subs!anti 111 v
1 |vpni rijw’ ha viur This is of less import mi e for the mosquito md fly'borne diseases. lor in sm h c:?r« 
the mere present of a human host ind the disease is
enough for the vector tu spread transmission Not *0 
with bilharziasis for whlih the human hn .* vitil role • -.* play Plrst. he must pollute (urinary or fecal) a water • body inhabited with snail vet tor*. This 1* COmmonph e near villages. especially by children, and also m the
fields by farm workers. And secondly* he must contact sm h a waterbody with his bare skin Agun. children 
wide and play in nearby wdrr without rriurh encourage« me nt, anil women often use such waterbodies tor washing clothes and rooking utensils And in the field, bare-
footed farm workers must often get into • inais tor their annual • leaning or to divert them for irrigating young plots (r. g Sug 1 r 1 me it Wunji K stale lipper Aw.iihl
Di seise preva terne It is evident that The prevailing con ditions in the Area will lead to a greater prevalence at
some water - re Ln ed diseases arwl a greater threat from others Bllha rii i si s Li perhaps the worst of all because control measure* *rr mure difficult to enforce and less effective thin. rriiliria ind others49 *
The*'* arc the m hr problem* which will h«*e tn b* 1*< bv 
the Authority engaged in or<intmnst irrigation in th*   **  = . 
<r
These problems h ive been taken into ic count *hcn designing the irrigation network and the urbamstr* tayotit« b*it it i? ... * more important to keep them in mind wh*n implem anting Th- Project.

< <

Summery

Summary of Melka Sadi-Amibara Irrigation Project Feasibility Study

Melka Sadi-Amibara Irrigation Project Feasibility Study

Volume 7: Sociological and Health Aspects

Document Overview

Prepared by Italconsult for the Imperial Ethiopian Government's Awash Valley Authority (July 1969), this feasibility study examines the sociological and health implications of settling small farmers in the Melka Sadi-Amibara irrigation project area.

Key Sections

1. Sociological Aspects

The study focuses on settling two groups:

The Afar: Traditionally pastoral nomads (1,000-1,200 families) needing significant cultural adaptation to agricultural life
The Highlanders: Farmers from overpopulated areas more accustomed to agriculture but needing commercial farming skills

Major Challenges

Dietary changes (especially for Afar transitioning from milk/meat to agricultural diet)
Transition from pastoral to agricultural lifestyle
Adaptation to commercial agriculture
Development of cooperative management structures
Integration between Afar and Highlander communities

Implementation Plan

A 15-year phased approach:

Phase	Years	Focus
Selection	1-5	Family selection and initial training
Experimental	6-10	Practical farming experience
Assisted Management	11-15	Transition to self-management

2. Health Aspects

Current Conditions

Afar population maintains good health despite basic living conditions, primarily due to milk-based diet
High infant mortality rate (45.7%)
Common diseases: malaria, trachoma, parasitic infections

Future Considerations

Need for dietary adjustments with increased physical labor
Potential disease risks from irrigation (bilharzia, malaria)
Importance of planned village layouts for health service delivery
Need for water sanitation systems

Key Recommendations

Gradual transition for Afar pastoralists to agricultural life
Comprehensive training programs in farming techniques and cooperative management
Maintenance of some milk supply for Afar settlers
Health infrastructure planning integrated with settlement design
Preventive measures against water-borne diseases