FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
WOLKAYITE IRRIGATION FEASIBILITY AND DETAIL DESIGN PROJECT
VOLUME V AGRICULTURE
PART I: AGRONOMY & AGRICULTURE PLANNING
JULY 2009
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P.O? Box 2561, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel. 251-11-6614501/6631890 Fax: 251-11-6615371 E-mail: w.w.d.s.e@telecom.net.etFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
1)   Project Executive Summary
2)    Main Report
3)    Vol. I Survey and Investigations
•      Part I       Soil Survey
•      Part II      Land Suitability Evaluation
•      Part III Annexure to Soil Survey
•      Part IV Geological and Geotechnical Investigations
4)    Vol. II Water Resources
•      Part I       Hydrology
•      Part II      Hydrogeology
5)   Vol. Ill Head Works & Feeder Canal
•      Part I      Report
•      Part II     Drawings
6)    Vol. IVA Irrigation & Drainage Network
•      Part I        Report
•      Part II      Drawings
7)   Vol. IVB Canal Structures
•      Part I       Report
•      Part II      Drawings
8)    Vol. V Agriculture
Part I      Agronomy  and Agriculture Planning Part II      Agriculture   Mechanization
Part III    Agriculture   Marketing
Part IV    Livestock
9)   Vol. VI Environment and Socio-Economy
•      Part I       Socio-Economy
•      Part II      Environmental Impact Assessment
•      Part III     Organization and Management
•      Part IV    Financial and Economic Analysis
10)   Vol. VII Natural Resources
•      Part I
Forestry
•      Part II
Energy
11)   Vol. VIII Infrastructure Development
•      Part I       Public Health
•      Part II      Settlement Planning
•      Part III     Physical Infrastructure
12)   Vol. IX Cost Estimate
13)   Vol. X Fishery Study
14) Vol. XI Watershed Management Study
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACRONYMSVl
EXECUTIVE SUMMARYvl11
1.0. INTRODUCTION1
1.1. Food ano nutritional security status1
1.2. AGRICULTURAL POLICIES AND PROGRAMS2
1.3. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES6
1.4           SCOPE OF STUDY7
1.5.          APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY8
2.0. SOIL, LAND USE, AND CLIMATE9
2.1  SOILS9
2.2 PRESENT LAND USE SYSTEM AND NATURAL VEGETATION9
2.3. CLIMATE11
3. EXISTING SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND AGRICULTURAL STATUS OF WICA18
3.1. INTRODUCTION18
3.2. Background of the Study Areas18
3.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS19
3              4 DELOPMENT IN PROGRESS21
3 5 LIVESTOCK22
3.6 COOPERATIVES22
3.7 STATUS OF AGRICULTURE23
3.8. COMMODITY PRICES IN THE COMMAND AREA25
3.9. STATUS OF AGRI-MARKETING25
3.10 STORAGES26
3.11 ROADS AND TRANSPORTATION26
3.12 PERIOD OF SALE AND PRICES26
3.13 CONSTRAINTS26
3.14 CORRECTIVE MEASURES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS27
4.0 DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS AND POTENTIALS27
4 1 MAJOR PRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS27
4.2.          Productions Potentials31
5. PROPOSED CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN33
5 1 INTRODUCTION
5 2 CROPPING SYSTEMS
5.3           CROP PLANNING34
5 4 EXISTING STATUS OF FARMING SYSTEM IN PROJECT COMMAND35
5.5 GOVERNMENT POLICY TOWARDS AGRICULTURE 36
5.6 CRITERIA FOR CROP SELECTION
5.7 CLIMATE OF THE PROJECT COMMAND 37
33
33
5.8 RESPONSE OF CROPS TOWARDS IRRIGATION 5.9 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION 37
....
5.10 MARKETABILITY OF CROPSL.ZZZZZ"”.."’..’.’”" Z.Z....ZZ1.
5.11 MAJOR CROPS OF PROJECT COMMAND AND WOREDA39
5 12 PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN AND CROP CALENDAR40
5 13. CROPPING PATTERNS AND INTENSITIES .41
5.14         OPERATIONAL CROP CALENDAR AND CROPPING INTENSITIES41
6.0. CROP WATER REQUIREMENT50
6 1 INTRODUCTION50
6.2.          PROCEDURE FOR COMPUTATION OF CWR 50
6 3 SOURCES OF CLIMATIC DATA .
6.4.          ESTIMATION OF ETO
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.. 37
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Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
6.6. CROP WISE CWR AND NIR REQUIREMENT DURING THE RAINY SEASON54
6.7. SUMMARY OF CWR AND NIR69
6.8           RECOMMENDED MEASURES FOR EFFICIENT IRRIGATION WATER UTILIZATION71
6.9. INTERIM RECOMMENDATIONS74
6.10. IRRIGATION STATUS IN TIGRAY REGION 78
6.11. IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY78
6.12. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION80
6.13. TARGET SMALLHOLDERS 81
6.14  WATER FOR RAINFED CROPS81
7.0 CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF IMPORTANT CROPS82
7.1 INTRODUCTION82
7.2 SORGHUM82
7.3 FINGERMILLET86
7.4 TEFF89
7.5. MAIZE91
7.6. RICE96
7.7  SESAME106
7.8 CHICKPEA111
7.9   LENTIL114
7.10GROUNDNUT117
7.11. Soybean121
7.12 Field peas126
7.12. Cotton129
7.13. SUGARCANE133
7.14 VEGETABLE CROPS134
7.15 FRUIT CROPS153
7.16 Grasses and legumes161
7.17 IMPROVEMENT OF GRASSLANDS177
8. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND STORAGE180
8.1
8 2 POST-HARVEST LOSSES
INTRODUCTION
8.3  POST- HARVEST OPERATIONS AND VALUE ADDITION181
8.4
8.5.
8 6. STORAGE187 8.7 CONCLUSION
SUSTENANCE POST-HARVEST
OF TECHNOLOGY
8 8 POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT
8.9. PRE-HARVEST FACTORS189
8.10    POSTHARVEST FACTORS
9. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH       198
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2.          STATUS OF AGRI-RESEAROH IN ETHIOPIA
180
180
PROCESSING181
183
188
188
191
198
..................................... 198
9.3 STATUS OF NATIONAL AND REGIONAL STATE AGRI-RESEARCH200
9.4  AGRI-RESEARCH STRATEGY............................................................................ 202
10. COST OF CULTIVATION, RETURNS AND PROJECTED CROP PRODUCTION203
10 1. INTRODUCTION
10 2 CROP PRODUCTION IN NORTH WEST TIGRAY ........................................................................ 10 3 RAINFED PRODUCTION SYSTEM
10 4 IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM .
10 5 PRESENT STATUS
10 6 PROJECTED YIELD OF IRRIGATED CROPS. ..............................................................................
REFERENCES
203
204
204
204
209
220
224
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Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design ProjectAgronomy & Agriculture Planning ANNEXURE I VEGETATION TYPE AND RELATIVE HABITAT228
ANNEXURES227
ANNEXLIRE II DELINEATED AGRO CLIMATIC ZONES & COVERAGE IN WOLKAYITE WOREDA, 2008— 228
ANNEXURE III RAINFALL (MM) OF THE FOUR STATIONS AND THE PROCESSED RAINFALL OF THE COMMAND AREA229
ANNEXURE IV (A) PROPOSED CROP VARIETIES DURING THE RAINY AND DRY SEASONS... 229 ANNEXURE IV (B) IMPORTANT CROPS AND Tl IEIR PACKAGE OF PRODUCTION RELEVANT
TOWICA234 ANNEXURE V CROP BUDGET FOR EXISTING CROPS237
ANNEXURE VI A DETAILS OF EXPECTED PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN THE COMMAND AREA UNDER 239
ANNEXURE VI (B) I DETAILS OF EXPECTED PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN THE COMMAND ARE/\ UNDER243
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Mean monthly temperature in Wolkayite command area (averaged over 52 years 1952
-2004)12 Table 2 2 MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL, RELATIVE HUMIDITY. SUNSHINE HOURS AND WIND
SPEED      (JANUARY      TO      DECEMBER      )      IN      WOLKAYITE      COMMAND      AREA15 Table 2.3 Effective Rainfall and Evapotranspiration from January to December in Wolkayite
Command
Area17
Table          3.1        Present          Status          of          weeds,        insect          pests          and          diseases25
Table
Table
3.2               Commodity                   Prices
in                   Maigaba                   Market25
5.1                    Existing                         Cropsand                         their                         Groups40
Table   5.2   Yield   of   major   crops   under   different   level   of   technologies   at   Wolkayite40 Table 5.3 Summary on the proposed crop calendar, cropping pattern, percent cropping
intensity      and      CCA     under      different      crops      across      the      seasons      (Option-I)43 Table 5.4 Summary on the proposed crop calendar, cropping pattern, percent cropping
INTENSITY      AND      CCA      UNDER      DIFFERENT      CROPS      ACROSS      THE      SEASONS      (OPTION-II)45 Table 5. 5 A one year schematic representation of crop rotation during the rainy and dry
SEASONS47
Table 5.6 Proposed crop rotation scheme under both seasons over the project periods48
Table 6 1 Seasonal NIR (in 000’ m3) on a 1 00ha command area at Wolkayite Project command area (option-I)52
Table 6.2 Seasonal NIR (in 000’ m3) on a 1 OOha command area at Wolkayite Project command area (Option-II)52
Table 6.3 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in 000'm ) During the Rainy Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-I)55
Table 6.4 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in 000'm ) During the Rainy Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-II)57
Table 6.5 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in 000'm ) During the Dry Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-I)59
Table 6.6 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in 000’m ) During the Dry Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-II)60
Table 6.7 Crop-wise summary of seasonal CWR & NIR for Wolkayite Irrigation Development on a 1 00ha Command Area62
Table 6. 8 Crop-wise summary of seasonal CWR & NIR for Wolkayite Irrigation Development on a 100ha Command Area (Option-II)63
Table 7.1 Major Teff Varieties recommended for different agroecological zones in the Semi-
3
3
3
3
Arid
Areas
of
Ethiopia90
Table      7.2     Chemical      control      of      various      diseases      and      insects-pests      of      Rice104
Table     7.    3    Important     insect     pests     of     sesame     and     their     integrated     management109
Table              7.4           Important              sesame              diseases              and              their              control110
Table  8.1 Unit  operations  for  food, fruits, vegetables  and  animal  products  for  processing  and preservation182
Table 8.2 Maturity indices of some fruits and vegtables190
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Table  8.  3  Storage  life  of  some  fruits  and  vegetables  with  and  without  wax  treatment  at
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE.......................................................................................................................... 194
Table   10.1  Area   and   Production   (in’000)  of   different   crop   groups   during   the   meher   season,
2007-08.......................................................................................................................................................... 204
Table 10 2 Net Returns and Total production of existing crops in the command area................................205
Table  10.  3  Expected  Production  of   Various  Crops  in  the  Command  Area  under  Post-project
Condition (Option-I).................................................................................................................................... 205
Table   10  4  Expected   Production   of   Various   Crops   in   the   Command   Area   under   Post-project
Condition (Option-II)................................................................................................................................... 206
Table 10.5 Crop budget for the proposed crops under post project condition.......................................... 207
Table 10.6 Average crop yield growth for the period from 1980-2001......................................................... 209
Table 10 7 Proposed yield (qt/ha) projections under irrigated farming (Option-I & Option-II) 211
Table 10. 8 Existing and proposed post irrigation yield/ha for different crops in Wolkayite
command area
(Option-I)..............................................................................................................................211
Table
10.  9  Existing  and  proposed  post  irrigation  yield/ha  for  different  crops  in  Wolkayite
COMMAND AREA (OPTION-II).................................................................................................................... 212
Table
10.10  Crop   yields   and   total   production   under   existing   farm   practice   in   Wolkayite
Command area (Option-I)............................................................................................................................. 213
Table
10.11  Crop   yields   and   total   production   under   existing   farm   practice   in   Wolkayite
Command area (Option-II)........................................................................................................................... 214
Table   10.12  The   ultimate   crop   yields   and   production   under   the   proposed   irrigated   farm
practice in Wolkayite command area (Option-I)...................................................................................... 215
Table   10.13  The   ultimate   crop   yields   and   production   under   the   proposed   irrigated   farm
practice in Wolkayite command area (Option-II)...................................................................................... 215
Table   10.14  Comparison   between   pre   and   post   project   period   production   in   Wolkayite
COMMAND AREA (OPTION-l)..................................................................................................................... 216
Table   10.15  Comparison   between   pre   and   post   project   period   production   in   Wolkayite
COMMAND AREA (OPTION-II).................................................................................................................... 217
Table 10.16      Proposed outputs of crops under irrigated farming (Option-I)..........................................217
Table 10. 17      proposed outputs of crops under irrigated farming (Option-II)......................................... 219
Table 10.18       Expected Production and Gains due to Irrigation (Option-I)............................................... 220
Table 10.19       Expected Production and Gains due to Irrigation (Option-II).............................................. 220
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Project area map including Command area............................................................................................5
Figure 2. 1 Maximum, Minimum and Mean temperature (0 C) in Wolkayite Command Area............................... 13
Figure 2. 2. Rainfall (mm) distribution in Wolkayite command area................................................................... 16
Figure 5.1 Operational crops calendar and percent cropping intensity during the rainy and dry
Seasons.......................................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 6 1 Partitioning of rainfall at field level Source: Regassa Namara et al. (2006)............................ 76
Figure 6. 2 Road runoff harvesting into a channel for banana production, Arbaminch, Ethiopia,
2006.................................................................................................................................................................77
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ACRONYMS
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
ADLIP AFPL AIDB ARARI BD BWF BWFs Ca CBE CCA CEC
Cl
CO3 CP CSA CWSL DAS DPL EA ECe EIA
E1AR EMP EPE EPLAUA
ERHA ESAT ESSS EWNHS EWRMP EWSS FAO FC
FPL AAP FYM GCA GDP GUPL GWF
H2O
ha HARC HCN HCO3 HI ICRISAT ILRI IPNM IR
IWMI
Agricultural  Development  Led  Industrial  Development  Program Almost Flat Plain Land
Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank
Amhara Regional Agricultural Research Institute
Bulk Density
Blue Water Flow
Blue Water Flows
Calcium
Commercial Bank of Ethiopia
Cultivable Command Area
Cation Exchange Capacity
Chlorine/Chloride
Carbonate
Crude Protein
Central Statistics Agency
Critical Water Stress Levels
Days after Sowing
Dissected Plain Land
Environmental Assessment
Electrical Conductivity
Environment Impact Assessment
Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research
Environment Management Plan
Environmental Policy of Ethiopia
Environmental Protection. Land Administration and Use
Authority
Ethiopian Rainwater Harvesting Association
Ethiopian Society for Appropriate Technology
Ethiopian Society of Soil Science
Ethiopian Wild Life and Natural History Society
Ethiopian Water Resource Management Policy
Ethiopian Water Sector Strategy
Food and Agriculture Organization
Field Capacity
Flat Plain Land
Agronomy & Agricultural Planning
Farm Yard Manure
Gross Command Area
Gross Domestic Product
Gently Undulating Plain Land
Green Water Flow
Water
hectare
Humera Agricultural Research Centre
Hydrocyanic acid
Bicarbonate
Hill
International  Crops  Research  Institute  for  Semi  -  Arid  Tropics International Livestock Research Institute
Integrated Plant Nutrient Management Infiltration Rate
International Water Management Institute
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KCL LDMP LUT MARC MCE MDGs Mg
Ml MoARD MoWR Na NEDECO NEPA NIA PASDEP
PRISM PWP
q
q/ha RCS AAP RDB REA REST RSG RT RWH SA SARC SEU SHG SM SSA SSI SUN
SWMnet TAMS TARI TDTCO TOR TRB UNECA USAID USDA VLW WAI WCA WHC WICA WIP WIPA WUAs
Potassium Chloride
Livestock Development Master Plan
Land utilization Types
Mekele Agricultural Research Center
Metaferia Consulting Engineers
Millennium Development Goals
Magnesium
Micro Irrigation
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
Ministry of Water Resources
Sodium
Netherlands Engineering Consultants
Natural Environmental Protection Authority
Net Irrigable Area
Plan  for  Accelerated  and  Sustainable  Development  to  End Poverty
Poverty Reduction through Irrigation and Smallholder Markets Permanent Wilting Percentage
Quintal
quintal(s) per hectare
Rural Credit Services
Agronomy & Agricultural Planning
Rural Development Bank
Regional Environmental Agency
Relief Society of Tigray
Reference Soil Group
River Terrace
Rain Water Harvesting
Semi - Arid (Agro ecologies)
Sirinka Agricultural Research Center
Sectoral Environmental Unit
Self Help Group
Sub - Moist (Agro ecologies)
Sub-Saharan Africa
Small Scale Irrigation
Sustainable Utilization of Natural Resources for improved food Security Program of Tigray
Soil and Water Management network
Tipetts - Abbett - Me Carthy Stratton
Tigray Agricultural Research Institute
Tana Dashen Trading Company Tigray
Terms of References
Tekeze River Basin
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa United States Agency for International Development United States Department of Agriculture
Village Level Worker
Water Availability Index
Wolkayite Command Area
Water Holding Capacity
Wolkayite Irrigation Command Area Wolkayite Irrigation Project Wolkayite Irrigation Project Area Water Users Association
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Agriculture assumes  the most important place in Ethiopia as  it is  the main source of country's  economy. More than 40% of the gross  domestic  production (G.D.P), 85% job opportunities  and over 70% of the export earnings  are obtained from agriculture besides providing food, shelter and social security. Out of about 13 million hectare arable area, around 6 to 7 million ha is estimated to be covered under crop production. Within the sector nearly  60% of the output comes  from crop production. Main area is  covered under cereals i.e. 78% (maize, sorghum, teff, barley, wheat etc  ) followed by  pulses  (10%), coffee (4%), oilseeds  (3%), while the remaining area is  being put under certain minor crops. Out of the total cropped area 96% is covered by the small peasants.
In 1997, global food grain production was  1881 million tons, which was  more than the previous  record of 1869 million tons  in 1996. But, the availability  per capita slided down to 322 from 324 kg/capita estimated for 1996. In Ethiopia the present annual per capita consumption of cereals  and pulses  in the country  is  163 kg as  compared to UNICEF standard of 240 kg and that of the average for developing countries  of 230 kg (2100 calories) Though considerable increase is  possible through intensification of rainfed agriculture, it would fall due to ever increasing population. Still a greater cause of concern is the food availability to the poorest section of the society.
Considering the whole scenario of need and status  of agricultural development in the country, the Federal Democratic  Republic  of Ethiopia has  given one of the highest priorities to irrigated crop agriculture. The Water Resource Development is  one of the most important steps  to boost crops  yields  and alleviate poverty  through irrigated farming practice. Moreover, based on "Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI)" strategy, the government and allied responsible bodies  aimed to improve the life of rural people through increased food supply  and export items  through diversified production system to make agriculture the driving force for economic  development. Hence, the study  on Irrigation Agronomy  and Agriculture Planning bears  great significance in the feasibility  study  of Wolkayite Irrigation Project (WIP).
Wolkayite Irrigation Project command area falls  under five Kebeles, namely. Mai-timket. Delesa kokah, Mai-geba, Tsebri and Lailai Mai-humer. Out of the Kebele's  total land area of 124,671 ha, only  45,958 ha lie in the command of the WIP. The WIP command and catchment is  very  sparsely  populated with a very  low cropping intensity. A lot of potential land is  still left uncultivated. Crop and livestock  production technologies  are still traditional though mixed farming system is  common in the area. The existing production system is obsolete and there is a very limited introduction of modern inputs like fertilizers, improved
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crop varieties, quality  seed and agro-chemicals. Apart from this, the recurrent natural hazards  like drought, land degradation, deforestation, hail, frost, flood and drainage problems etc have resulted in poor yield in both project command and catchment area.
Based on the information on the existing crops  in the command area and farmers requirement, it has been proposed to grow cereals (sorghum, finger-millet, tef, wheat, barley, rice and maize), pulses  (lentil, fababean, soybean, chick  pea, field pea and cowpea), oil seeds  (sesame, noug). vegetables  (onion, shallot, potato, tomato) fruits  (citrus, papaya, mango, and banana), and commercial (sugarcane, cotton) crops. Crop pattern inclusive of the Crop Water Requirement (CWR) and Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) of these crops were worked out following the procedures  and guidelines  of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
A  holistic  research  approach  constitutes  basic  and  essential  ingredients  of  technological advancement  of  a  country.  No  purposeful  organization  built  for  agricultural  technology  for demonstration   and   extension   to   the   target   group   of  people  shall  be  successful  unless adequately  supported  by  both  basic  and  applied  research  or  else  it  would  be  a  house  built on  sand.  Science  and  technology  constitute  the  driving  force  for  a  balanced  agricultural growth  and  development.  The  Institute  of  Agricultural  Research  now  known  as  Ethiopian Institute  of  Agricultural  Research  or  EIAR)  should  also  contribute  towards  development  and management  of  irrigated  agriculture  through  appropriate  research  activities  in  addition  to rainfed  system  of  agriculture.  In  Ethiopia,  agricultural  research  is  being  administered  and guided  by  Ethiopian  Institute  of  Agricultural  Research  and  Regional  Agricultural  Research Institutes  through  its  number  of  research  centers  spread  all  over  the  country  Researches are  being  conducted  on  different  crops.  Summary  of  the  research  results  obtained  at  a national/regional  level  were  summarized  and  included  as  part  the  irrigation  activities  to  be considered for WIP implementation.
The yield projection of WIP has  been proposed based on the availability  of the unexploited resources that could go in the production of crops and the adoption of improved agricultural practices  on poverty  alleviation and ascertaining food security  in the area. The project document briefly  explains  the overall WIP achievement in respect of crop yields  and production benefits  Moreover, summary  on year-wise break  down for the total proposed cultivated land and crop production is  presented. Important recommendations  have-been made for introduction of irrigated production system for increasing the productivity  and production of food grains, cash and other exportable crops  in view of existing socio economic situation of the farmers, soils and climatic conditions.
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1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1.     Food and nutritional security status
The present annual per capita consumption of cereals and pulses in Ethiopia is 163 kg as  compared to UNICEF standard of 240 kg and that of the average for developing countries  of 230 kg (2100 calories). Though considerable increase is  possible through intensification of rainfed agriculture, but it would fall short due to ever increasing population of the country. The problem of food and nutritional security  is  more critical among most of the African countries  on account of various  reasons  such as  high population growth rate, natural calamities, viz. drought, flood, etc. affecting agriculture.
The population of Ethiopia from 68 million in 1990 is  now about 80 million. The population growth is  estimated at the rate of approximately  2.8% which doubles  the population every quarter of a century. The wider poverty vicious circle of Ethiopia takes dimensions of population growth, food insecurity, malnutrition in addition to other equally vital components of this cycle. It may be added here that Ethiopia is one of the largest countries  in Africa. It covers  a land area of 1.13 million km2; it is  the second most populous  country  in Sub-Saharan Africa (Mengiste. 2006). Its  85% of population is dependent on agriculture and live in rural areas. Agriculture employs 80% of the labour force and accounts for 50% of GDP. It has a surface area of about 1.127 million km2 of which 1,119,683 km2 is  land and 7,444 km2 is  water area. About 49% of the total population is considered under nourished. Incidence of poverty in rural areas is 47% as against 33% in urban areas  These areas  also suffer from maladies  viz., food insecurity and malnutrition.
The major cause of household and individual level food insecurity In WIP command area and the country at large is the lack of minimum purchasing power essential for economic access to balanced diet Although WIP area is endowed with potential irrigable area and water source, this  has  not been exploited to meet the ever increasing requirement of foodstuffs  in concomitant with the speedy  growth of population. In the project command area, the major manifestation of production problems arise from the use of low quality inputs in fragmented landholdings  with erratic  rainfall scenario As  a result, the agricultural practices  in the area suffer from frequent periods  of drought followed by  hunger and malnutrition. Coupled with the major practical problems of the community i.e., water supply schemes, health services, income generating schemes etc . the problem of adequate food supply  is  exacerbating food insecurity  and the deterioration of household income. The famine of jobs or livelihood opportunities leads to the famine of food at house hold level, thus  emphasizing the need that the development strategies  lead to the job oriented economic growth To achieve the anticipated economic growth agricultural research
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institutions  and agricultural development organizations, both in government and non government sectors  have to work  together in an integrated manner and achieve the triple goals of “more food" “more income' and more jobs.
To  keep  pace  with  rapid  rate  of  population  growth,  the  country  needs  to  produce  or import   extra   quantity   of   food   grains   annually,   besides   significant   enhancement   in   the production  of  livestock,  fish  and  horticultural  products.  This  has  to  be  accomplished  in the  present  scenario  of  declinirg  total  factor  productivity  growth,  shrinking  arable  land and  holding  size,  depleting  natural  resource  base,  increasing  biotic  and  abiotic  stresses and  an  out  dated  knowledge  transfer  system.  Availability  of  water  and  energy  at  present remains  a  constraint.  The  slow  growth  of  employment  in  agriculture  and  other  sectors threatens   the   income   base   and   food   entitlement   of   poor.   Health   and   education deficiencies,   female   illiteracy   and   gender   inequities,   and   growing   feminization   further restrict   both   income   and   employment   opportunities.   Declining   capital   investment   and resource   availability   constraint   the   development   of   physical   and   social   infrastructure particularly,   in   rural   sector.   Domestic   market   imperfections,   price   volatility,  food  quality and  safety  and  phytosanitary  concerns  are  critical.  The  world  trade  organization  (WTO) and  energy.  Intellectual  Properly  Rights  (IPR)  regimes  affect  the  free  flow  of  advanced technology    and    knowledge.    The    globalization    of    markets    will    influence    domestic production,   employment   and   price   stability.   The   country's   trade   prospects   would   hinge on factors such as price competitiveness, quality and consistency of supply.
1.2. Agricultural Policies and Programs
1.2.1. National and Regional Agricultural Policies
The Federal governments  of Ethiopia has  initiated and introduced a number of reforms aimed at transforming the previously  centralized economic  policy  to new and free marketing economy. It has  formulated the agricultural strategy  called ADLI that is "Agricultural Development Led Industrialization" with overall framework  of policies  and priorities  of agricultural production. It was  formulated based on characterizing of agricultural sectors  and outlining the major issues  and constraints  hindering the production and productivity  of the sector in the country  to achieve the main objectives  of the strategy outlined below:
• Attain self sufficiency in food production and improve the quality of life of rural people.
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•    Increasing production of food supply in order to feed not only the population of
the sector but also the population of other sectors,
•    Produce cash and industrial crops for export and import substitution*
•    Full and efficient utilization of land and water resources,
•    Attain maximum potential of agricultural production while maintaining
environmental and ecological balance and
•    To increase and diversify the production of raw materials for industry,
•    To increase and diversify the production for export and
•    To make agriculture the driving force for economic development.
•    Secure more balanced regional development and create opportunities for
employment.
The  objectives  have  been  aimed  to  be  met  through  the  improvement  of  productivity  of smallholder farming and extensive and intensive commercial agricultural development.
1.2.2. Regional Agricultural Programs
Tigray  National Regional State (ONRS) has  also adopted the federal agricultural development strategy  and formulated plans  and programme for the same depending on the resource, social and political condition of the region for a period of five years.
1.2.3. Zonal Agricultural Programmes
The Western Zone has  also adopted the federal agricultural development strategy  and formulated the same the five year plans  depending on the resource, social and political condition of the zone.
1.2.4. Wolkayite Irrigation Project
Wolkayite  Irrigation  Project  (WIP)  lies  in  the  Tekeze  River  Basin  in  North-West  Ethiopia in Wolkayite Woreda of the Tigray National Regional State (Fig. 1.1).
The gross command area is estimated to be about 45959 hectares and lies on left bank of Zarima and Tekeze rivers. The culturable command area is  29231 ha and net irrigable area is  27039 ha Out of which 23768 ha would be irrigated by  gravity  and remaining 3271 ha would be irrigated by  lift. The water needed to irrigate the command area would be drawn from Dukuko River, which is  perennial and originate from the highlands of Lemalemo and Adi Rametse areas, respectively.
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Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project The basic objective of the WIP is to:
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
i.           Increase food production both quantitatively and qualitatively to feed the local populationadequately.
ii.          Improve the quality of life of the rural population through generation of higher
income.
ii. Leading objective is to maintain and stabilize food security on sustainable basis 
both at the household and regional and/or national level.
iv.   Optimize   the   agri-production   from   the   available   land   and   water   resources   for long-range    sustainability    without    impairing    the    quality    of    land,    soil    and environment.
The aforesaid aims  call for formulation of scientifically  sound and locally  acceptable package of agronomic  practices  including irrigation practices  suitable for crop production/sustainable farming practices  to boost production per unit area, time and input from the available land and water resources. It is  also expected to suggest economically  viable remedial measures  to correct the current deficiencies, commensurating with the local situation. All the above objectives  are directed and are to be implemented either at least to minimize or wholly  alleviate poverty  through enhancement of local employment opportunities  to increase income of all the people of the area
The exercise would require the identification of land suitability  for irrigation matching with technical feasibility, economical viability  and social acceptability  adoption on woreda and household level. Efforts  would also be made to eliminate or minimize the risk  of crop failure due to unpredictable rainfall behaviour. It would be achieved by  helping the farmers  and/or other growers  to have sufficient knowledge of dos  and don'ts  needed for a sustainable irrigated agriculture vis-a-vis  present soil, climate and overall land characteristics  Crops, crop sequences  and crop combinations  (for intercropping or mixed cropping), livestock  products  forestry/agro-forestry  products  would be identified for their optimum utilization. The farmers  of the area would be given practical proposals and techniques to increase productivity per unit area, time and inputs.
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Figure 1: Project area map including Command area
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1.3. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES 1.3.1. The Ethiopian economy
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The Ethiopian economy  is  dominated by  small holders  and their subsistence agriculture, which account for 46 percent of GDP and 85 percent of employment. Since agriculture is one of the most important sectors  of economic  development of country, all future trend of development of this  sector would be guided by  the efficiency  of management of this  sector along with other relevant resources. In this  context, in the past several studies, both by external and internal agencies  have been conducted in the country. Some of the studies conducted by external agencies have been reviewed and their relevant findings are given.
1.3.2. Study Report TRB-IDMPP
Although no detailed soil survey  or land evaluation has  so far been done, studies  at the reconnaissance level for whole of the Tekeze basin are available. In this  regard, TRB- IDMPP volume XIII, Soil and Terrain Part-I provide some useful information During the reconnaissance stage of study, it was  found that at Wolkayite farm areas  more than 40 - 60 % of the area is  highly  suitable, moderately  suitable and marginally  suitable and the remaining beyond this  was  unsuitable for irrigated agriculture. The main limitations  were identified as  inadequate drainage, difficulty  in land preparation, limited soil depth and mechanization potential.
The standard land suitability  classification for irrigation has  been at three levels  by  FAO (1976). Broadly, suitable (S) and unsuitable (N) classes  have been distinguished. The second level of suitability  classes  have been specified based on the degree of suitability  for irrigated agriculture and unsuitability  due to economic  and physical impediments. Land Utilization Types  (LUT) have been defined based on suitability  of a specific  area of land for specific  LUT under a proposed system of management and input level. One of the major proposed land use systems  involving agricultural crops  namely, sugarcane, sorghum, maize, sesame, wheat, tomato, some fodder crops  etc. at a high to medium scale of agricultural development were considered for evaluation and appeared fully  suitable. This  aspect is  the main component of development in the area to identify  prospects, constraints  and economic viability  of the proposed management and input levels. This  approach would help to identify possible opportunities  and the type of improvements  required to be formulated for use in the area.
1.3.3. Study by WAPCOS (1990)
Water   and   power   consultancy   services   (India)   limited   (WAPCOS),   during   1988-1990   in collaboration   with   Ethiopia   Valleys   Development   Studies   Authority   carried   out   the   studies   of all  14  river  basins  of  Ethiopia  based  on  the  secondary  data  without  collection  of  the  actual field  level  data.  On  the  basis  of  reconnaissance  level  study,  they  prepared  the  preliminary water Resources Development Master Plan for the country. This plan indicated water
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resources  potential and utilization for the next 50years  covering various  aspects  of agriculture under irrigated and rainfed agro-ecosystems  and other water use areas. They also made efforts  to delineate the agro-eco-regions  of the country, land use pattern, soil characteristics, land use capabilities  and discussed their significance for agricultural production and land use planning. The study  also highlighted the cropping plans  and crop calendar for the project command as  a general guideline. The study  related to agronomy discussed the characteristics  of traditional agro-climatic  zones  and ecological zones  on the basis  of interrelated physical, abiotic  and biotic  parameters  and indicated the length of crop growing period, the cropping systems  at various  altitudes  and temperature regimes. The details  of major vegetation types  for different soils  have also been mentioned but they  are not specific  to the command area. The study  has  also divided the country  into 7 thermal zones  from the crop production point of view particularly  under irrigated production systems. These are based on the altitudes  and temperature regimes  for particular altitudes  along with the crops  as  per their adaptability  for the entire country. The general guidelines  for crop selection criteria pertaining to the climate and soils  have been discussed along with crop production practices  in the country  as  a whole with a brief review of livestock  management under mixed farming system.
1.3.4. Study by BCEOM (1999)
BCEOM- French Engineering Consultant in association with ISL and BRGM provided consultancy  to Ministry  of Water Resources, GOE. Since 1994 in 3 phases  which was completed in 1999 They  prepared integrated Development Master plan for Abbay  River Basin based on several previous  studies, which generally  focused on irrigation and use of extensive resources  of the basin. This  also included the above studies  of USBR (1964), and WAPCOS (1988-90). The study  also aimed at the exploitation of existing water potential of the above basins  for the overall improvement in agricultural economy  through enhancement of agricultural and livestock  productivity. These reports  reviewed the over all situation of markets  for food crops  and livestock  products, role of livestock  in farming system, poverty and socio-economic  condition of farmers  of the basin. The study  found the climatic unreliability, particularly  insufficient rainfall and absence of irrigation as  one of the important reasons  for low production and poor productivity. The report also discussed the agricultural system existing in the region and zone in which the present project command falls. The report related to agricultural plans  described various  production constraints  of the above basin and suggested strategies  for enhancement of production and productivity  under the existing potentials  of soils  and climate both under rainfed and irrigated production systems. It also discussed the status  of agricultural research, technology  innovations, their dissemination in relation to research-extension and farmers  linkages, their weakness  and strength in the light of the present agricultural polices  of the Federal Government for food and nutritional security.
1.4.  SCOPE OF STUDY
The overall program of the project in the project command and watershed area is to
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integrate the agricultural production with its  various  facets  namely  crop, livestock, horticulture, fisheries, forestry  etc. keeping in view the climatic  and soil parameters  in the existing socio-economic  conditions  both under rain-fed and irrigated agro-ecosystem. While making the appropriate agricultural plan for project command and water shed, the overarching concerns  would be of nutritional and livelihood security, poverty  alleviation, gender equity, ecology  and environment, and competitiveness  in terms  of cost and quality. This will include the following broad aspects:
•             Study  of  existing  farming  systems  and  agricultural  development  pattern  of  project command and watershed area in association with socio-economic situations.
•            Selection of most suitable crops, fruits, vegetables, livestock, apiculture etc. and their most   appropriate   integration   with   suitable   economic   return   for   different   sizes   of irrigated farm holdings.
•              System   approach   having   economically   dynamic   and   efficient   cropping   pattern involving  selected  food  and  cash  crops  and  other  enterprises  appropriate  under  the prevailing climate, soils and added irrigation conditions.
• 
Identification  of  most  appropriate  agro-techniques  and  input  support  services  for  the farmers for increased farm productivity.
•              Renovation   of   existing   grasslands   and   rejuvenation   of   forests   for   economic production of livestock and sustainability of environment.
•            Need  assessment  and  introduction  of  improved  post  harvest  technologies  and  value addition.
1.5.     APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
The existing rainfed agriculture of Wolkayite command area was to be studied in depth with respect of the agricultural and livestock  production to understand the major production constraints  for formulating the comprehensive agricultural production plans  after introducing the irrigation to enhance the productivity  and attract more number of farmers  in this command area.
Hence. Comprehensive questionnaires  including all required parameters  of fanning and households  were developed and administered to the farmers  of randomly  selected kebeles of command area. After the collection of these information for the command area, the same have been analyzed and critically evaluated for the development of agricultural plans as per the objectives  listed above The secondary  data have already  been collected from government offices  of woredas  responsible for the development of area and used in the preparation of the plan. The details  of existing status  of farming have been given in subsequent chapters of report.
This  has  helped in obtaining the information on crops, varieties  being grown, the existing potential both under rainfed and available irrigated production system. This  will further include the study  of current farming system, crop rotation and cropping intensity, the status of agricultural support services, strength and weaknesses of present research-extension-
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farmers’ linkages  including its  impact on technology  generation, assessment, refinement, dissemination and adoption. The study also included the type and number of crops being grown, their socio-economic importance and marketability to decide on the future crops to be included in the selected cropping plans in the light of country’s need. Efforts have been made to select the crops  and cropping pattern with appropriate varieties  that may  be adaptable to the present soil, climatic, socio-economic situation of the project command and catchment and are responsive to irrigation water and other production inputs giving high and sustainable yield. The crop budget and yield projections of the system have been worked out taking important crops.
2.0 SOIL, LAND USE, AND CLIMATE
The details of the area under command and basic objectives etc are already given in section 1 2.3 or Chapter 1 of this report.
Land and climatic  parameters  are the primary  factors  which decide establishment and growth of different types  of vegetation in an area. These are all the more relevant to agricultural crops, as the potential production, profitability and sustainability are the prime considerations particularly in irrigated area Assessment of both these aspects have been made for crops and irrigation water resources planning, which are discussed in succeeding paras
The soil survey of the project area was carried out for selection of suitable irrigation area from the proposed potential command area as per the Terms of Reference (TOR).
2.1. SOILS
The soil of WIP command area is vertisols, which is clay type, widely occurring in the region. These soils are most importantly prevalent on plains and terraces of 5 - 10% slope. Careful crop selection and meticulous use of commercial fertilizers of N & P are crucially important for production and productivity of crops on these soils A number of studies on agricultural development have been done by various planning and development agencies as indicated in section 1.3 of Chapter 1 of the report. Detailed soil survey of the command area has been carried out and presented in separate sector report.
2.2 PRESENT LAND USE SYSTEM AND NATURAL VEGETATION
2.2.1 Land Use requirement
Factors  like agronomic, land development, overall management practices, soil and water conservation methods and environmental conditions have been considered to determine the land use. Suitability  of land in WIP area would be based on proposed use of land for agricultural development. Relevant land characteristics qualities are to be identified in terms of land units. However, crop needs of an irrigated agricultural development would have to be based on crop research results so far obtained by the research centers located in the
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Wolkayite Woreda has an area of 2,56,833 ha land. The present land use is as follows:
Cultivated land
Fallow land
44,736 ha
18,006 ha
Natural pasture
69,499 ha
Forest land
91,578 ha
Waste land
31,488 ha
Land under residences, etc.
1,556 ha
Total
256,833 ha
The data have been provided from Woreda Administration.
2.2.2   Natural Vegetation
The natural vegetation of the area is  semi-humid low land vegetation type. The natural vegetation type and ground cover follow certain growth pattern depending on soil types, soil depth, drainage pattern, etc. Two types  of vegetation cover, namely, woodland and grassland have been identified in the command area.
(i)    Woodland.  It  mostly  occupies  river  and  stream  channels,  deep  soils,  shallow  soil  and relatively  low  lying  clayey  plains.  Deep  green  live  trees  are  found  along  river  course.  The types of trees found in the clayey plain area are deep green and deciduous. The dominant vegetation  types  in  the  three  categories  are  listed  in  Annexure-I.  However,  these  tree vegetations are also found growing together in a similar habitat.
(ii) Grassland: Considerable amount of the command area is covered by various grasses.
The grassland dominantly occurs on both deep and shallow soils. The grasses on deep
black soils are tall and densely populated, while grasses on shallow soils are relatively 
shorter and thinly populated. Grasses and other vegetation found over the command area includes a sparse sward of annul grasses, herbs and shrubs. The grasses are used for
grazing and hay making Farmers prepare hay to feed their livestock during lean periods.
2.2.3 The present agricultural system:
The economic  base of the population of Woreda is  agriculture. The system of agricultural activity  in the area is  mixed farming, where both crop and livestock  production proceeds hand in hand. WICA is  dominated by  a rain-fed subsistence peasant farming system coupled with traditional livestock  rearing practices. The Woreda, in general, has  high livestock  population. The major livestock  types  include cattle, camel, donkey, goat etc  ..Crop residues, community  I common grazing areas  and hay  production in low lying plains contribute as major feed source for the livestock. The quantity and quality of grasses in the area do not match the number of livestock  and as  a result shortage of animal feed during the critical dry period forces the formers to use crop residues as an alternative feed
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2.2.4. Soil and Land Management
Major characteristics and management aspects have been dealt with in sectoral report on Soil survey and Land Evaluation Studies for the major soils (Vertisols, Cambisols, Leptosols, Fluvisols and Regosols) of the WIP command area.
2.2.5 Land Suitability
Land suitability for sesame, sugarcane, sorghum, cotton, soybean, vegetable, and fruit crops has been assessed at moderately high to high inputs and good management levels under surface irrigation with the objective to produce the crops  for domestic  consumption and export purposes. The evaluation made on land characteristics as it relates to crop production practices, revealed that different forms  of land suitability  occurs  These categories  are classified with respecLto soil -types, land form, watercontenf nutrient availability, soiL depth, compaction and workability. Accordingly, areas allotted for all crops of the command area falls under suitable and mariginally suitable land categories. Further, as shown in improved crop technologies  and procedural outlines  for crop planning, suitable marginal cropping areas  can be improved by  way  of different soil amelioration techniques  like fertilizer application, soil and water conservation measures, use of different improved cropping system, planting of multipurpose tree species, etc,.
The land suitability study based on the detailed soil and other surveys has been carried out for the project command area and a summary of information on major land characteristics, management and quality aspects of the command area is available in the sectoral report of land evaluation studies.
2.3.  CLIMATE
There is no meteorological station in the command area. Moreover, surrounding areas close to the command area have very limited meteorological stations. The station at Adi-Rametse can only directly represent the command area; however, it has inadequate data and doesn’t represent the entire command area Further, there is  no other station that could directly represent the command area. To some extent the rainfall of the catchment can be represented by  Zarima rain gauge station. Therefore, climatic  data from other nearby stations were utilized to decide the local climatic conditions of the command area.
Mean annual and monthly rainfall series in the command area were estimated from 46 years
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records  of 4 stations, namely, Zarima, Humera, Shire-Endaselassie and Adi-Rametse (Annexure-UI). Other climatic data of the command area such as Relative Humidity, Wind Speed. Sunshine Hours, Maximum Temperature, Minimum Temperature and the Mean Temperature were processed from Humera. Shire Endaselassie and Debark Meteorological stations records, which are in close proximity to the command area.
2.3.1. Agroclimatic Zones
Wolkayite woreda is classified into two major agroclimatic zones, i.e., Dega and Kola. This generalized classification is  based on the relation between elevation and temperature differences of an area; unlike the classification for agro-ecological zones which are based on the link  between climate, physiography, soils  and vegetation with animal species  and humans. According to the standardized definition of the agroclimatic zones; Dega or cool zone represents areas above 2400m elevation above sea level with the upper part as alpine region and Kola or hot zone represents areas with average monthly temperature of 20°C and below 1500m elevation above sea level. In the Woreda, specifically in the project command area. Kola or hot zone is the predominant agroclimatic zone covering 68% of the total area where all five of the command Kebeles are found in the project command site (Annexure- II). The remaining 32% of the area falls in Dega or cool zone. In this are located Kebeles outside the project command site.
2.3.2. Temperature
The data set out in Table 2.1 on mean monthly temperature would evince that the maximum temperature of 31.6°C is recorded in the month of April. This is closely followed by May, March, January and February in descending order. Thus, it may be summed up that periods from January' to May could be called the summer season, while the rest other months may be termed either as mild summer or winter season as would be noticed from the minimum temperature recorded during this period.
Table 2.1 Mean monthly temperature in Wolkayite command area (averaged over 52 years
1952-2004)_________________________________________ ________________________
_____________________Temperature (°C)_______________ ___________
Month
MaximumMinimumMea
n
January
29.4
11.0
20.2
February
28.9
12.8
20.9
March
30.5
14.5
22.4
April
31.6
15.7
23 7
May
30.7
15.4
23.0
June
27.6
15.3
21.5
July
24.3
14.0
19.2
August
23.8
14.4
19.1
September
25.6
13.9
19 8
October
27.4
13.7
20.6
November
28.1
12.8
20.5
December
27.7
118
19.5
Annual Mean
28.0
13.8
20.9
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Daily Maximum Temperature
Month
Ddy Mhhidqjd temperature
Jia Ft? Mir Aar May Juc Jul Ax? Sap Oc: Nov Dk
Month
Figure 2.1 Maximum, Minimum and Mean temperature (0 C) in Wolkayite Command Area
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A perusal of the data on minimum temperature reveals that during April, May and June, the values are not much different, but nights during January and February are relatively cooler.  Mean  temperature  shows  the  trends  observed  on  maximum  and  minimum temperatures   (Figure.2.1).   It   is   important   to   note   that   the   diurnal   difference   in temperature during the periods from July to December varies from 9 4°C to 15.9°C of minimum  and  maximum  temperatures  respectively  From  the  crop  production  point  of view,  this  is  a  very  favourable  situation  for  a  crop  plant  to  manufacture  food  energy during the day and accumulate more of synthesized food which, in turn, leads to high productivity. Because it is expected as per scientific documentation that the breakdown of synthesized food to satisfy the respiration requirement would be relatively less than that during the period from January to May. From the foregoing, it may be concluded that the crop productivity per unit area, time and inputs will be more than that attainable from the crops grown during the period from January to May. However, it would be necessary to practice improved agriculture with an adequate supply of water and other inputs that is improved package of production technologies Introduction of irrigation will bring about a positive  change  in  the  local  environment  and  the  microclimate  as  well,  which  in  turn, would be more suitable for crop production.
2.3.3.  Relative Humidity
The maximum RH (77.8%) was observed during the month of August (Table 2.2). It was closely followed by the month of July (73.8%). After August, it slowly slides down and reached  the  minimum  of  41.4%  in  the  month  of  December.  Thereafter,  RH  showed  a further  decline  and  was  35.5  %  during  the  month  of  January.  It  remained  almost unchanged  afterwards  with  a  minimum  of  32.2%  recorded  in  the  month  of  March  and remained so up to April. RH began to increase slowly from May onward till it reached the maximum value in the month of August. RH plays an important role in crop production. A wet  period  provides  predisposing  conditions  for  the  rapid  multiplication  of  insect-pests and diseases. Therefore, it becomes imperative to be on the guard to control these crop enemies. On the contrary, low humidity promotes water losses both from the plant body (crop and weed) and the soil surface
2.3.4. Wind Speed
The data given in Table 2.2 revealed that the maximum wind velocity of 10.80 km/hr was observed in the month of June. It was followed by the month of July with a record of 9.18 km/hr High wind velocity in the month of July if accompanied by torrential/heavy rainfall is likely to be detrimental to the crops. During dry months on the contrary, wind velocity increases the loss of water both from the plant and the soil and hence frequent irrigation would be necessary, that is, total irrigation needs  will increase proportionately  due to high potential evaporation values
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Table 2. 2 MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL, RELATIVE HUMIDITY, SUNSHINE HOURS AND WIND SPEED ( JANUARY TO DECEMBER ) IN WOLKAYITE COMMAND AREA
Month
January February March April
May
June
July August September October November December
MR (mm) RH (%) SS/Hr WS(m/s) WS(km/hr)
2.5                  35.5              8.9                1.61           5.80 2.6                  34.4              9.8                1.94           6.98 8.4                  32.2              9.4                1.98           7.13 18.8               35.7              8.6                2.16           778 50.5               46.3              8.1                2.53           9.11 184.8             57.5              7.1                3.00           10.80
308.4             736               5.1                2.55           9.18
317.4             77.8              5.2                2.35           8.46
160.8             69.4              7.4                1.94           6.98
45.7                57.3              8.1                1.47           5.29
10.1               41.4              9.2                1.35           4.86
3.8
-
8.4                1.33           4.79
Average over years           1113.7           50.6              7.9
2.02           7.26
D = Day
Note:-
MR = Mean Monthly Rainfall
1.
Rainfall averaged over 45 years
WS = Wind Speed
2
RH averaged over 19 years
RH = Relative Humidity
3.
SS hrs of day averaged over 18 years
SS = Sunshine Hours/day
4.
WS m/sec averaged over 17 years
Hr = Hours
M/S = Meters/Second
2.3.5. Sunshine Hour
An examination of the data presented in Table 2.2 would bring out that the maximum sunshine hours  were available during the months  of February, March, (summer months) and November (spring season) The actual numbers  of hours  during these months  were
9.8,  9.4  and  9.2  hours  per  day.  respectively.  The  number  of  sunny  hours  was  rather constant,   that   is.  showing  only   marginal   variations   during   April.  May.  October  and December  (8.1  -  8.6  hours/day).  Similarly,  in  June  and  September  sunshine  hours/day were 7 1 and 7 4, respectively However, it is important to note that the minimum number of sunshine hours/day were available during July and August, i.e., 5 1 and 5.2 hours/day respectively.  In  fact  these  two  months  period  witness  the  stages  of  maximum  crop growth  and  development  leading  to  crop  productivity  and  production.  But,  the  available sunshine  hours  appear  inadequate  for  the  crops  to  photosynthesize  and  will  adversely affect  crop  productivity,  i.e.,  crop  yield  level  may  become  lower  than  the  expected  one Therefore, at least partially photo-insensitive and input responsive crop varieties need be introduced to obtain high levels of production.
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Figure 2. 2. Rainfall (mm) distribution in Wolkayite command area
Data  on  average  monthly  rainfall  have  been  presented  in  Table  2.2.  A  perusal  of  the data would bring out that the rainfall season commences from the month of May which on  an  average  receives  50.5  mm  of  mean  monthly  rainfall.  Thereafter,  in  June  the quantum  of  rainfall  is  approximately  three  and  a  half  times  that  of  May.  The  wettest months  are  July  and  August  which  receive  mean  rainfall  of  306.4  and  317.4  mm, respectively. It adds up to nearly half of the total rainfall received during the year In fact, 87.2%  of  the  total  average  annual  rainfall  is  received  from  June  to  September  (Figure 2.2). Further, the discussion with the farmers during the field visit revealed that July and August are the months where torrential rain was also received. Given the apparent water intake of soils of the command area, most of the rain water flows down the cropped area as  the  soils  are  mostly  heavy  in  texture.  The  flowing  water  is  expected  to  erode  both cropped and non-crop areas with no or scarce vegetation cover. During the field visit, it was  observed  that  there  were  prominent  signs  of  sheet  and  rill  erosion.  The  deep  rills finally develop into the gullies. Thus, there is a need to formulate and recommend soil and water conservation practices. The excess rain water could be harvested to store in locally  made,  preferably  seepage  and  lateral  water  movement  proof  ponds.  The  stored water can be used to grow crops during dry season. The crop selection need be based cn   the  available  stored  water   minus   losses  from   evaporation,   seepage  and  deep
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percolation which will be approximately  estimated depending upon climatic  conditions  of the area in question. If possible the data on climatic  parameters  should be obtained through the woreda's  rural development office of agriculture. The Woreda office, in turn, may obtain the necessary data from the nearest meteorological station. Finally, it may be added that torrential rains  also damage the field crops  due to lodging The severity  of such damage shoots up if the rain is accompanied by speedy winds
2.3.7 Reference Evapo-Transpiration (ETo)
The crop water requirement (CWR) is  a dependent function of the meteorological parameters  and Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) presents  the effect of the meteorological factors. The following meteorological factors  are taken into account for computation of Reference Evapotranspiration by  modified Penman Method (FAO l&D paper No.24) and Penman Montieth Approach (FAO I & D Paper No.46):
•    Temperature
•    Relative humidity
•    Wind Velocity
•    Sunshine Hours
The details  of the above climatological parameters  are given in Table 2.2. Details  of monthly and daily average values of effective rainfall and evapotranspiration are given in Table 2.3.
Table 2. 3 Effective Rainfall and Evapotranspiration from January to December in Wolkayite Command Area.
Effective Rainfall (mm)
Evapotranspiration (mm)
Month
Monthly
Daily
Monthly
Daily
January
2.5
0.08
163.06
5.26
February
2.6
0.09
164.08
5.86
March
8.3
0.27
191.58
6.18
April
18.2
0.61
186.00
6.20
May
46.4
1.50
180.73
5 83
June
130.2
4.34
150.60
5.02
July
155.8
5.01
109.43
3.53
August
156.7
5.05
10602
3.42
September
119.4
3.98
127.80
4.26
October
42.4
1.37
142.91
4.61
November
9.9
0.33
102.30
3.41
December
3.8
0.12
144.46
4.66
Total
696.2
22.75
1768.97
58.24
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3. EXISTING SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND AGRICULTURAL STATUS OF WICA
3.1.  INTRODUCTION
The socio-economic  condition of both the developed and developing countries  plays  a basic  role in formulation of policies, planning, utilization of resources  and their apportionment under different sub-heads  of planning, prioritization of development projects, strategies  for a balanced development, allocation of funds  based on urgency and the extent of the identified problems  and modus  operand! of planned project implementation involving local and central authorities  and the beneficiaries. A wholesome formulation of a development project necessitates  the review of identical past projects  to learn lessons  from their success  and failures. Therefore, a careful conduct of socio-economic  survey  constitutes  the back-bone of planning process  and formulation of remedial measures. The socio-economic  feasibility  study  carried out by the sociologist and the team has  done the job meticulously  The details  have been presented in Sectoral Report on Socio-Economic Studies.
3.2.Background of the Study Areas
3.2.1   General
At present, the estimated population of Ethiopia is 75 million. The country's economy is chiefly  agrarian wherein agriculture comprises  the sole source of livelihood and is characterized by  the smallholders  practising subsistence type of farming on 96% of the cultivated land to grow 90-94% of cereals, grain legumes  and oilseeds  mainly  under ramfed conditions. As  many  as  5-8 million people every  year and 13 million in some years remain under risk of occurrence of drought as indicated in various records of the government. As  per the available indicators, half the country's  population is  below the poverty line. The situation is still worse in rural areas.
3.2 .2 Government’s Initiatives
The Federal Democratic  Republic  of Ethiopia (FDRE) has  critically  examined the problems  of low agro-productivity  and wide spread poverty, food insecurity  and lack  of irrigation facilities. A number of measures  so far taken include the planning and commissioning of a number of irrigation projects since agriculture has been accorded the top priority. Wolkayite Irrigation Project (WIP) is  one of such initiatives. The main objective of irrigation projects is to augment agri-productivity and production, to stimulate economic  growth through Agricultural Development Led Industry  (ADLI) to mitigate/minimize poverty.
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Tigray  is  the Northern most part of Ethiopia bordered by  Eritrea, Republic  of Sudan, Amhara and Afar regions  in north, west, south and east respectively. Its  82.21 and 17.79% population is  in rural and urban areas  respectively  The administration is decentralized. The powers  of Regional Council have been constitutionally  delegated to the Woreda Council, which in turn, has  passed the powers  on to their own elected representatives  and administrators  who mobilize the available resources  to better the service delivery  system Woredas  are divided into Tabias  (kebeles) which consist of Villages. The estimates  revealed that in 2004 and 2005 per capita income in the region was  928.03 and 1038.11 birr which compares  reasonably  well with the national income during the period.
Western zone of Tigray  region consists  of three woredas  namely, Wolkayite, Tsegede, and Kafta-Humera. Humera and Wolkayite woredas  are to receive irrigation facilities through the proposed irrigation projects. Kola (semi-arid) areas  cover about 40% of this zone and the estimated area is  approximately  92,000 ha which is  potentially  irrigable. At present nearly  420 investors  are engaged in cultivation of irrigated sesame and cotton on the holdings of various sizes varying from 100 to 2,000 ha.
3.2.4 Wolkayite Woreda
Woreda administration comprises  19 Tabias  (kebeles) and one urban center at Adiremet. In the rural areas, there are 18 Peasant Associations  (PAs) and 16 Kushets (villages). Wolkayite Woreda has  an area of about 256,823 ha of land. Average annual rainfall varies  from 700 to 1000 mm and 97% of the total area receives  800 and more than 1200 mm of rainfall annually  The average annual temperature varies  from 17.5°C to 25°C According to Ministry  of Agriculture intensive cultivation is  practised in the Woreda. High and mid-lands  are deforested, eroded and are becoming increasingly infertile due to over-exploitation. The population is concentrated in scattered settlements.
3.3 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS
3.3.1. Population
Though the detailed Sectoral Report on the subject has  been submitted separately, only relevant portions  to relate to agriculture are given in the following sections. Population of Wolkayite Woreda as  on 1 July, 2008 has  been projected as  126,541 taking 1994 census  data as  the base. At present 93% of the total population stay  in rural area and only 7.0% in urban area.
At  Woreda  level,  the  FDR  and  regional  governments  have  jointly  put  the  plans  in  place for the uplifiment of rural women. These plans include the issues such as the safeguard
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In the Command Area, a number of households  are female-headed. This  state of demographic feature may be limiting some development activities because women have some in-built inability  to carry  out the hard/highly  laborious  jobs  especially  in the field. This may adversely effect the development of agriculture and agro-industries in the area. Social reform-measures  are called for to deal with this  problem on the part of the government. The Religious  Societies  and Peasant Associations  can also play  an important role in correcting this  unwanted situation to a significant extent The existing population of command area is 20805 with more than 50% of farm women.
3.3.2 Settlement Pattern
Estimates  have  indicated  that  92%  of  Wolkayite  population  thrives  on  mixed  farming system  that  consists  of  crop  production  coupled  with  livestock  rearing.  The  rural  town namely,  Maygeba  located  in  the  Command  Area  is  inhabited  by  5,000  people  as observed  during  2007.  The  population  of  Magba  kebele  in  2008  rose  to  11,000  on account   of   migration   from   rural   areas   due   to   availability   of   employment   in   road construction  work,  currently  in  progress.  Sociologists  believe  that  information  about  the upcoming  WIP  has  also  added  to  the  process  of  migration.  Gross  daily  income  per capita per day has been estimated at 9 birr of which nearly 67% comes from farming and animal products. There is wide spread food deficit which is partly compensated, through the food-aid of 30 birr per annum as indicated by the CSA (2001). The settlement plan can be implemented by Federal Government of Ethiopia as per the policy taking help of specialists in the area both in WICA & Wareda
3.3.3 Transport Facilities
Though there are some all weather roads in the command area, it takes 3hrs to 3 days to reach Adiremete the center of basic services from the far away/distant places as was learnt through the consultative meeting held with the stakeholders  at Mygaba. It is  a welcome step that some roads  are under construction. The government has  provided water-points, health facility  centers  and primary  schools, but the accessibility  to these centers  within reasonable time especially  for women and children is  extremely  difficult and time consuming.
3.3.4 Water Supply Sources
The Wolkayite Woreda Administration Office (WWAO) report of May, 2006 revealed that the government has provided 50 drinking water supply points, out of which 49 are hand pumps  fitted in shallow wells  and one is  motorized deep bore well In the entire area (woreda) water supply coverage is 33%. However; the quality of the available water falls much below the Tigray  Regions  Potable Water Standards. The other sources  are
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3.3.5 Sanitation
In Tigray  National Region only  12% people are covered under proper sanitation system as estimated in 2006. There is no stream-lined system of solid and liquid waste disposal in a scientific  manner Toilets  are provided only  in schools  and offices. Health workers are sent to the rural areas  under the extension program to educate the rural masses about significance and methods  tn keep water free from the impurities  as  well as  to maintain sanitation in and around their dwellings/houses  to avoid the incidence of water borne and other diseases affecting skin, eyes, intestines etc
3.3.6 Health Care
The Woreda has  only  one health center, 4 nucleus  health centers. 14 health posts  and private clinics. Health nucleus  centers  are specific  to Tigray  Region. On an average. 5 hours  are needed to reach a nearest health center since Wolkayite embodies  thinly populated mountainous area practically with no road connectivity.
3.3.7 Gender Issue in Wolkayite Woreda
Wolkayite Woreda founded at its  level a Women’s  Association in 1995 and registered approximately  58,551 women as  members. Out of these, 4500 became the active members  of the Woreda Women's  Association. The Association worked for the economic, social and political empowerment of the females  through the good offices  of Women In Development (WID) and Gender And Development (GAD) organizations. Wolkayite Woreda Women’s  Association (WWWA) analyzed the data on women's  share in education and found that 10.998 and 341 girls  were enrolled in 1-8 and 9-11 grades (for schooling), respectively. Thirty-one women are doing petty  trading with the help of the credit provided by  the Women's  Association. There is  an increasing participation of the women in the traditional organizations  of Mahabir and Idir. It is  expected that the project will benefit all the sections  and components  of the community  i.e., men. women and children through the improvement of their economic  well being The project will provide both social service and infrastructure to minimize their problems  as  was strongly felt by the women during Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) meetings.
3.4 DELOPMENT IN PROGRESS
The  following  is  the  brief  account  of  the  ongoing  activities  and  results  obtained  due  to efforts made by the local government.
•  Rural  people  migrate  to  Axum.  Humera  and  Mekele  towns  to  augment  their  income The construction of all-weather road from Mogue to Mygaba has provided employment
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to some people. All the same, household income by  and large, is  low Agriculture contributes 69%, while wage share is only 3.5%. In short, woreda is food insecure area and hence the Safety Net Program is very active to correct the deficiency.
•   Benefits  of  traditional  irrigation  are  limited  due  to  low  productivity  and  incidence  of water-borne diseases. An irrigation project should necessarily be supported by a health service  package  as  malaria  and  schistosomiasis  commonly  occur  in  micro-reservoir areas. The farmers residing within 3 km distance from the dam obtain higher crop yields than that in rainfed conditions.
•   Collection  of  age-wise  data  on  population  has  unfolded  a  labour  resource  potential dominated by working age group.
Low land is  untapped through the use of available irrigation potential. It constitutes  a highly potential area for crop production. Sesame production, forest resources, livestock etc. have shown a great promise and potential in this  area. There are very  good opportunities  for promotion of mid land farming coupled with regulated grazing, production of honey and wax, introduction of irrigation, hydropower generation, profitable crop production and realizable animal feed potential. These resources  are effectively utilizable in collaboration with the participation of NGOs working in the area.
3.5 LIVESTOCK
Household survey  has  revealed that 96% of the Households  have the livestock  like cattle, equines, goats, poultry, traditional and modern beehives. This component suffers from shortage of fodder and feed, finances to buy animals and widespread incidence of livestock  diseases  Nearly  66% of the Households  have their own oxen, while 34% do not have their own bullocks
Presently  Livestock  contribute 70% of the annual income as  was  brought out by  the socio-economic  survey. Shortage of fodder and drinking water for the animals  are the major problems. The main sources of fodder are crop residues, grazing in pastures and in the fields after harvesting of the crops. The river, traditional wells and few springs are the sources of drinking water for the Livestock.
3.6 COOPERATIVES
There are cooperatives in each Kebeles and some of them are involved in micro financing However, the problems of the command area consist of abduction, low ratio of men to women in political leadership, traditional gender leadership, high seasonal migration and no cooperatives or other than strong public organizations for women.
In the command area, the following major problems are encountered by the people:
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•    Poor accessibility to dam site due to poor/no road connectivity.
•     Command is endowed with excellent resources like good quality land forest cover and livestock, but calls for their scientific and profitable utilization.
•      Social  service  institutions  are  weak.  There  is  only  one  mobile  school  in  three kebeles  namely,  Michea.  Delesakokah  and  Mytimket.  It  greatly  limits  the  receipt of education inspite of a will to get it
•      Kola  and  Dega  people  generally  claim  the  resources  virtually  by  force  which gives rise to day-to-day conflicts in the area.
•     There are only 11 permanent schools, 3 health posts, 3 PAs, and storage. Each PA  has  extension  service.  There  is  a  need  for  more  schools,  health  facilities  in the area.
•    There is only weekly market on Saturday in Mygaba.
•      Transports,  banks,  telephone  facilities  including  mobile  phones  are  meagre  or practically negligible.
•     Population  is  increasing  and  hence  land  availability  is  shrinking.  Land  is  nearly uncared for and its degradation is progressively increasing
•    The only source of energy is locally available biomass.
•      Drinking  water  source(s)  are  located  far  away  and  women  have  to  cover  long distances to fetch water for domestic use.
•     Hence people of are the very happy to learn about the proposed irrigation project and are eagerly waiting for its commissioning.
3.7 STATUS OF AGRICULTURE
3.7.1 Wolkayite Woreda
In  1998,  average  crop  yields  with  adoption  of  complete,  partial  and  traditional package of practices were 15.2, 2.5 and 7.0 q/ha, respectively.
Only 10% of the farmers use fertilizers and improved crop seeds
Millions of seedlings of various tree species were planted but, presumably due to poor after-care their survival rate has  been very  low adversely  affecting the density per unit area of land.
Though the Woreda embodies the irrigation potential of about 30,000 ha, but only 2% of it has  been used by  traditional irrigation systems  so far due to various limitations.
Upper Stream of Dukuko River, water is  being used for irrigation through structured diversion weir from the canal for crop cultivation. But the area coverage is very limited only for vegetables.
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3.7.2 WOLKAYITE COMMAND AREA
•           More than 78.5% of agricultural land has no irrigation facilities.
•            In 86% of the area, there is no Water User Associations (WUA) though nearly 94% of the farmers feel its necessity in spite of the fact that majority of them complain about the problems faced in availing their services
•           Irrigation wherever available has added to the income of the farmers by recording higher yields in a sustainable manner.
•            About  94.4%  of  the  surveyed  farmers  follow  the  crop  rotations  of  their  own choice.   These   rotations   are   not   scientifically   sound   Mono-cropping   still dominates due to unavailability of supplemental irrigation facilities. The crops are generally grown during wet season. Only in small area two crops are taken in a year with irrigation.
•           Seed-bed preparation is mostly done by ploughing the land twice or at the most thrice using age-old traditional wooden plough with the help of oxen power.
•            Mostly  broadcast  method  of  sowing  is  in  vogue  using  local  seed  (own  or borrowed or bartered). Seed rates in use are rather high. Hence, optimum plant polulation  cannot  be  maintained  due  to  poor  quality  seed  being  used.  This results in very low yield
Both chemical fertilizers and organic manures are used as per their availability, composting is  practically  unknown. Only  small numbers  of farmers  are using Diammonium phosphate. Though specific  data are not available but it is  being used by a few farmers for vegetable production.
Hand weeding is the most common practice either by family or by the employed labour.
Intercropping  is  generally  not  practiced  but  mixed  cropping  is  done  by  some  of the farmers in the area. The specific data are not available.
Incidence of insect-pests  and diseases  at times  are severe and insecticides/fungicides  are used subject to their availability  to control the pests and diseases. But, by  and large, the control of crop-enemies  needs  more attention. Quality  agrochemicals  need to be made available on time and in required quantity  at affordable price. The present status  of weeds, inset pests and diseases are given in the Table 3.1.
Farmers prefer to generate their own income rather than taking a loan for farming and/or for day to day needs.
Most of the farmers have their own land, but nearly 67% of them also take others land on annual lease basis since their land does not constitute a viable farming unit.
Produced food does not suffice for half the surveyed population of the command area since there has  been a continuous  and progressive decline in productivity during the last five years mainly due to unfavorable weather conditions The food
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in half of the studied cases was sufficient for 9-12 months, while others faced the problem of shortage mostly  after 3-6 months  and only  in 22.5% cases, it was adequate for 6-9 months.
•   Sale   of   livestock   and   family   labour   constitute   the   main   source   of   income   to supplement  the  family  income  to  meet  their  daily  needs  in  the  absence  of  other
source(s) of income.
Table 3.1 Present Status of weeds, insect pests and diseases.
Type of crop
Weeds
Insect pests
Diseases
Sorghum
Maize .
left
Sorghum helpense Lantaha Camava Cynodon dactylon, cyperus spp Amavanthus spp Digitaria spp. Striga & Plantago
Stalk borer, Termites Grass hopper, weevils, beetle,
shoot-fly,
Leaf blight root rot, rust, covered smut
Seasame, Pepper & Cotton
Same as above
Bollworms.Weevils.Termites. seed bug
Root rot. rust, mildews
Source: Reconnaissance Level Survey (2008)
3.8. COMMODITY PRICES IN THE COMMAND AREA
The prices as prevailed in Maigaba market have been presented in Table 3.2.
Table 3. 2 Commodity Prices in Maigaba Market
Commodity          Unit
Price (Birr)
Commodity
Unit
Price (Birr)
Teff
quintal
550 - 600
Sesame
quintal
1500
Bean
quintal
400 - 450             Onion
kg
10
Barley
quintal
260
Garlic
kg
7
Haricot bean
quintal
300
Tomato
kg
4-5
Coffee
quintal
3,000-4,000
Cattle
head
1500- 3500
Sugar
quintal
200-900               Goats
head
120-150
Butter
Kg
36                         Chicken
head
18-28
Kerosene
Lt
7                           Honey
kg
14 -25
Edible Oil
Lt
Source: Based on the Survey Report
3.9. STATUS OF AGRI-MARKETING
In Wolkayite Tsegede WIP command area population density  is  21 persons/km. Mixed farming is the main occupation of the farmers. Hunger and poverty  are rampant in the area and nearly 50% of population has no access to sufficient food. This extreme status of poverty  and hunger are attributable to the fact that out of 93.500 ha of potentially irrigable area in Western Zone RNS, only 2% is irrigated There is no market-oriented
21                       L
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production. Further, production inputs  mainly  seeds  and fertilizer use is  at its  lowest. There are no area and crop specific recommended package of practices. Highlands are eroded, cultivation of vegetable and fruit crops is practically negligible, hybrids seeds are distributed by draw of lots and therefore there are no viable market outlets Hence, the area and production under a commercial crop like cotton declined. Rate of interest on credit is high, official rate is 10-14% and as high as 120-130% with private lenders loans. This  grim state of loan/credit situation immediately  calls  for subsidy  on agri-inputs  and for livestock  rearing to protect the farmers  from merciless  exploitation by  the money lenders.
3.10 STORAGES
Farmers  cannot hold their produce for long due to their poor economic  condition, and primitive storage structures  made of mud, split bamboos, grasses  and sorghum/maize stalks and wood etc. The estimated storage losses under these conditions vary from 30- 35%. Further, there is only one processing plant at Mekele for sesame and cotton. It is 540 km away from WIP command area. Since, sesame and cotton embody good export potential and their production calls for encouragement.
3.11 ROADS AND TRANSPORTATION
In the WIP area road density is only 0.6km/1000 persons or 44 km/1000km2, that is, the area is practically isolated. Woreda HQ is 799 km from Mekele, which, in turn is 700 km from Addis  Ababa The nearest Market place is  68 km from Matemene village in WIP and one has to travel 43 km as against national average of 25 km to reach the road connection. Poor farmers  use rented donkeys  to transport the surplus  to the market Rent per donkey varies from Birr 40 to 60
3.12 PERIOD OF SALE AND PRICES
Sale and purchase is  done by  both men and women. December-February  is  the main period of business, while March-April period witnesses  lean period for sale and purchase. It is unfortunate that the farmers usually lose 22-32% of price owing to forced sale of their produce.
3.13 CONSTRAINTS
Main constraints are:-
. Limited market participants, that is. lack of healthy or productive competition.
•           Lack of credits
•           Shying away from production of perishables. Rampant illegal livestock trading.
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The suggested corrective measures are;-
•
Bring down the rate of interest on loans
•
Streamline the livestock trade to make it legal
•
Patronise agro-processing and value addition in produce.
•
Improve road connectivity
•
Provide clean and adequate drinking water to one and all including animals.
•
Provide nutritive feed and good shelter for the livestock
•
Build the capacity of agri-traders/general traders.
•
Improve agri-market efficiency and information system of collection and
dissemination.
•
Grant subsidy pragmatically for agri-production
In the WIP command area, although farmers  rely  on mixed farming activity, the current daily  revenue is  very  low. Besides, chronic  shortages  of farm products  for consumption are satisfied through food aid These problems  will be relatively  very  low under post project period where emphasis  has  been on commercialization of income generating crops for export market.
During the post project period the anticipated changes in the livelihood of the farmers will bring about an over all shift to an improved socio economic  circumstance of the area. The basis  for the change in the socio economic  conditions  of the smallholders  is reflected through the change from subsistence form of agriculture which is  largely confined to monocropping system, to surplus  production through improved cropping system resulting in increased production and productivity  of farm lands. Moreover, the transformation from rainfed to irrigated agriculture, from low input use to high input utilization and the resultant production increment per unit area in concomitant with population growth rate will be highly significant.
4.0 DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS AND POTENTIALS
4.1 MAJOR PRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS
Wolkayite irrigation command and catchment is  very  thinly  populated with a very  low cropping intensity. A lot of potential land is still left uncultivated. The crop production and livestock  production technologies  are still very  traditional though mixed farming system is common in the area. In crop production there is  very  limited introduction of modern inputs  like chemical, fertilizers, improved crop varieties, quality  seed and agro chemicals. Moreover, different natural hazards  such as  recurrent drought condition, land degradation due to erosion and rapid deforestation, hail and frost damage, flood and arainage problem etc have resulted in poor yield in both project command and
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catchment area.
4.1.1.  Inadequate Input Supply
Imports  include  the  introduction  of  improved  varieties,  supply  of  quality  seed  of  the varieties, fertilizers, agro-chemicals and improved tools and farm implements
4.1.1.1. Improved Varieties
The crop varieties being used by the farmers of the project command and catchment are mostly local varieties, also described as “land races" which have gone through a natural mutation process over time. They have now very low genetic potential to give good yield as  compared to newly  developed high yielding varieties  from agricultural research stations. Today, more than 98 percent farmers  within project command and catchment grow the local varieties, due to their very poor access to the seed of genetically superior varieties released for cultivation and have resistanceto many biotic and abiotic stresses.
4.1.1.2. Quality Seed
Seed is  a basic  input for crop production. The quality  of seed has  the most profound influence on crop yields. The fanners of project command and catchment have been using their own seed saved from the previous crops without having any idea of the viability and germinability of such seeds. Thus, the field germination, seedling vigor and plant population are effected adversely resulting in poor productivity. They have no access to certified seed of genetically  superior cultivars  mainly  due to limited seed multiplication programs, poor extension activities and high cost of such seeds
4.1.1.3. Fertilizers
Fertility  of soil in project command area is  good but being reduced slowly due to poor method of cultivation, and continuous  soil erosion. The farmers  are using traditional method of soil fertility  management practices  like use of cow dung, and inter cropping- which is  inadequate to maintain the required fertility  status  for high production. Hence, the soil fertility  depletion in small holders' farms  is  the fundamental biophysical limiting factor responsible for declining of food crop production. The only solution to alleviate this problem is  the use of inorganic  fertilizers  but the farmers  of the project command are either not using any fertilizer or use only less than desired quantity. The reasons for the low use of fertilizers are
Lack of knowledge of the benefit of fertilizer use;
•           Inadequate distribution system including untimely and insufficient supply.
•           Unfavorable relation between the prices of crop produce and fertilizer cost etc,
■ Acute shortage of agricultural credit & credit facilities
Poor research, extension and training support to the farmers
These  have  resulted  in  very  low  level  of  fertilizer  use  by  the  farmers  of  the  command area affecting the production capacity
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During socio-economic  survey  the stakeholders  indicated the high incidence of insect pests  and diseases  as  one of the production constraints. The inability  of the farmers  to recognize the pests and diseases of crop and lack of knowledge pertaining to the control measures  in addition to high cost and non-availability  of insecticides, fungicides  at the closest reach of the farmers. The estimated crop loss due to insect-pests; diseases and rodents etc. is up to 40 percent.
4.1.1.5. Farm Implements
Lack of use of farm implements and improved tools by the farmers have also contributed to the low level of productivity. The farmers of the project command are using only oxen- drawn wooden plough having very  low capacity  to plough the land properly. There are no improved farm implements  so far distributed to farmers  to improve the farming practices and minimize the high incidence of pre and post harvest crop losses. Though a few farm implements  have been developed and recommended but they  have not been accepted by  the farmers  due to higher traction power requirements  than are generally available with the farmers, high cost and lack of awareness. Non- use of improved farm implements  and tools  has  reduced the productivity  due to improper field preparation, delay in farm operations and high infestation of weeds.
4.1.2. Shortage of Draft Power
The farmers  are required to have a pair of bullocks  or oxen for ploughing their fields in the project command area but according to the household survey  results  at least one third of them do not have ox  and another one fourth have only  one ox. Hence, needy farmers  have to hire oxen which add to the cost of cultivation. As  such, many  of them are using hand tools  and prepare their land manually  This  delays  the planting and other farm operations resulting in low yields.
4.1.3. Problem of Drainage
Drainage problem is  very  common in many  areas  of project command having vertisols. The major characteristics  of such soil are rock  hard when dry  afrecting the root penetration of the crops and very sticky when wet and have high water holding capacity. The productivity of such soils is low. Lands are very poor due to drainage problem.
Drainage problem is  very  common in many  of the project command Kebeles  especially in those areas  having characteristics  of vertisols. Such soils  by  virtue of their properties are rock  hard when they  are dry  thereby  precluding deep tillage Therefore, shallow ploughing year after year results  in a hard man made pan in the active plant root zone hence, the roots fail to penetrate the deep soil layers. This state of soil restricts entry of applied soil water due to rain and/or irrigation, limits  the span of exploration of sub surface area to take up nutrients  since volume and weight are relatively  low The problem is further complicated when these types of soils become too sticky when wet
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4.1.4.  Natural Hazards
Major natural hazards are erratic behavior of rainfall, hail storm, frost, drought and flood. In the project command itself there is variation in rainfall pattern from year to year and some part get flooded and some remains  dry  affecting the crop productivity  adversely. Under such situations  there is  need to have drought tolerant and flood resistant crops and their appropriate varieties to get high production and productivity.
4.1.5.   Inadequate  Extension  Service  &  Poor  Research-Extension-Farmers linkage.
In order to enhance productivity, a proven extension system needs to be developed for proper dissemination of these need-based input supported technologies. This  requires more number of well trained and fully equipped Development Agents (DAs) which is still inadequate. In general, the existing agricultural extension service in its  expertise does not meet the present requirements  for dissemination of proven technologies  developed by  the research system and requires  intensive aim-directed special training. The extension infrastructures and manpower require adequate strengthening at Woreda level with strong Research-Extension-Farmer linkage along with need based extension services in all the subject matters pertaining to agriculture.
4.1.6 Poor Marketing System and Low Market Price for Produce
In the area of marketing of agricultural produce, some problems  have arisen from the smallness  of size of holdings, low level of agricultural productivity, availability  and affordability of farm inputs, low level of marketing support services including provision of institutional credit and problem of land tenures. These have bearing on farm production and level of its marketable surplus. In general, the absence of incentive to producer floor price for major crops, poor marketing conditions  at primary  markets, poor market information, poor transport and communication facilities which result into price fluctuation of agricultural produces  are some of the identified problems  in the marketing system particularly in the project command.
4.1.7. Poor or Inadequate Rural Credit
The participation and services  of commercial bank  of Ethiopia (CBE) and Agricultural and Industrial Development Bank’s  (AIDB) in making credit available to peasant sector as  per credit policy  (1986) for purchase of fertilizers, seeds, agro-chemicals  etc. were inadequate These two credit institutions  are not able to serve the majority  of small farmers adequately due to many reasons like limited number of branches of these credit institutions within the reach of the farmers of project command, and exclusion of peasant association and service cooperatives  from credit eligibility  except for fertilizer credit. Thus, the absence of rural development bank or rural credit service within the reach of the farmers  has  hindered the farming community  to utilize improved agricultural
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4.1.8. Inadequate transport net work
Transport   plays   a   crucial   role   in   agricultural   development.   A   network   of   transport infrastructure is essential for distribution of needed farm input and other goods, provision of  supporting  services  and  carrying  of  farm  produce  to  market.  The  lack  of  all  weather road    network    and    well    developed    transport    system    are    most    senous    physical development  constraints  in  many  parts  of  project  command  and  catchment.  Most  parts of project command and catchment Woredas have no roads and farmers usually carry or use  pack  animals  to  transport  their  produce  to  market  centers  and  inputs  from  delivery points to their farm place. The absence of road also has a negative impact on the price of  agricultural  produce.  The  price  of  grain  in  project  area  without  road  network  is  lower than  ones  with  access  road.  The  less  accessible  areas  are  also  devoid  of  development services such as extension service, credit, supply of inputs etc.
4.1.9. Health Problem
Project command and catchment has  widespread incidence of human diseases  out of which the out break  of malaria is  the most prevalent disease affecting agricultural operations. The breeding and multiplication of mosquito are mostly  during the season of peak labor requirements mostly in August and extends up to December. As a result high death is  reported due to malaria. During this  period many  farmers  and farm labours  get affected with this disease and remain confined to their homes hence the works related to farming suffer. Also, other than human disease, livestock  disease specially trypanosomiasis  (disease caused by  tse-tse fly) seriously  interfere in the farm activities particularly the land preparation resulting in reduced yields.
4.2. Productions Potentials
Wolkayite project command and Woreda. despite the number of agricultural production constraints, has  fairly  high potential that can be exploited through comprehensive integrated agricultural development program sound and applicable rural credit system, well developed infrastructure etc. The existing farming systems  being practised in the project command are very  traditional and lead to low level of out put. Through proper utilization of resources, particularly  the water resources  and by  solving the other major agricultural constraints  mentioned above, the current low level of production can be enhanced. The following major potential areas  requiring intervention are to be considered for exploiting the yield potential.
•  There  is  a  good  scope  of  development  of  agriculture  under  irrigated  production system by exploiting the  existing  irrigation potential  and utilizing  the  water  available from Dukuku River  in  or  around  command  area.  There  is  already  indication  of  enhanced  productivity per unit area by using the small scale irrigation. However, the yields of crops are not as high as expected with irrigated farming at present. The reason for this is lack of know-
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how among the farmers is lack of staff from relevant supporting institutions, inadequate coverage by  extension agents  and lack  of institutional support, absence or shortage of proper agricultural inputs  (seeds, varieties, fertilizers, improved farm implements  etc), lack  of suitable credit facilities, under developed rural infrastructures  etc. Thus, to achieve good results and to utilize the potential of the sector the irrigated agriculture is to be fully supported and the respective and relevant back up services especially related to extension and credit must be strengthened
•  The Rainfed Agriculture in catchment of the project command can also produce more than one good crop in a year if proper soil and water conservation measures and early maturing   and   genetically   potential   crop   varieties   are   introduced   These   may   be supported with quality seed and need based fertilizer application. Supply constraints and financial  limitations  at  farm  level  pose  considerable  hindrance  to  the  simultaneous adoption  of  a  comprehensive  input  package  of  fertilizers,  improved  varieties,  quality seed  and  agrochemicals  along  with  the  adoption  of  improved  package  of  production practices  and  soil  moisture  conservation.  The  increase  in  yield  will  solve  the  financial limitations and other constraints of small holders.
•  To improve the productivity of small holdings, and to exploit the potential of the latest technologies  and  other  inputs,  the  research  extension  linkage  has  to  be  made  very strong,  and  the  need  based  capacity  building  at  all  levels  including  the  farmers  is essential.
• Diversification of cropping pattern is important in the project command and catchment
both under irrigated and rain fed production system. There is good potential in the area
to include cash and commercial crops along with the high value cereals, pulses and oil seeds. This may include fruits and vegetable crops, important cereals like rice and
wheat, oilseeds like groundnut and sunflowers etc. The enhanced production of these
may encourage the establishment of agro- industries in the area to benefit the people
•    Though   Federal   Government   of   Ethiopia   has   involved   the   private   investors   in specialized  and  commercialized  agricultural  development  areas  such  as  sugarcane, plantation crops etc. using the modern production technologies; similar involvement may be considered by the Government for large scale production of food crops / livestock for reducing  on  the  food  import  bills.  The  state  farms  should  also  be  supported  by  the Government  for  production  of  food  crops  under  irrigated  agro-ecosystem,  using  the latest   technical   knowhow   This   will   serve   as   a   demonstration   unit   for   the   project command farmers.
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5. PROPOSED CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERN
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil, water, vegetation and climate are considered to be the most basic  natural resources  for agricultural growth and development, which are subjected to various  kinds of deteriorating influences  and indiscriminate exploitation. The same is  true for Wolkayite Irrigation Project command and catchment. In this  context, to meet the challenging demand of food and fiber for burgeoning human population, fodder for animals  and industrial raw materials  for agro-based industries, efficient management of natural resources  will continue to play  a pivotal role in crop production activity. Since agricultural development with positive growth cannot subsist on deteriorating natural resource base, it will be imperative to consider the proper planning of agricultural production for their conservation and positive improvement for future sustenance. This is  possible mainly  by  the development and use of eco-friendly, resource-use-efficient agro-technologies  for attaining the production goals  while ensuring sustainable use of natural resources  and high efficiency  of inputs  Besides  other production inputs  like seed, improved varieties, fertilizers, chemicals  etc. the introduction of adequate irrigation water, one of the most important crop production inputs  in irrigated agriculture, plays  a vital role in the selection of crops  and appropriate economic  cropping pattern for sustainable agricultural production.
5.2 CROPPING SYSTEMS
In bioenergetics  terms  crop production may  be viewed as conversion of visible spectrum of total electro-magnetic  radiation into chemical energy  (Protein, fat and carbohydrate) through the photosynthetic  apparatus  of crop plants. The object of any  crop production system is  to optimize inputs  of human skill, men and animal work, abiotic  materials mainly  of Industrial origin (fertilizers, machines, pesticides, petroleum, etc.) other suitable genotype of plants  and animals  and other farm inputs  with a view, in given ecological situation, to maximizing crop plant growth and minimizing plant wastage so that an adequate economic return (or food out put on subsistence farms) is obtained and that too in such a way  that economic  return on crop out put is  realizable from year to year and persistent over decades  or even longer The vegetable growing farmers  are generally  trying to adopt a multiple cropping system where the "photosynthetic  factory" operates  throughout the year because they  have skill and knowledge along with adequate water at their disposal. Moreover, they  apply  heavy  doses  of manure and other essential inputs.
Tremendous  potentialities  for increased agricultural crop production and high productivity  exist in the country  like Ethiopia and also in project command area through the wider use of multipie cropping systems in cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds and fiber
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crops. In long duration crops  (Perennial), like banana, tree crops  fruit trees, coconut plam, inter cropping holds  great promise. Encouraging progress  has  been achieved in the area of bio-engineering of crop varieties to meet the specific climatic requirements of a fixed duration. This  progress  suggests  that it is  feasible to develop set of crop varieties, which can be grown either singly or in sequential combinations through out the year. The recent technologies  developed on soil management like frequency  and method of tillage, residue management and use of fertilizers  and other agro-chemicals have enabled the multi-cropping system to be feasible, desirable and even commendable under favorable sunshine and temperature. Under such agro-ecoregions one or the other crops  could be grown throughout the year provided water is  not a limiting factor in any month of the calendar year
In cropping system, multiple cropping in essence represents  a philosophy  of maximum crop production per unit area of land per unit time with minimum of soil deterioration. In its simplest form, multiple cropping is a one year cropping system in which two or more crops  are grown in succession within that year In practical terms  multiple cropping
systems may involve the following categories:
•
Short duration crops - relay planting or sequential planting of three or more short
duration cereals, legumes, vegetables, and fiber or oil seeds crops.
•
Intercropping of quick growing short duration crops in widely spaced slow
growing long duration crops like sugarcane, banana etc. with zero competition
between the crops ensuring better utilization of the ecological factors in time and
space.
•
Multiple cropping systems with perennial crops
5.3      CROP PLANNING
An  essential  element  of  the  objectives  of  crop  planning  is  not  only  the  maximization  of the  benefits  of  the  various  inputs  that  go  in  the  agriculture  -  the  land,  water,  human resources  etc.  but  also  an  improvement  in  the  economic  situation  of  the  people  of  the area on sustainable basis. The  important requirement  of crop  planning is not only from the point of view of balancing production with demand curves but also from the point of view of trying to use planning as a method of correcting difficult situations like failure of a particular  group  of  crop  to  be  off  set  by  producing  other  crop  of  the  same  group subsequently  to  meet  the  requirement  of  the  people.  Hence,  the  purpose  of  crop planning  should  also  be  to  help  overcome  the  problems  arising  from  adverse  seasons. In  an  economic  situation,  which  is  developing  as  a  result  of  fast  growing  population, rising  aspiration  of  people  and  land  going  out  of  cultivation  for  various  other  uses  like roads,  bridges,  factories,  homes  etc.  where  there  is  continuous  loss  of  land  from agriculture, crop planning becomes very important.
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Production physiologists all over the world are busy analyzing what are the maximum possibilities under a given agro-ecological condition from the point of view of per day productivity. The strategy will vary from crop to crop
Presently, there has  been positive trend of switching over the varieties, which are relativey. insensitive to photo-period and temperature. Such varieties  provide a considerable amount of flexibility in handling the material. The photo- sensitive materials are also very useful in certain situations. Hence, it is better to have both, kinds of materials. Sunflower is one of the examples that can be grown year round.
In crop planning, the main consideration should be given on the following aspects:
•         The soil of the project command.
•          Climatic condition of the area.
•          Cost, income and risk involved in growing crops.
•         Availability of capital, labour and other resources.
•          Special needs of the farmers - home requirement of food grains, fodder for cattle etc,
•            Scientific   advances   made   through   research   and   innovative   production technologies developed.
5.4EXISTING STATUS OF FARMING SYSTEM IN PROJECT COMMAND
The farming system in the Project command area is affected by a number of natural factors The major ones are the altitude, soil and climatic factors along with the socio economic situation. The rainfed crop cultivation with mono-cropping pattern and mixed farming is the dominating farming system in most part of the command woreaas. The most important climatic limitation of crop production and crop duration is the quantity and distribution of annual precipitation and mean maximum and minimum temperature. The present land use system of the Project command and Wolkayite woreda indicates that on an average there are only 17.6% cultivated land and 36.8% cultivable land. The existing dominating crops are maize, sorghum and teff under cereals, haricot bean and soybean as  pulses; and ground nut and sesame as  oilseeds. The other crops  like wheat, barley, peas, chickpeas, sugarcane, etc. are also grown along with fruits and vegetables but their hectarage is very low.
Being a mixed farming system, the farmers are also rearing livestock mainly cattle, goats and sheep with a few poultry birds and apiculture. The cattle are given more importance as  they  are the main source of power for field preparation, planting and threshing besides providing milk and milk products and meat for sale and home consumption. They are also the source of cash income during the period of distress for the family. Large number of farmers  does  not have oxen, hence; cultivate their land by  using indigenous manually operated hand tools and equipments The yields are by and large
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5.5      GOVERNMENT POLICY TOWARDS AGRICULTURE
Keeping in line with the government policies  and priorities  for national and regional agricultural development, the crops for irrigated agriculture with high production potential and high response to irrigation have been selected for the project command area.
Agriculture in Ethiopia is to overcome several challenging situations to achieve success to steer the country out of import based food security to the position of self-reliant food security. Followed by the concern of food security, the emphasis has also to be given to insure agricultural sustainability  and environmental stability. The details  of views  of Ministry  of Agriculture have been considered while formulating the rotations  and Introducing the crops.
To bring revolution in irrigated agriculture, besides the selection of irrigation responsive crops,  the  advent  of  high  yielding,  photo-insensitive,  input  responsive  varieties  are equally or more important. Such varieties fit very well in intensive crop rotations for best utilization  of  land  and  other  resources  along  with  creation  of  adequate  employment opportunities and high production per unit area. The decision of farmers on choice of crops and cropping pattern is governed by several interrelated factors like soils, climate, house  hold  needs,  socio-economic  issues,  market  infrastructure,  post  harvest  storage and  processing,  labour  availability,  technological  development,  etc.  By  and  large, farmers of command area resort to cultivation of number of crops at their farm holdings and rotate a particular combination over a period of 3-4 years or more. This is possible under rainfed situations due to the greater risk involved in cultivating larger area under a particular crop But in areas with assured irrigation only limited cropping systems having more responsive high yielding crops should be followed to contribute significantly to food grain production at the national as well as regional level
5.6CRITERIA FOR CROP SELECTION
The choice of a crop for a particular area under irrigated agro-eco-system is dependent on its potential response to irrigation, location specific environmental conditions, socio economic situation, marketability and expected profitability. The climatic parameters determining the choice of a crop are temperature, sunshine or radiation, wind speed relative humidity, precipitation and evapo-transpiration. Like climatic factors, the
physical, chemical and biological characters of soil and soil depth also, have direct influence on the performance of a crop.
The crops widely vary in their response to irrigation. Therefore, under the irrigated agro ecosystem, with assured availability of water, the efforts are made to select the most economical, high yielding and irrigation responsive crops, which fit well in the production
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system with high degree of input- use- efficiency, eco-friendly and helping in sustainable agricultural production. Package of production of promising varieties  of these important crops  suitable for WIP command area, as  generated under research in the country  on one hand and as  experienced in India on the other, are shown on Annexure IV(a) and Annexure-IV(b) respectively.
The crops  like vegetables, fruits, rice, wheat and maize are highly  responsive to irrigation while some of the legumes/pulses  and oilseeds  respond moderately. On the other hand crops  like teff and barley  have ability  to tolerate drought but show only marginal response to irrigation and other inputs.
Besides, the above factors, the present land use, social considerations, liking of the farmers, their attitude and ability to successfully cultivate a particular crop also determine the choice of a crop and cropping pattern.
5.7 CLIMATE OF THE PROJECT COMMAND
Distribution of crops, their production and seasons  of cropping are influenced by  climatic factors  such as  rainfall and temperature to a much greater degree than other environmental factors. The crops  differ in their requirements  of day  and night temperature, humidity, sunshine etc  and react differently  to changes  in these factors. The details  of climatic  data including rainfall pattern have been given in Chapter 2, Section 5.2. The crops  with high potential of production have been proposed to be selected as proposed in 5.8.
5.8 RESPONSE OF CROPS TOWARDS IRRIGATION
Based on the investigations  conducted by  the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) at its  research centers, it has  been established that various  crops  respond differently  to irrigation in their performance and productivity. The crops  like teff (Eragrostis  teff) has ability to tolerate both water logging as well as drought to certain extent but its response to irrigation is  marginal But crops  like vegetables, fruits, rice, maize, and wheat are highly  responsive to irrigation. Hence, the suitable varieties  of these crops, which fit well in the cropping system and favoured by  the climatic  situation, mainly  temperature and sunshine in the project command area will be selected.
5.9 ECONOMIC CONSIDERATION
National and international prevailing prices  greatly  influence the choice of the crops. Market trends  for at least past 5 years  may  indicate the status  and priority. Some promising crops  with high export potential may  be considered for inclusion or the crops, which are being largely  imported like food grains  get priority. Accordingly  it has  been proposed to enhance the area under high yielding varieties of cereals like rice, wheat
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5.10    MARKETABILITY OF CROPS
The extent of commercial production of various  crops  depends  on their scope and marketability  both for domestic  consumption and export purposes. Therefore, the marketing review of major crops of the country is very important.
5.10.1 Cereals
The cereals  and pulses  production in Ethiopia has  remained almost static  with a little fluctuation due to droughts  or erratic  behavior of rains. The annual production during 2001-2002 was  about 11.21 million tons  but due to increasing trend in population, the per capita food availability  is  declining. Hence, with the increasing demand of food, there has  been significant increase in the import of food grains. Top priority  will, therefore, have to be given to food production. Hence, the selection of crops  and cropping pattern purely  based on economic  consideration will neither be realistic  nor in the national interest. Keeping this  in view the priority  has  been given to select most productive cereals like rice, wheat and maize due to their high yield potential and good response to irrigation. These crops, accordingly, have been given due importance in proposed cropping patterns.
5.10.2 Pulses
The pulses play an important role in nutritional security providing adequate proteins in
the human diet and also improve the soil fertility, by rhizobial nitrogen fixation from the atmosphere Though, national consumption of pulses is low but there is considerable
export market. Therefore, the pulse crops have been included as a component of the cropping pattern to sustain the crop productivity and part of nutritional security.
5.10.3 Oilseeds
Although per capita edible oil consumption is  low in the country, the present level of production is  unable to meet the domestic  needs. Therefore, the oilseeds  have been added as  one of the components  of the cropping pattern to meet the domestic requirements  and existing quantity  of exports  to earn foreign exchange This  will also help in appropriate use of natural resources  and maintain the eco-friendly  production system. This will also promote the agro-industries at local level.
5.10.4 Fruits and Vegetables
About 95% of the total quantity of vegetables marketed in the country comes from peasant sector where as 75% fruits from the state sector. The local consumption of
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5.10.5 Fodder Crops and Cultivated Grasses
The livestock are one of the important components of Ethiopian agriculture to provide major part of energy for farm operations besides milk, meat, hides and manures. The importance of livestock is to continue even in irrigated farming system to sustain the productivity. To enhance the productivity of livestock, it is necessary to provide them adequate and nutritive feed and forages in addition to crop residues and other farm by products. Hence, adequate provision has been made in cropping pattern to grow annual and perennial forage crops and cultivated grasses to provide year round fodder to cattle. The details on forage grasses, legumes and fodder trees to be considered during the rainy and dry seasons are given on Annexure-IV(a) and Annexure-IV(b).
5.11MAJOR CROPS OF PROJECT COMMAND AND WOREDA
The crops being grown in the Wolkayite project command and Woreda are although not identical in area and type but are similar with certain exception in their hectarage as has been indicated by woredas Agricultural and Rural Development offices. The list of the crops group wise is given in table 5.1.
The productivity / ha over the Woreda has been worked out based on the primary and secondary data obtained from household surveys and Woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Offices respectively and given in Table-5.2 along with the experimental yield, yields from state and cooperative farms and yields from demonstration centers.
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Cereals
Pulses
Oilseeds
Commercial Crops
Vegetables
Fruits
Forages
-Sorghum
-Teff
-Fingermillet -Maize
-Barley 
-Wheat
-Faba
Bean
-Sesame -Noug
-Cotton
-Pepper
-Onion
-Papaya -Banana -Guava
-Sesbania spp. -Other
grasses
The perusal of yield data from Project command woredas indicates that the average yields from farmers holdings of woredas for most of the crops are only 15-20% of the experimental yields and 20-30% of the yields obtained at the demonstration centres. The yields at State Farms and Co-operative Farms are also low, though experimental plot yields show the potential of the crops.
Table 5. 2 Yield of major crops under different level of technologies at Wolkayite
No.
Crops
Yield in q/ha
Research
Stations
Demonstration centre
State Farms
Cooperative Farms
Average of
Farmer’s 
Holdings
1
Sorghum
40-60
25-30
128.5
8.3
10.4
2
Teff
20-28
17-22
9.6
70
I 72 “
3
Finger Millet
-
-
10.0
8.2
8.4
4
Maize
77-120
50
-
-
18.4
5
Barley
57-60
40
18.6 ”
9.5
21
6
Wheat
30-53
20-40
-
97
7
Rice
n
-                         1 2.3
8
Soyabean
-
-
-                           15
9
Field peas
12-16
12-16
6.7
3.9
10       Chick pea             -
-
-
62
11
Noug
-
-
6.0
5.9
3.5
12
Sesame
200 ; 10-12
-
4.7
13
Groundnut
40-50
35 0
-
3.3
14
Potato
260-300
150-200
-
-
15
Tomato
650
200
-
-
16
Cabbage
420                    i 300-350
-
-
17             Pepper -
18       Onion
600                       30C-350
-
-
19 1
Carrot
300
-
-
5.12 PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN AND CROP CALENDAR
Option-I and Option-ll
Based on the existing crops  in the command area and the requirements  of different farmers, it has been proposed two options of cropping patterns where one is with and the other without commercial sugarcane crop In both options the total cropping intensity remains the same but the difference lies in the magnitude of intensity assigned to each
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individual crops  Moreover, in both options  of cropping patterns  the following crops  were selected to follow in rotation suiting to the soil types and seasons of the area Crops in both of these categories  (option-l and option-ll) have been assigned the proposed net
irrigable area of 27,039 ha.
Crop
Crops in Option-l
Crops in Option-ll
categories
Cereals Pulses
Oil seeds Vegetables Fruit crops Commercial
crops
sorghum,   finger-millet,   teff,   wheat, barley, rice and maize
lentil, fababean, soybean, chick pea, cowpea
sesame, noug
sorghum,   finger-millet,   teff,   wheat, barley, rice and maize
lentil, fababean, soybean, chick pea, cowpea
sesame, noug
onion, shallot, potato and tomato                 Onion, shallot, potato and tomato
Citrus, papaya, mango, banana sugarcane, cotton
Citrus, papaya, mango, banana cotton
5.13. CROPPING PATTERNS AND INTENSITIES
The chief objective of the project is  the cultivation of cereals, oilseeds, grain legumes, forage and fruits  crops. Crops  in these categories  have been assigned the proposed percentage of the area to the tune of 27,039 ha. The details  of the cropping calendar (Figure 5.1), net irrigable area, proposed crop calendar, cropping pattern, percent cropping intensity and CCA under different crops across the seasons are given in Tables 5.3(a) and Table 5.4 for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns  respectively. The table embodies the percentage of CCA, sowing and harvesting dates, crop duration and type of the crop variety  (local or improved) for rainy  and dry  seasons.Moreover, a one year schematic representation of crop rotation and proposed crop rotation scheme for both seasons over the project periods is shown on Table 5.5 and Table 5.6 respectively.
5.14 OPERATIONAL CROP CALENDAR AND CROPPING INTENSITIES
In operational crop calendar, an adequate provision has  been made to provide at least 30 days  Turn Around Period (TAP). This  time period is  essential to put through the harvesting and threshing etc., of the preceding season’s  crops  and to prepare the field for the succeeding crops  (Figure 5.1). Similarly, one month's  TAP has  been provided between two main seasons  of cropping of vegetables  and fodder crops. A discussion with a professional vegetable grower within a distance of 50-60km from the city brought out that such a TAP is permitted only when there is non-availability of labour or due to unfriendly  weather conditions  or non-availability  of production inputs  like seed and/or agrochemicals. Further, vegetable and fodder crop sowing is  staggered to maintain continuity of supply to the market especially in case of vegetable crops. Gross (total on
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annual basis) cropping intensity  has  been estimated for option-l at 170%, that is, 80, 70 and 20% for rainy, dry  and extended rainy  and dry  seasons  respectively. In option-ll, sugarcane is  not included as  a result the cropping intensity  and total holding assigned for the crop is  allocated for other selected economic  crops  Therefore, the total cropping intensity still remains the same.
It may  be added here that the crop operational calendar is  based on the proposed scheme of crop rotations (Table 5.5 and Table 5.6). An examination of the crop rotations would bring out that a rotation has  been so proposed that each surface feeding (exhaustive) crop has  either been preceded or succeeded by  a grain/fodder legume or fallow. Maintenance of soil health has  been kept in mind while knitting various  crops  in different adaptable and adoptable crop sequences. It would appear expedient to make a categorical advice for an immediate implementation in respect of sorghum. It should not be monocropped on the same field year after year or else the soil will become sick. The soil sickness  owing to continuous  cultivation of sorghum has  been proved beyond doubt through the research work done by a good number of researchers in the country and the world at large.
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Table 5. 3 Summary on the proposed crop calendar, cropping pattern, percent cropping intensity and CCA under different crops
across the seasons (Option-I)
Seasons
Rainy  1 Dry  [ Rainy & Dry |________ Total
CCA
Crop
(%)        (ha)
(%)    (ha)
(ha)
(ha)
Sowing
date
Harvesting date
Crop period
Remarks
Cereals
37
10,004.43
16
4,326.24
53
14,330.67
Sorghum
14
3,785.46
•
■
14
3,785.46
2™ April
7 lh October
188
Local varieties
24" May
22   Sep.
nd
122
r10
Improved varieties
Finger-millet
2.703 90
-
-
10
2.703.90
24"’ May
~15 ’ Oct
n
145
Improved varieties
Tef
5
1.351.95
-
-
5
1,351.95
7 "Ju|y
14'" Nov,
130
Improved varieties
Wheat
2
540.78
-
-
2
540.78
7 h June
15’  Oct.
n
130
Improved varieties
Barley
Rice
3
811.17
-
-
3
811.17
7 ,h June
15* Oct.
130
Improved varieties
3
811.17
5
1,351.95
8
2,163.12
12" May
27 Sep         I 138
Improved varieties
20'" Oct
7'" March | 138
Improved varieties
Maize
-
-
11
2,974.29
11
2,974.29
13'" Dec
24 Apr
132
Improved varieties
Oilseeds
21
5,678.19
20
5,407.80
41
11,085.99
Sesame
16
4.326.24
17
4,596 63
33
8,922.87
7 lh June
2^ Nov
148
Local varieties
7 Uy June
5* Oct.
120
Improved varieties
20  Oct.
m
17^Feb.
120
Improved varieties
Noug
5
1,351 95
3
811.17
-
8
2,163.12
7'  June
n
2’’<rNov
148
Improved varieties
29’ Oct
r
26’  Apr.
n
148
Improved varieties
Pulses
4
1,081.56
16
4,326.24
-
-
20
5,407.80
Chickpea
-
-
5
1,351.95
-
-
5
1,351.95
11'" Nov.
^T9T’rMarch
128
Local varieties
Soybean
2
540.78
4
1,081.56
6
1,622 34
7 ,h June
4"’ Nov.
150
Local varieties
7 ,h June
“5* Oct.
120
Improved varieties
29"'Nov.
29th Mar~
120
Local varieties
Cowpea
-
4
1,081.56
-
-
4
1.081.56
21,T Nov.
8" March
107
Improved varieties
Faba-bean
2
540.78
-
-
-
-
I2
540.78
7  June
m
29"' Oct.
144
Improved varieties
Lentil
-
3
811.17
-
-
3
811.17
29"’ Dec.
H7 May
K
139
Improved varieties
Commercial
5
1,351.95
-
20
5,407.80
25
6,759.75
Cotton Sugarcane
5
1,351 95
-
•
-
-
5
1,351.95
24 " April
1
27'"Oct
187
Local varieties
24"’ April
21” Sep
150
Improved varieties
-
-
-
20
5.407.80
20
5.407.80
10"' Dec
30'" Oct
326
All year round
Vegetables
5
1,351.95
10
2,703.90
-
•
15
4,055.85
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l1
Seasons
1
Rainy
Dry
Rainy
& Dry I
Total
cc
A
Crop
(%)
(ha)
(%)"l
(ha)
(%)
(haL
_
1%L
(ha)
Sowing
date
Harvesting date
Crop period
Remarks
Onion
2
540 78
4
1,081 56
6
1,622.34
1 1’ June
10" Oct.
130
Month of May is a
1*' Dec
9”’ April
130
turn around period
Shallot
1
270.39
2
540.78
-
-
3
811.17
1*’ June
10’  Oct.
n
130
1” Dec
9  April
m
130
Potato
1
270 39
2
540.78
-
-
3
811.17
1” June
10'" Oct.
130
1^Dec
9" April
130
Tomato
1
270 39
2
540 78
•
-
3
811.17
1’’ June
io'6 Oct.
130
1” Dec
9"' April
130
Fruits
4
1,081.56
4
1,081.56
-
-
8
2,163.12
Citrus
1
270.39
1
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all round the year
Papaya
1
270.39
1
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all round the year
Mango
1
270 39
1
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all round the year
Banana
1
270.39
1
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all rour.d the year
1 Fodder
4
1,081.56
4
1.081.56
-
-
8
2,163.12
1 st June
10 Oct
m
130
Month of
(forage grasses, legumes & fodder)
i
1 irDec
9™ April
130
November is a turn around
period
Total
80
21,631.20
{JO
18,927.30
20
! 5,407.80
170
45,966.30
Note:    The  details  for  the  proposed  percentage  of  the  net  irrigable  area  of  27,039  ha.  is  shown  for  the  rainy  season  crops  and  sugarcane  plantation amounting to 21,631.20ha and 5,407.80 respectively
Plantation of fruit crops would commence during May to June and September to October for rainy and dry seasons, respectively. During rainy and dry seasons 22 and 34% of CCA has been left fallow/uncropped, respectively.
A turn-around period of one month, that is, May and November has been provided for the rainy and dry season crops respectively. Crops sowing and harvesting dates refer to both seasons of cropping calendar.
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Table 5. 4 Summary on the proposed crop calendar, cropping pattern, percent cropping intensity and CCA under different crops
across the seasons (Option-ll)
Seasons
Rainy  | Dry  | Rainy & Dry f Total
CCA
Crop
(%)        i (ha}            (%L
jha)            (%)     Jha)
Sowing
date
Harvesting date
Crop period
Remarks
Cereals
40
10,815.60
21
5,678.19      -
-
61
16,493.79
Sorghum
15
4,055.85
-
-
15
4.055.85
T  April
3
7 ,r October
188         Local varieties
24lh MaV
22   Sep.
nd
122
Improved varieties
Finger-millet
10
2,703.90
-
-
-
10
2,703.90      24"’ May
15" Oct.
145
Improved vaneties
Tef
1,622.34
-
-
-
6
1,622.34
T^Jyiy
14,a Nov
130
Improved varieties
Wheat
6
3
811.17
-
-
-
3
811.17
7 June
15" Oct.
130
Improved varieties
Barley
3
811.17
-
-
-
3
811.17
7 ,n June
15’  Oct.
n
130
Improved varieties
Rice
3
811.17
6
1.622.34
■
9
2,433.51
12^ May
27  Sep
,n
138
Improved varieties
20* Oct
7" March
138
Improved varieties
Maize
-
-
15
4,055 85
-
15
4,055.85
13" Dec
24" Apr.
132
Improved varieties
Oilseeds
33
8,922.87
13
3,515.07
-
46
12,437.94
Sesame
28
7.570.92
8
2,163.12
36
9,734.04
7 th June
2 ^Nov
n
148
Local varieties
7  June
m
5" Oct. "
120         Improved varieties
20" Oct.
17" Feb.
120
Improved varieties
Noug
i
5
1.351.95
5
1,351.95
•
10
2.703.90
7™ June
2 nd Nov
148
Improved varieties
29"' Oct.
26" Apr.
148
Improved varieties
| Pulses
8
2,163.12
17
4,596.63
-
-
25
6,759.75
Chickpea
-
-
5
1,351.95
-
-
5
1.351.95
11"' Nov
19th March
128
Local varieties
Soybean
3
811.17
5
1,351 95
8
2,163 12
7 ,rrJune
4’" Nov.
150
Local varieties
7"’ June
5 ,h Oct.
120
Improved varieties
29"' No?
29" Mar.
120
Local varieties
Cowpea
-
-
4
1,081.56
-
-
4
1,081.56
2?'Nov.
8" March
107
Improved varieties
Faba-bean
5
1,351 95
-
-
-
-
5
1,351.95
7 W June
29" Oct.
144
Improved varieties
Lentil
-
-
3
811.17
-
-
3
811.17
29"’ Dec
17" May
139
Improved varieties
Commercial
5
1,351.95
-
-
-
-
5
1,351.95
Cotton
5
1,351.95
•
•
■
5
1,351.95
24  April
th
27,n Oct
187
'Local varieties
24"' April
21” Sep
150
Improved varieties
Vegetables
6
1,622.34
11
2,974.29
-
-
17
4,596.63
Onion
3
811.17
5
1,351.95
-
•
8
2.163.12
1 M June
10,n Oct.
130
Month of May is a
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Seasons
Rainy
Dr Y            I      Rainy & Dry
Total
Crop
—-
CC A
(ha)
L%)
(ha)
(%)
(ha)
(%)
(ha)
Sowing
date
Harvesting
date
Crop
period
V" Dec
9'" April
130
Remarks
turn around period
| Shallot
L-
1
270.39
2
540.78
-
-
3
811.17
1” June
10'" Oct.
130
1 sl Dec
O^April
130
Potato
1
270.39
2         540.78
-
-
3
811.17
T’ June
10 Oct.
m
130
1” Dec
9^ April
130
Tomato
1
270 39
2
540.78         -
-
3          811.17
1” June
10'” Oct.
130
1” Dec
9'" April
130
Fruits
4
1
1,081.56 270.39
4
1
1,081.56
-
-
8
2,163.12
Citrus
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all round the year
Papaya
1
270.39
1
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all round the year
Mango
1
270.39
1
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all round the year
Banana
1
270.39
1
270.39
-
-
2
540.78
Continuous production all round the year
Fodder
(forage
grasses,
legumes &
fodder)
I4
1,081.56
4
1,081.56
-
-
8
2,163.12
V June
10'" Oct.
130
1” Dec
9'" April
130
Month of November is a
i turn around
period
Total              £100
4 27,039.00
70
18,927.30
-
-
170
45,966.30  I
Note: Plantation of fruit crops would commence during May to June and September to October for rainy and dry seasons, respectively A turn-around period of one month, that is. May and November has been provided for the rainy and dry season crops respectively. Crops sowing and harvesting dates refer to both seasons of cropping calendar.
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Wolkayite I mg ation feasibility & Detail Design ProjectAgronomy & Agriculture Planning_____________________________________________________________ Table 5. 5 A one year schematic representation of crop rotation during the rainy and dry seasons
1
Rainy season
Dry season
S.N
Apr.
May
June
July
| Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
1
sorghum
sorghum
| sorghum
I sorghum
sorghum
sorghum
sorghum
cowpea
cowpea
cowpea
cowpea
cowpea
2
-
F.-millet
F.-millet
F.-millet
F.-millet
F.-millet
F.-millet
-
Lentil
Lentil
Lentil
Lentil
Lentil
Lentil
3
-
-
-
Teff
Teff
Teff
Teff
Teff
Maize
Maize
Maize
Maize
Maize
4-
-                 Wheat          Wheat          Wheat          Wheat          Wheat          Chickpea      Chickpea     Chickpea      Chickpea      Chickpea
5                              -                 Barley          Barley        ! Barley           Barley          Barley          G.Fallow       G.Fallow | G.Fallow          G.Fallow       G.Fallow
6-
Rice           Rice             Rice             Rice             Rice             G.Fallow       G.Fallow       G.Fallow      G.Fallow       G.Fallow       G.Fallow
7
-
-
Sesame
Sesame
Sesame
Sesame
Sesame
Sesame
Fodder
Fodder
Fodder         Fodder
Fodder
81     -
| Noug          | Noug            Noug         | Noug          I Noug             Noug/SB       Soybean      Soybean       Soybean      Soybean
9
-
-
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Soybean
Vegetable
Vegetable
Vegetable
Vegetable
Vegetable
10     -                    - zn  F.bean         F.bean         F.bean         F.bean         F.bean/No    Noug            Noug            Noug            Noug            Noug
11      Cotton           Cotton        Cotton          Cotton          Cotton          Cotton          Cotton          G Fallow       G.Fallow | G.Fallow          G.Fallow       G.Fallow
12     -                    -                 Vegetable [  Vegetable    Vegetable I  Vegetable |  Veg./Sesa    Sesame        Sesame       Sesame       Sesame
13
-
-                 Fodder | Fodder               Fodder         Fodder         Fod./Rice | Rice                 Rice             Rice             Rice              Rice
14
Fruit crops
Continuous production all year round
15
Sugarcane
Continuous production ail year round
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Table 5. 6 Proposed crop rotation scheme under both seasons over the project periods
Serial number
Seasons
Remarks
Rainy
Dry
Crop categories
1
Cereal
Pulse
2
Cereal
Pulse
3
Cereal
Cereal
4
Cereal
Pulse
5
Cereal
Green fallow
6
Cereal
Green fallow
7
Oilseed
Fodder
8
Oilseed
Pulse
9
Pulse
Vegtable
10
Pulse
Oilseed
11
Fiber
Green fallow
12
Vegetable
Oilseed
13
Fodder
Cereal
14
Fruit
Fruit
All year round
15
Sugarcane
Sugarcane
All year round
Note: During the dry season 11% of CCA will be left under green fallowing or will be uncropped in both options of cropping patterns.
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Months
Crops
April        May          June        July         Aug.        Sep.        Oct.         Nov.         Dec.         Jon.           Feb.         March
Sorghum
2’*
15%
7*
Fingemi tllel
24*
10%
Teff
7*
5%
14*
Wheat
7*
2%
L5*
Barley
7‘*
3%
15*
Rice
12*
3%
27“                20*
3%
7*
Sesame
7*
15«
2-
20th                                 12%
17*
Noug
7*
5%
2**
26*
29"
6%
Soybean
7*
2%
4*               29*
4%
29*
F ababean
7*
2%                               29th
Cotton
24*
5%
27*
Maize
24*
13*
14%
Chickpea
11*
6%
19*
Lentil
17*
29*
3%
Cowpea
21M
3%
8*
Vegetable
JO*6               TAP        1*
5%
30*
-------- 1
TAP                l“
11%
Fruits
M"  1*
4S
Fodder
JO*        ’tap       1"
4%
JO’
’TAP                 l”
4%
Sugarcane
20%
3^            10*
Note: Percent values indicate cropping intensity; ’TAP = Turn Around Period
Figure  5.1  Operational  crops  calendar  and  percent  cropping  intensity  during  the  rainy and dry Seasons
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6.1.  INTRODUCTION
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
The computation of Crop Water Requirement (CWR) constitutes  an important component of irrigation projects  for planning of cropping systems. A good number of methods  and procedures  are available for determinations  of CWR. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations  has  also brought out several publications dealing with various aspects of estimation of CWR including issues related io this.
6.2. PROCEDURE FOR COMPUTATION OF CWR
As  recommended  in  FAO  Publications  three  steps  are  involved  in  the  calculation  of  the crop water requirement.
6.2.1.  Reference Evapotranspiration, ETo
The crop water requirement (CWR) is a dependent function of the meteorological parameters and Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) presents the effect of the
meteorological factors. The following meteorological factors are taken into account for computation of Reference Evapotranspiration by modified Penman Method (FAO l&D paper No.24) and Penman Montieth Approach (FAO I & D Paper No.46):
Temperature
-  Relative humidity
-  Wind Velocity
-  Sunshine Hours
The details of the above climatological parameters are given in chapter 2 of this report.
6.2.2.  Selection of Values for Crop Coefficient
The  Crop  Coefficient  (Kc)  denotes  the  effect  of  crop  on  its  water  requirement.  This  is represented  by  the  relationship  between  Reference  Evapotranspiration  (ETo)  and  Crop Evapotrasnpiration  ET  crop  as  ETc  =  Kc  ETo.  The  values  of  Crop  Coefficient  vary  from one  to  the  other  crop,  its  stage  of  growth,  growing  season  and  prevailing  season  and water  conditions.  The  next  step  comprises  the  selection  of  suitable  values  for  the  Crop Coefficient.  Kc  is  the  experimentally  derived  crop  coefficient  that  is  presented  to  relate ETo  to  crop  evapotranspiration  (ETcrop  =  ETc  =  kcETo).  For  the  given  crop  types  and cropping  patterns,  the  corresponding  Kc  values  are  selected  from  FAO's  publications and  other  literatures  available  on  the  subject  and  the  monthly  ETc  for  the  respective crops is computed.
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6.2.3. Determination of CWR and NIR
It entails  the evaluation of temporal and spatial variability  of climate. This  also calls  for the assessment of the effect of soil water availability  as  well as  agricultural and irrigation practices.
The three steps  outlined above will be able to give the CWR during its  crop growth period at monthly  interval. The requirement so computed would be under the field conditions. Therefore, the water losses  in the irrigation system have to be incorporated to arrive at the CWR at the head of the irrigation system. If irrigation efficiency  is considered as  47.8%, the total monthly  CWR for the individual crops, for the seasons and the total water need i.e., NIR would be more than double. Monthly  and Seasonal Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) has  been presented in Table 6.1 and Table 6.2 for option-l and option-ll respectively. A perusal of the data for option-l would evince that 72.51, 318.43 and 180.92 thousand m3 was  the seasonal NIR, for rainy, dry  and extended dry  seasons  respectively. Likewise, option-ll reveals  that 77.94 and 332.47 thousand m3 was  the seasonal NIR, for rainy  and dry  seasons  respectively. The details to arrive at the aforesaid NIR (in 000’m3) inclusive of ETo, Kc  value, Etc  and CWR for both options  of cropping patterns  during the rainy  season is  given on Table 6.3 and Table 6.3 and for the dry  season on Table 6.5 and Table 6 6. Besides, an abridged summary  of seasonal CWR and NIR as  against to each individual crops  is  presented respectively on Table 6.7 and Table 6.8 for both option-l and Option-ll cropping patterns.
It would be noted that during July  and August. NIR was  fully  met with the rainfall received during these two months. Further, it was  significantly  brought down during April, May  and June due to the receipt of rainfall. However, it slowly  moved upward from November onwards and remained almost equal from January to March.
Further, during dry  season, the maximum NIR was  estimated during January. It is because the crops  continued to grow actively  up to February. NIR thereafter slowly slided down owing to proximity  of the crops  to maturity. Towards  the end of dry  season, it was  relatively  high from March to May  since the growing period of some of the dry season crops continued upto the onset of the rainy season.
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Table 6.1 Seasonal NIR (in 000' m3) on a 100ha command area at Wolkayite Project
command area (option-l)____________________________________________________________
Seasons
Months
Rainy
Dry
Rainy & Dry*
Total
L/Sec
April
11.41
4.55
42.84
58 80
22.69
May
6.40
0.00
35.88
42.28
15.79
June
13.51
-
17.67
31.18
11.64
July
0.00
-
0.00
0 00
0.00
August
0.00
-
0.00
0.00
0.00
September
7.86
0.00
7 86
3.03
October
5.65
13.03
0.00
18.68
6.97
November
3.72
14.24
0.00
17.96
6.93
December
4.40
74.16
13.14
91.70
34.24
January
6.48
98.03
12.55
117.06
43.71
February
6.52
64.08
12.62
83.22
31.07
March
6.56
50.34
46.22
103.12
38.50
Total
72.51
318.43
180.92
571.86
17.88
Total volume of NIR for 27,039ha CCA=571.86 x 27,039/100=154,625,225.4mJ =154.63 Million mJ
*NIR under both seasons is indicated for sugarcane plantation.
Table 6. 2 Seasonal NIR (in 000' m3) on a 100ha command area at Wolkayite Project
command area (Option-ll)
Seasons
Months
Rainy
Dry
Total
L/Sec
April
11.76
5.13
16.89
6.52
May
6.48
-
6.48
2.42
June
14.08
-
14.08
5.43
July
-
-
-
-
August
-
-
-
-
September
11.67
-
11.67
4.50
October
6.27
9.78
16.05
5.99
November
3.72
13.16
16.88
6.51
December
4.40
70.97
75.37
28.14
January
6 48
93.40
99.88
37.29
February
6.52
78.35
84.87
31.69
March
6.56
61.68
68.24
25.48
Total
77.94
332.47
410.41
12.83
Total volume of NIR for 27,039ha CCA-410.41 x 27039/100=110,970,759.9m
’=110.97 Million m’
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6.3.    SOURCES OF CLIMATIC DATA
There is  no meteorological station (weather observatory) located in the command area. Moreover, the areas  close to command area have only  very  limited number of meteorological stations. To illustrate, the station at Adi-Remetse can represent the Wolkayite Command, but it has inadequate data which do not represent the entire command area. Further, there is no meteorological station that could directly represent the command area. Rain gauge Station at Zarima, to some extent represents the rainfall characteristics of the catchment. Thus, there was no choice but to consider the climatic data from other close by stations to have an idea to judge the local climatic conditions of the command area in question.
The mean monthly and annual rainfall has been estimated through the average over 46 years of record maintained by four meteorological stations namely, Zarima, Humera, Shire- endaselassie and Adi-Rametse. Other climatic data of the command area such as Relative Humidity, Mean Wind Speed, Mean Sunshine Hours, Mean Maximum, Minimum and Mean temperatures  were processed from the data from Humera, Endasilassie and Debark Meteorological station records. These stations are in close proximity of the command area and hence have been considered as the closest possible representative of the area under consideration (Annexure-ll). Summary  of the meteorological characteristics  processed, for the project command area have been presented in Chapter 2 on climate of the command area based on estimates made by the Hydrologist over a period from 1960 to 2005. The details are available in the sectoral Report on hydrology of the Wolkayite Command Area
6.4. ESTIMATION OF ETO
Modified Penman -Monteith method has  been used to compute ETo on a monthly basis using the estimated climatological data for the project area from 1960 to 2005. The monthly values  have been calculated by  Penman-Monteith Approach with computer programme available in FAO I & D paper No.56. Average monthly values for ETo have been computed from the climatological data of four stations as given by the hydrologist and these values have been used for further calculation and estimation of CWR The monthly  ETo was divided by the number of days in a month to determine daily ETo as presented in Table 2.3.
6.5. EFFECTIVE RAINFALL
The average annual rainfall in the command is  around 1114mm The detailed monthly rainfall data at the project area is available in Annexuretll. The result of monthly average effective rainfall is tabulated in Table 2.3
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6.6.    CROP WISE CWR AND NIR REQUIREMENT DURING THE RAINY SEASON
6.6.1. CWR and NIR
As  indicated earlier that crop water requirement has  been estimated using the climatic parameters  namely, temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, wind speed, and sunshine hours. Effective rainfall has  also been considered in computation FAO I & D Paper No.56 (Soft-ware) has  been employed in determination of CWR/NIR. Details  of the monthly  ETo, Kc  value, ETc, CWR and NIR as  against to the proposed percentage of cropping intensity/CCA assigned to each individual crops in the rainy, dry and extended rainy and dry season have been presented in Table 6.3 and Table 6.4 for option-l cropping pattern. The same have been given in Table 6.4 and Table 6 6 for option II cropping pattern. Computation of CWR and NIR at the field level have been calculated by  multiplying the NIR/ha by the percentage of CCA assigned to the crop in question.
The  Seasonal  NIR  summary  depicted  that  154.63  Mm3   (option-l)  and  110.97  Mm3(option-ll) water is required for 27,039 ha of CCA.
6.6.2. Rainy Season Crops
A  cropping  intensity  of  80  %  and  100%  has  been  proposed  respectively  for  option-l  and option-ll  cropping  patterns.  Both  options  include  the  cultivation  of  cereals,  oilseeds,  pulses, cotton vegetables, fruits and fodders in common. The cultivation of sugarcane is all the year round  (rainy  and  dry  season  periods)  and  the  assigned  20%  cropping  intensity  has  been considered  only  under  option-l  cropping  pattern.  Therefore,  this  will  add  up  to  the  rainy season cropping intensity of 80% and result in a total of 100% cropping intensity for option-l cropping pattern
Sorghum and sesame have been respectively proposed a cropping intensity of 14/16% and
15/28% for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns since these are the important crops in the command area under both scenarios (Table 5.3 and Table 5.4).
Total CWR during the rainy season for 80 and 100% of CCA for all the crops of this season have been estimated at 4,299.28mm and NIR at 72.51 and 77.94 thousand m3 for option-l and option-ll respectively  (Table 6.7 and Table 6.8). During the rainy  season, maximum irrigation water using crops  were fruits  and sorghum amounting to 40.72/13.08, 40.72/14.02 thousand m3 under option-l and option-ll respectively  (Table 6.7 and Table 6.8)). The remaining crops followed the aforesaid crops in respect of CWR/NIR.
As expected, CWR and NIR were mostly met out by the rainfall during this crop season. Details of CWR and NIR computation, inclusive of ETo Kc value and Etc. for option-l cropping pattern have been presented in Table 6 3 and Table 6.5 for rainy and dry seasons respectively. The same have been presented in Table 6.4 and Table 6.6 for option-ll cropping pattern.
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Table 6. 3 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in OOP* m ) During the Rainy Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-I)
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
3
Crop: Sorghum
Duration: 188 days
Crop: Finger-millet                   Duration: 145 days
Crop: Teff
Duration: 145 days
Crop: Onion
Duration: 130 days
Area: Kha
Date: 2nd April-7,h Oct.
Area: 10ha                Date: 24 * May-16* Oct”
Area: 6ha
Date: 7* July-14* Nov.
Area: 2ha
Date: 1 June-10* Oct
-
Details of records
Unit
Cutoff date for las  1 irrigation: 17 Sep
Cutoff date for las 11rrigatia n: 26* Sep.
Cutofl date for l< ist Irrigation: 26* Oct.
Cutoff date for las ft Irrigation: 20* Sep.
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sep.
Oct.
Total
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm           186
180.73
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
180.73
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
109.43
106
127.8
142.91
102.3
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
Daily ETo
mm
6.2
5.83
502
3 53
3.42
4.26
4.61
583
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
No. of days
no
28
31
30
31
31
17
0
8
30
31
31
26
0
24
31
30
26
0
30
31
31
20
0
Kc value
0.3
0.3
1
1
1
0.55
0.55
0.3
0.3
1
1
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.1
1.1
0.3
0.3
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
ETc
mm
52.08
54.22
160.6
109.43
106.02
39.83
0
13.99
46.18
109.43
106.02
33.23
0
25.42
116.6
140.68
35.96
0
105.42
114 J
111.32
80.94
0
Re monthly
mm
18.2
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
424
155.8
156.7
1194
42 4
9.9
999
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
CWR
mm
33.88
7.82
50.7
0
0
0
0
92.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0"
0
21.18
0
0
21.18
6.62
0
0
0
0
6.62
Re/day
mm
0.61
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
398
1.37
5.01
5.05
3.98
1 37
0.33
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
Re of Period
mm
17.08
46.5
99.9
155.31
156.55
67.66
0
12
99.9
155.31
156.55
103.48
0
120.24
156.6
119.4
35.62
0
99.9
155.31
156.55
79.6
0
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
I 36
7.72
60.7
0
0
0
0
93.42
1.99
0
0
0
0
0
1.99
o
0
21.18
0.34
0
21.62
6.52
0
0
1.34
0
646
NIR/ha
000
m1
0.35
0.08
0.61
0
0
0
0
0.93
0.02
0
0
0
0
0
0.02
0
0
0.21
0
0
0.22
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
047
Total NIR
000
m3
4.9
1.08
7.1
0
0
0
0
13.08
0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0.2
0
0
1.06
0.02
0
1.08
0.11
0
0
0.03
0
0.14
Crop: Wheat
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Barley
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Rice
Duration: 138 days
Crop: Sesame
Duration: 148 days
Details of records
Area: 2ha
Date: 7* June-16* Oct.
Area: 3ha
Date: 7* June-15* Oct.
Area: 3ha
Date: 12* May-27,h Sep.
Area: 16ha
Date: 7* June - 2nd Nov.
Unit
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 26 Sep.
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 26* Sep.
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 7* Sep.
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 14* Oct.
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Total
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct
Nov
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
150.6
109.4
106.02
127.8
142.91
180.73
150.6
109.4
106 02
1278
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
1023
Dally ETo
mm
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
No. of days
no
23
31
31
26
0
23
31
31
26
0
19
15
31
31
7
23
31
31
30
14
0
Kc value
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.25
0.25
0.3
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.3
0.35
0.35
1.15
1.15
035
0.35
ETc
mm
34.64
126.84
121.92
33.23
0
34.64
126.8
121.92
27.69
0
33.23
22.69
126.1
121.92
8.96
40.41
38.3
121.92
146.97
22.69
0
Re monthly
mm
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
CWR
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27.67
0
0
27.67
Re/day
mm
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
3 33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
Re of Period
mm
76.59
155.31
156.55
103.48
0
76.59
155.3
156.55
103.48
0
28.5
49.95
155.3
156.55
27.86
76.59
155.31
156.55
119.4
19.18
0
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.73
0
0
0
0
4.73
0
0
0
27.17
3.41
0
30.98
NIR/ha
000 m’
ro
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.06
0
0
0
0
0.06
0
0
0
0J8
0.03
0
0.31
Total NIR
000 m’
:0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.14
0
0
0
0
0.14
0
0
0
4.41
0.66
0
4.96
Crop: Noug/Niger
Duration: 148 days
Crop: Soybean
Duration: 150 days
Crop:Fababean
Duration: 150 days
Crop: Cotton
Duration: 160 days
Details of records
Unit
Area: 6ha
Date: 7*  June - 2    “Nov.
r
Area: 2ha
Date: 7*  June - 4“   Nov.
Area: 2ha             |
Date: 7* June-29   * Oct.
Area: 6ha
Date: 24 * April-27* Oct
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 14* Oct
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 16°' Oct
Cutoff date for last Irriga ion: 8* Oct.
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 7* Oct.
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct
Nov
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
April
May
June
July
Auq
Sep
Oct
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
102.3
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
102.3
150.6
109.43
106
127.8
142.91
186
180.73
150.6
109.43
106
127.8
143
Dally ETo
mm
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
5.02
3.53
3.42
426
4.61
3.41
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
6.2
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
No. of days
no
23
31
31
30
14
0
23
31
31
30
16
0
23
31
31
30
16
7
31
30
31
31
30
7
Kc value
0.35
0.35
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.4
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.5
0.5
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
1.2
1.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
ETc
mm
40.41
38.3
121.92
146J7
22.69
0
46.18
43.77
121.92
146.97
36.88
0
46.18
126.84
121.8
44.73
26.82
16.19
<3.26
180.72
131.32
63.61
78.88
19.4
Re monthly
mm
999
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
99 9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
999
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
18.2
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
CWR
mm
0
0
0
27.67
0
0
27.67
0
0
0
27.67
0
"o
27.67      0
0
0
0
0
0
0
16.16
80.82
0
0
0
0
97.68
Re/day
mm
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.61
1.5
333
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
Re of Penod
mm
76.59
155.31
156.55
119.4
19.18
0
76.59
155.31
156.55
119.4
21.92
0
76.59
155.31
156.6
119.4
12.33
4.27
465
99 9
155.31
156.6
119.4
9.59
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
"6
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
0
0
0
27.67
341
0
30.98      0
0
0
27.67
14.86
"6
42.63
0
0
0
0
2.19
2.19
10.92
66.76
80.82
0
0
0
9.77
168.27
NIR/ha
000 m3
0
0
0
0.28
0.03
0
0.31        0
0
0
0.28
0.16
~0~
0.43
0
0
0
0
0.02
0.02
0.11
0.67
0J1
0
0
0
0.1
1.68
Total NIR
000 m’
0
0
0
1.38
0.17
0
1.66        0
0
0
0.66
0.3
"o
0.86
0
0
0
0
0.04
0.04
0.66
3.34
4.04
0
0
0
0.49
8.42FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Crop: Shallot
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Potato
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Tomato
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Fodder
Duration: 130 days
Area: 1ha
Date: 1* June-10'” Oct.
Details of records
Area: 1ha
Date: 1*' June-101” Oct.
Area: 1ha
Date: 1* June-101'’ Oct.
Area: 4ha
Date: 1d June-101” Oct
Unit
1
Cutoff date for last ir Tigation: 20 ” Sep.
Cutoff date for last    irrigation:   20°’ Sep.
1
Cutoff date for last i rig at ion: 20 ” Sep.
Cutoff date for last i   Tigation: 20” Sep.
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
150.6
109.4
106.02
127.8
142.91
150.6
109.43
106
127.8
142.9
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
Dally ETo
mm
502
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
5.02
3.53
3.42
426
4 61
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
No. of days
no
30
31
31
20
0
30
31
31
20
0
30
31
31
20
0
30
31
31
20
0
Kc value
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
0.7
1.05
1 05
0.95
0.95
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
0 85
0.92
0 92
0.85
0.85
ETc
mm
106.42
114.9
111.32
80.94
0
106.42
114.9
111.32
80.94
0
106.42
114.9
111.3
80.94
0
128.01
100.68
97.54
72.42
0
Re monthly
mm
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
999
155.8
156.7
119.4
424
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
CWR
mm
6.62
0
0
0
0
6.62
5.62
0
0
0
0
6.62
5.52
0
0
0
0
6.62
28.11
0
0
0
0
26.11
Re/day
mm
3.33
5.01
5.05
3 98
1.37
3.33
501
5.05
3.98
1.37
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
Re of Period
mm
| 99.9
155.31
156.55
79.6
0
99.9
155.3
156.55
79.6
0
99.9
155.31
156.6
79.6
0
99.9
155.31
156.55
79.6
0
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
6.62
0
0
1.34
0
6.86
6.62
0
0
1.34
0
6.86
6.62
0
0
1.34
0
6.86
28.11
0
0
0
0
28.11
NIR/ha
000 m’
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.28
0
0
0
0
0.28
Total NIR
000 m’
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
1.12
0
0
0
0
1.12
Crop: Citrus
Duration    366 days
Crop: Papaya
Duration: 365 days
Area: 1ha
Date: 1“   June-31    May
Area: 1ha
1
Date: 1* June-31*' May
Details of records
Cut oh date for Iasi   irrigation : 11"  May
1
Unit
Cutoff date for la   st irrigation: 11°’ May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106 02
127.8
142.9
102.3
144 46
163.1
164.08
191.58
186
180.7
150.6
109.4
106 02
127.8
142.9
102.3
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
180.7
Dally ETo  -
:
mm
■5.02
■3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61     :
3.41
4.66
5 26
5.86
6.18
6.2
5 83
5:02
353
3.42
4 26
4.61
3.41
4.66
5 26
5.86
6.18
6.2
5.83
No. of days
no
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
31
30
11
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
31
30
11
Kc value
0.82
0.82
0.82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.82
0.82
0.82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
0.9
ETc
mm
123.49
89.73
86.94
129.08
144.34
103.32
146.9
164.7
166.72
172.42
167.4
67.72
123.49
89.73
86.94
129.1
144.34
103.32
146.9
164.69
165.72
172.42
1674
57.72
Re monthly
mm
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
26              8.3
18.2
464
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6             8.3
182
46.4
CWR
mm
23.69
0
0
9.68
101.84
83.42
110.2
162.2
163.12
164.12
149.2
11.32
988.79
23.69
0
0
9.68
10144
83.42
110.2
162.19
163.12
164.12
1482
11.32
988.79
Re/day
mm
' 3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.5
Re of Period
mm
. 99.9
155.31
156.55
119.4
42.47
9.9
35.65
248
2.52
8.37
18.3
16.5
99.9
155.3
156.55
119.4
42.47
9.9
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
18.3
16.5
PSI
mm
!o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
23.69
0
0
9.68
101.87
93.42
110.26
162.2
163.2
164.06
149.1
41.22
1018.6
23.59
0
0
9.68
101.87
9342
11026
162.21
163.2
164.06
149.1
41.22
1018.6
NIR/ha
000 m1
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
148
041
10.19
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.82
1.63
1.64
149
041
10.18
Total NIR
000 m’
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
148
0.41
10.18
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.82
1.63
1.64
1.49
041
10.18
Crop: Mango
Duration: 366 days
Crop: Banana
Duration: 365 days
Area: 1ha
Date: 1*June-3l“ May
Area: 1ha
Date: 1**June-31  May
u
Details of records
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 11 May
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 11   May
m
Unit
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106 02
127.8
142.9
102.3
144.46
163.1
164.08
191.58
186
180.7
150.6
109 4
106.02
127.8
142.9
102 3
144 46
163.06
164 08
191.58
186
180.7
Daily ETo
mm
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.16
6.2
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
5.83
No. of days
no
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
31
30
11
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
31
30
11
Kc value
0.82
0 82
0 82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.82
0.82
0.82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
0.9
ETc
mm
123.49
89.73
86.94
129.08
14424
103.32
146.9
164.7
166.72
172.42
167.4
67.72
12349
89.73
86.94
129.1
144.34
103.32
146.9
164.88
166.72
17242
1874
57.72
Re monthly
mm
99 9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6             8.3
18.2
464
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6             8.3
18.2
46.4
CWR
mm
23.59
0
0
9.68
101.94
8342
110.2
162.2
163.12
164.12
149.2
11.32
988.79
23.69
0
0
9.68
101.94
9342
1102
162.19
163.12
164.12
1492
11.32
988.79
Re/day
mm
333
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.5
333
5.01
5 05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.5
Re of Period
mm
99.9
155.31
156.55
119.4
42.47
9.9
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
18.3
16.5
99.9
155.3
156.55
119.4
42.47
9.9
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
18 3
165
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
23.59
0
0
9.68
101.87
93.42
110.25
162.2
163.2
164.06
149.1
41.22
1018.6
23.69
0
0
9.68
101.87
9342
110.26
162.21
163.2
164.05
149.1
41.22
1018.6
NIR/ha
000 m’
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
1.49
041
10.19         0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
1.49
041
10.19
Total NIR
000 m’
044
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
1.49
041
10.18     | 0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
149         041
10.18FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Table 6.4 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in 000’m ) During the Rainy Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-ll)
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
3
Crop: Sorghum
Duration: 188 days
Crop: Finger-millet                    Duration: 145 days
Crop: TefT
Duration: 145 days
Crop: Onion
Duration: 130 days
Area: 16ha
Date: 2'” April-7"' Oct.
Area: 10ha                 Date: 24 v’May-16"’ Oct.
Area: 6ha
Date; 7* July-14 ' Nov.
n
Area: 3ha
Date: 1“ June-10* Oct
Cutoff date for las  rt irrigation: 17  Sep.
,r
Cutoff date for la    st irrigatk>n: 26* Sep.
Cutoff date for I   ist irrigation: 26"* Oct.
Cutoff date for la   st irrigation: 20 Sep.
Details of records
Unit
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sep.
Oct.
Total
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
166
180.73
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
14291
180.73
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
109.43
106
127.8
142.91
102.3
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
14241
Daily ETo
mm
6.2
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
4 26
4.61
5 83
5.02
353
342
4 26
4.61
3.53
3.42
426
4.61
3.41
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
No. of days
no
28
31
30
31
31
17
0
8
30
31
31
26
0
24
31
30
26
0
30
31
31
20
0
Kc value
0.3
0.3
1
1
1
0.55
0.55
0.3
0.3
1
1
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.1
1.1
0.3
0.3
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
ETc
mm
62.08
54.22
160.6
109.43
106.02
39.83
0
13.99
46.18
109.43
106.02
33.23
0
26.42
116.6
140.69
35.96
0
106.42
114.9
111.32
80.94
0
Re monthly
mm
18.2
464
999
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
CWR
mm
33.88
7.82
50.7
0
0
0
0
92.4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
21.18
0
0
21.19
6.62
0
0
0
0
642
Re/day
mm
0.61
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
Re of Penod
mm
17.06
465
99 9
155 31
156.55
67.66
0
12
99.9
155.31
156.55
103.48
0
120.24
156.6
119.4
35.62
0
99.9
155.31
156.55
79.6
0
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
36
7.72
60.7
0
0
0
0
93.42      1.89
0
0
0
0
0
1.99
0
0
21.11
0.34
0
21.62
6.62
lo
0
1.34
0
6.86
NIR/ha
000 m’
0.36
0.08
0.61
0
0
0
0
0.93        0.02
0
0
0
0
0
0.02
0
0
0.21
0
1
0.22
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
Total NIR
000 m’
646
1.16
7.61
0
0
0
0
14.02      0.2
0
0
0
0
0
0.2
0
0
1.27
0.02
0
1.29
0.17
0
0
0.04
0
041
Crop: Wheat
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Barley
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Rice
Duration: 138 days                           Crop: Sesame
Duration: 148 days
Area: 3ha
Date: 7,h June-16* Oct
Area: 3ha
Date: 7th June-15* Oct.
Area: 3ha
Date: 12* May-27* Sep.                                 Area: 28ha
Date: 7* June - 2nd Nov.
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 26 Sep.
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 26 ' Sep.
ir
Details of records
Unit
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 7* Sep.
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 14* Oct
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total        June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total        May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Total           June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct
Nov
Total
Mean Montnly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
150.6
109.4
106.02
127.8
14291
180.73
150.6
109.4
106.02
127.8
150.6
109.43
106.02
127 8
142.91
102.3
Daily ETo
mm
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
5.02
353
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
No. of days
no
23
31
31
26
0
23
31
31
26
0
19
15
31
31
7
23
31
31
30
14
0
Kc value
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.25
0.25
0.3
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.3
0.35
0.35
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
ETc
mm
34.64
125.84
12142
33.23
0
34.64
126.8
12142
27.19
0
33.23
22.69
126.8
121.92
8.96
40.41
38.3
121.92
14647
22.61
0
Re monthly
mm
99.9
155.8
1567
119 4
42.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
CWR
mm
0
0
0
0
0
00
0
0
Io
0
00
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27.67
0
0
27.17
Re/day
mm
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
Re of Period
mm
76.59
155.31
156 55
103.48
Io
76.59
155.3
156.55
103.48
0
28.5
49.95
155.3
156.55
27.86
76.59
155.31
156.55
119.4
19.18
0
PSI
mm
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
io
NIR/ha
mm
0
0
0
0
0
00
"5
io
lo
0
0
4.73
0
0
0
0
4.73
0
0
0
27.67
3.41
0
30.98
NIR/ha
000 m’
0
0
0
0
0
o0
0
0
0
0
0
0.06
0
0
0
0
0.06
0
0
0
048
0.03
0
0.31
Total NIR
000 m-
0
0
0
0
0
0           II 0
0
0
0
0
0
0.14
0
0
0
0
0.14
0
0
0
7.72
045
0
8.87
Crop: Noug/Ntger
Duration: 148 days
Crop: Soybean
Duration: 150 days
Crop: Fababean
Duration: 150 days
Crop: Cotton
Duration: 160 days
Area: 6ha
Date: 7* June - 2nd Nov.
Area: 3ha
Date: 7* June-4* Nov.
Area: 6ha
Date: 7,h   June-29“   Oct.
Area: 6ha
h
Date: 24* Apnl-27* Oct.
Details of
records
Cutoff  date for last irrigation: 14 Oct
Unh
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 16* Oct
Cutoff date for last irriqa    tion: 9* Oct.
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 7* Oct.
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct
Nov
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
Mean Monthly
ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
1023
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
102.3
150.6
109.43
106
127.8
142.91
186
180.73
150.6
109.43
106
127.8
143
Daily ETo
mm
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
No. of days
no
23
31
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
461
6.2
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
446
4.61
31
30
14
0
23
31
31
30
16
0
Kc value
23
31
31
30
16
7
31
30
31
31
30
7
035
0.35
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.4
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.5
0.5
ETc
Re monthly
mm
mm
40.41
99 9
38.3 155 8
0
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
1.2
1.2
0.6
0.6
0.6
12142
14647
22.69
0
46.18
43.77         121.82      146.87
36.88
46.18
126.84
121.8      44.73
26.82
16.19
83.28
180.72
131.32      •3.61       76.88
18.4
CWR
mm
0
0
0
27.67
0
0
27.67
0
0
Re/day
PSI
155.8 0
156.7 0
27.67
99.9 0
155.8
0
156.7 0
119.4 0
42.4 0
0
18.2 0
16.88
99.9 80.82
155.8 0
156.7 0
119.4 0
42.4 0
3.33
119.4
27.67
0
97.68
5.01
5.05
3 98
1.37
0.33
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37     .
0.33
Re of Period
mm
1.37
0.61
1.5
3.33
76.59
501
5.05
398
1.37
155.31
156.55
119.4
5.05
19.18
3.33
5.01
3.98
0
mm
76.59
155.31
21.92
76.59
155.31
156.6
1194
12.33
4.27
46.5
0
99.9
15531
156.6
119 4
9 59
0
156.55
119.4
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
^6
27.67
0
0
0
50
~0
0
0
0
0
341
0
0
0
0
0
000
m’
30.98
0
0
0I
27.67
14.96
42.63
0
0
0
0
2.19
2.11
10.92
66.76
80.82
0
0
0
9.77
16147
NIR/ha
0
0
0
048
0.03
0
041
0
0
0
0.28
0.16
0
0.43
0
0
0
0
0.02
0.02
0.11
0.87
0.81
0
0
0
0.1
1.61
Total NIR
m’
0
0
0
1.38
0.17
0
1.66
0
0
0
0.83
0.46
0
141
0
0
0
0
0.11
0.11
0.66
3.34
4.04
0
0
0
0.49
1.42FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkaylte Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Duration: 130 days
[] Crop: Potato
Duration: 130 dayst
Crop: Tomato
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Fodder
Duration: 130 days
Date: 1** June-10   Oct.
m
| Area: 1ha
Date: 1“ June-10"’O )ct
Area: 1ha
Date: 1“ June-10     Oct.
n
Area: 4ha
Date: 1 June-10"' Oct
-
gation: 2O'  Sep.
n
Details of records
Unit
Crop: Shallot
Area: 1ha
Cutoff date for last Irri June           July
| Cutoff date for last irrigation: 20"' Sep.
Cutoff date for last   rrigation  20"' Sep.
Cutoff date for last  rrigation: 20”    Sep.
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total        June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
14291
150.6
109.4
106 02
127.8
142.91
150.6
109.43
106
1278
142.9
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
Daily ETo
mm
5.02
3 53
3.42
426
4.61
5 02
353
342
4.26
4.61
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
No. of days
no
30
31
31
20
0
30
31
31
20
0
30
31
31
20
0
30
31
31
20
0
Kc value
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
0.7
1.05
1.05
0,95
0 95
0.7
1.05
1.05
0 95
0.95
0.85
0.92
0.92
0.85
0.85
ETc
mm
106.42
114.9
111.32
80.94
0
106.42
114.9
111.32
80.94
0
105.42
114.9
111.3
80.94
0
128.01
100.68
97.54
72.42
0
Re monthly
mm
99 9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
99.9
155 8
156.7
1194
42.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
CWR
mm
6.62
0
0
0
0
5.52
6.52
0
0
0
0
6.62
6.62
0
0
0
0
6.52
28.11
0
0
0
0
28.11
Re/day
mm
3.33
501
5 05
398
1.37
3.33
501
5.05
398
1.37
3 33
501
5.05
3.98
1.37
333
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
Re of Period
mm
99.9
155.31
156.55
79.6
0
99.9
155.3
156 55
79.6
0
99 9
155 31
156.6
79.6
0
99.9
155.31
156 55
79.6
0
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
6.62
0
0
1.34
0
6J6
6.52
0
0
1.34
0
6.86
6.62
0
0
1.34
0
6.86
28.11
0
0
0
0
28.11
NIR/ha
000 m’
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.28
0
0
0
0
0.28
Total NIR
000 m'
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
0.06
0
0
0.01
0
0.07
1.12
0
0
0
0
1.12
Crop: Citrus                Duration: 366 days
Crop: Papaya I        Duration: 366 days
1
Area: 1ha I Date: 1“ June-31* May
1
Area: 1ha Date: 1*'June-31* May
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 11 May
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 11   May
m
Details of records
Unit
June
July
Auq
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total         June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb
Mar.
April
May
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.9
102.3
144.46
163.1
164.08
191.58
186
180.7
150.6
1094
106.02
127.8
142.9
102.3
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
180.7
Dally ETo
mm
5.02
3.53
3.42-
4.26
4.61 •
3.41 •
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
4.66-
5:26 -
5.86
6.18
6.2
5.83
No. of days
no
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
31
30
11
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
31
30
11
Kc value
I 0.82
0.82
0.82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.82
0.82
0.82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
0.9
ETc
mm
123.40
89.73
86.94
129.08
144.34
103.32
145.9
164.7
166.72
172.42
167.4
67.72
123.49
89.73
86.94
129.1
144.34
103.32
145.9
194.88
166.72
17242
167.4
67.72
Re monthly
mm
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
35 7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
46.4
CWR
mm
' 23.69
0
0
9.68
101.94
93.42
110.2
162.2
163.12
164.12
149.2
11.32
988.78
23.69
0
0
9.68
101.94
93.42
110.2
162.18
163.12
164.12
149.2
11.32
988.71
Re/day
mm
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
008
0.09
0.27
061
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
009
0.27
Re of Period
0.61
1.5
mm
99.9
155.31
156.55
119.4
42.47
9.9
35 65
248
2 52
8.37
18.3
16.5
99.9
155.3
156.55
119.4
42.47
9.9
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
18.3
16.5
PSI
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
' 23.69
0
0
9.68
101.87
93.42
110.26
162.2
163.2
164.06
149.1
41.22
1018.6
23.69
0
0
9.68
101.87
93 42
110.26
162.21
163.2
164.05
149.1
41.22
1018.6
NIR/ha
000 m1
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
1.49
0.41
10.19
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
1.49
0.41
10.19
Total NIR
000 m5
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
149
0.41
10.18
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93          1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
1.49         0.41
10.16
Crop: Mango
Duration: 366 days
Crop: Banana
Duration: 366 days
Area: 1ha
Date: 1“ June-31“ May
Area: 1ha
Date: 1“  June-31  ** May
Cutoff d ale for last Irrigation: 11 May
Details of records
Unit
Cutoff date for la  st Irrigation: 11"* May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.6
142.9
102.3
144 46
163.1
164.08
191.58
186
180.7
150.6
109.4
Daily ETo
5.83
106.02
127.8
142.9
102.3
14446
16306
164.08
191.58
186
180.7
mm
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
5.83
No. of days
no
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
31
30
11
30
31
31
30
31
30
31
31
28
Kc value
31
30
11
0.82
0.82
0.82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
0.9
0.62
0.82
0.82
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
1.01
0.9
0.9
ETc
0.9
mm
123.49
89.73
86.94
129.08
144.34
103.32
146.9
164.7
166.72
172.42
167.4
67.72
12349
89.73
86.94
129.1
144.34
103.32
145.9
164.99
165.72
172.42
167.4
67.72
Re monthly
mm
99.9
155.6
156.7
119 4
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42 4
9.9
35.7
25
2.6
8.3
18.2
46 4
CWR
mm
23.69
0
0
8.68
101.94
93.42
110.2
162.2
163.12
164.12
149.2
11.32
988.71
162.19
11.32
Re/day
PSI
NIR/ha
NIR/ha
23.69
0
0
8.68
101.94
93.42
110.2
163.12
164.12
149.2
986.71
mm
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.5
3.33
5.01
5.05
3.98
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
Re of Period
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.5
mm
99.9
155.31
156.55
119.4
42.47
9.9
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
18.3
16.5
99.9
155.3
156.55
1194
42.47
9.9
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
18.3
16.5
mm
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
C
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mm
23.69
0
0
9.68
101.87
93.42
110.25
162.2
163.2
164.06
149.1
41.22
000 m’
0.24
1018.6
0
0
0.1
23.59
0
f
9.68
101.87
93.42
110.21
162 21
163.2
164 05
149 1
41.22
10186
1.02
0J3
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
149
041
10.19
0.24
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1 63
1.64
1.49
0.41
10.19
Total NIR
000 m’
0.24
0
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
149
"041 |
10.18
0.24
0
0.1
1.02
0.93
1.1
1.62
1.63
1.64
1.49
0.41
10.18FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Table 6. 5 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in 000’m ) During the Dry Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-I)
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
3
Crop: Noug
Duration: 148 days
Crop: Rice
I Duration: 138 days
Crop: Maize
Duration: 132 days
Crop: Sesame
Duration: 120 days
Area: 3ha
Date: 29°'Oct.-26'" Apr.
Area: 6ha               | Date: 20* Od.-7* March
Area: 11ha
Date: 13* Dec.-24* April
Area: 17ha
Date: 20* Oct-17* Feb.
Details of
records
! Cutoff date for la   st Irrigation: 6 April
Cutoff date for la  st irrigation: 16* Feb.
Cutoff date for la  st Irrigation: 4* April
Cutoff date for    a st irrigation: 29* Jan.
Unit
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Oct
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Total
Mean Monthly
ETo
mm
142.91
102 3
144 46
16306
164.08
191.58
186
142.91
102.3
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
144 46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
142.91
1023
144.46
163.06
184.08
Dally ETo
mm
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
4.61
3.41
4.66
526
5 86
6.18
4 66
5.26
5 86
6.18
6.2
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
No of days
no
3
30
31
31
28
31
6
12
30
31
31
16
0
18
31
28
31
4
12
30
31
29
0
Kc value
0.35
0.35
1.15
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.3
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.2
1.2
0.5
0.35
0.35
1.15
1.15
0.35
ETc
mm
4.84
36.81
166.13
187.62
188.69
67.06
13.02
16.6
30.69
166.13
187.12
28.13
0
26.16
48.92
196.9
229.9
12.4
19.36
35.11
168.13
175.42
0
Re monthly
mm
424
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
424
9.9
35.7
25
26
CWR
mm
0
26.91
130.43
186.02
186.09
68.76
0
686.2        0
20.79
130.43
186.02
26.63
0
361.77
o
46.42
194.3
221.6
0
462.31     0
26.91
130.43
172.92
0
329.26
Re/day
mm
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
1.15
008
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
009
Re of Penod
mm
4.11
9.9
35 65
2.48
2.52
8.37
3.66
16.44
9.9
35.65
2.48
1 44
0
20.7
2.48
2.52
837
244
16.44
9.9
35.6S
232
0
PSI
mm
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
(I ¥11
60.73
25.91
130.48
186.04
186.17
58.68
9.36
646.37
60.16
20.79
130.48
186.04
26.69
0
413.15
64 46
46.44
194.38
221.63
9.96
626.76
62.92
25.91
130.48
173.1
0
382-41
NIR/ha
000
ms
0.61
026
1.3
1.86
1.86
0.69
0.09
6.46
0.6
0.21
1.3
1.86
0.27
0
4.13
0.64
0.46
124
2.22
0.1
5.17
0.63
0.26
1.3
1.73
0
3.82
Total NIR
000
ni‘
1.62
0.78
3.91
6.66
6.69
1.76
0.28
19.39
2.61
1.04
6.62
9.26
1.33
20.66
6.99
6.11
21.38
24.37
1.1
67.94 j       —
4.4
22.18
29.43
0
<5.01
0
I Crop: Chickpea
Duration: 128 days
Crop;Soybean
Duration: 120 days
Crop: Cowpea
Duration: 107 days
Crop: Lentil
Duration: 139 days
; Area: 6ha
Date: 11* Nov-19* March
Area: 4ha
Date: 29* Nov.-29* March
Area: 4ha
Date: 21 Nov.-T* March
-
Area: 3ha
Date: 29* Dec. - 17* May
' Cutoff date for last    irrigation    28* Feb.
Details of records
Unit
Cutoff date for last    irrigation:  8'” March
Cutoff date for last   Irrigation:  17* February
Cutoff date for last Imgatior
: 28* April
i Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
1023
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
102.3
144.46
163 06
164.08
191.58
102.3
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
180.73
Daily ETo
mm
3.41
4.66
5.26
________
5.86
6 18
3.41
4.66
5.26
5 86
6.18
3.41
4.66
5.26
5 86
6.18
466
526
5 86
6.18
6.2
5.83
No. of days
no
20
31
31
28
0
2
31
31
28
9
10
31
31
17
0
3
31
28
31
28
0
Kc value
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
OX
1.15
1.15
0.5
0.5
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.4
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
ETc
mm
27.28
166.13
187.62
67.43
0
2.73
166.13
187.62
82.04
27.81
13.64
166.13
187.62
34.87
0
6.69
65.22
188.69
220.32
60.76
0
Re monthly
mm
9.9
35 7
25
2.6
8.3
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
9.9
35 7
2.5
2.6
8.3
35.7
2.5
26
8.3
18 2
464
CWR
mm
17.38
130X3
116.02
54.83
0
387.66
0
130X3
186.02
79.44
19.61
414X
3.74
130.43
186.02
32.27
0
361.46
0
62.72
186.09
212.02
42.56
0
503.39
Re/day
mm
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
027
0.33
1.15
0.08
0 09
0.27
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
1.15
0.08
0.09
027
0.61
1.5
Re of Period
mm
6.6
35.65
248
2.52
0
0.66
35.65
2.48
2.52
2X3
3.3
35.65
2.48
1.53
0
3.45
2.48
2.52
8.37
17.08
0
PSI
mm
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
70.68
130X8
186.04
64.91
0
441.11
62.07
130X8
186.04
79.62
26.38
472X9
60.34
130X8
116.04
33.34
0
4092
62.14
62.74
186.17
211.86
43.68
0
556.69
NIR/ha
000 mJ
0.71
12
1X6
0.66
0
4X1
0.62
1.3
1.86
0.8
0.26
4.72
0.6
1.3
1.16
0.33
0
4.09
0.62
0.63
1.86
2.12
0.44
0
6.67
| Total NIR
000
3.63
6.62
926
2.76
0
22.06
2.08
6.22
7.4              3.18
1.02
18.9
2X1
6.22
7X
1.33
0
16.37
1.66
1.88
6.59
6.36
1.31
0
18.7
Crop: Onion
Durartion: 130 days
Crop: Shallot
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Potato
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Tomato
Duration: 130 days
Area: 4ha
Date: 1“ Dec.- 9* April
Area: 2ha
Date: 1*  Dec.- 9*   April
Area: 2ha
Date: 1* Dec.-8* April
Area: 2ha
Date: 1* Dec.-8* April
Details of records
Unit
Cutoff date for Iasi     rogation:   19* March
Cutoff date for last     rrigation:  19* Mar.
Cutoff date for last    rrigation: 19* March
Cutoff date tor last    Irrigation:   19th Mar.
1 Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
144 46
163 06
164.08
191.58
186
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
144 46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
144.46
163.06
164.08
191 58
186
Daily ETo
mm
I 4.66
526
586
6.18
62
4.66
526
5 86
6.18
6.2
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
4.66
526
5.86
6.18
62
No of days
no
31
31
28
19
0
31
31
28
19
0
31
31
28
19
0
31
31
28
19
0
Kc value
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
095
0.7
1.05
1.05
095
095
ETc
mm
101.12
17121
17228
111.66
0
101.12
17121
172.28
111.66
0
101.12
171.21
172.28
111.66
0
101.12
171.21
172.28
111.66
0
Re monthly
mm
35.7
25
26                8.3
18.2
35.7
25
2.6               8.3
18.2
35.7
2.5
2.6              8.3
18.2
35.7
2.5
2.6              8.3
CWR
mm
66.42
182
168.71
169.68
10326
0
607.07
66X2
188.71
169.68
103.26
0
607.07
66X2
188.71
168.61
10326
0
607.07
65.42
168.71
169.61
10326
Re/day
0
mm
607.07
1.15
0.08
0.09
027
0.61
1.15
0.08
0.09
027
061
1.15
0.08
0 09
027
0.61
1.15
0.08
009
Re of Period
027
061
mm
35.65
2.48
2.52
5.13
ro
35.65
248
2.52
5.13
0
35.65
2.48
252
5.13
0
35.65
PSI NIR/ha
NIR/ha
2.48
mm
252
5.13
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
mm
0
0
0
116X7
168.73
169.76
106X2
0
660.39       116X7
168.73
169.76
106X2
0
660.39
116.47
188.73
169.76
106X2
0
560.39
116X7
168.73
169.76
000 m’
106.42
0
1.16
660.39
1.69
1.7
1.06
0
6.6             1.16
1.69
1.7
1.06
0
Total NIR
6.6
1.16
1.69
1.7
1.06
0
6.6
1.16
1.69
000 m’
1.7
1.06
0
5.6
4.62
6.76
6.79
426
0
22X2      || 2.31
3.37
3X
2.13
0
1121
2.31
3.37
3X
2.13
0
11.21
2.31
3.37
3.4
2.13
0
11.21FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayrte Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Details of records
Unit
Crop: Fodder
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Sugarcane                              Duration: 326 days
Area: 4ha
Date: 1” Dec.-9,h April
Area: 20ha
Date: 10,h Dec.-30m Oct.
Cutoff date   for last Irriga  tion: 19"' March
Cutoff date  for last Irriqation: 1*' October
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total             Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
June
July
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
144.46
163 06
164.08
191.58
186
180.73
150.6
109.43
106.02
127.8
142.91
102.3
Dally ETo
mm
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
466
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
5.83
5.02
3.53
3.42
4.26
4.61
3.41
No. of days
no
31
31
28
31
10
22
31
28
31
30
31
30
31
31
30
0
0
Kc value
0.85
0.92
0.92
0.85
0.85
0.4
0.4
0.4
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
1.25
0.75
0.75
0.75
ETc
mm
122.79
150.02
150.95
162.84
52.7
41.01
65.22
65.63
239.48
232.6
226.91
188.26
136.79
132.63
95.86
0
0
Re monthly
mm
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18 2
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
182
46.4
99.9
155.8
156.7
119.4
42 4
9.9
CWR
mm
87.09
147.62
148.35
164.54
34.5
672
6.31
•2.72
•3.03
231.18
214.3
179.61
88.36
0
ro
0
0
0
844.4
Re/day
mm
1.15
0.08
0 09
0.27
0.61
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.5
333
5.01
5.05
3 98
1.37
0.33
Re of Period
mm
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
6.1
25.3
2.48
252
8.37
18.3
465
999
155.31
156.55
119.4
0
0
PSI
mm
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
137.14
147.54
148.43
164.47
46.6
634.18
66.71
62.74
63.11
231.11
214.2
179.41
88.36
1
0
0
0
0
904.63
NIR/ha
000 m-
1.37
1.48
1.48
1.64
0.47
6.34               0.66
0.63
0.63
2.31
2.14
1.79
0.88
0
0
0
0
0
8X6
Total NIR
000 m1 '
S.49
6.9
6.94
6.18
1.86
26.37             13.14
12.65
12.62
46.22
42.84
36.88
17.67
0
0
0
0
0
180X2
Table 6. 6 Details of Net Irrigation Water Requirement (in 000’m ) During the Dry Season on a 100 Ha Command Area (Option-ll)
3
Crop: Noug
Duration: 148 days
Crop: Rice
| Duration: 138 days
Crop: Maize
Duration: 132 days
Crop: Sesame
Duration: 120 days
! Area: 6ha
Date; 29  Oct.-26°' Apr.
m
Area: 6ha                  Date: 20m Oct-7'1 March
Area: 16ha
1
Date: 13" Dec.-24"' April
Area: Bha
Date: 20” Oct-17"* Feb.
Details of records
Unit
I Cutoff date for I    ■st Irrigation: 6 April
1
Cutoff date for 1 ■ st irrigation: IO" Feb.
1
Cutoff date for lai ft irrigation: 4" April
Cutoff date for li  ist Irrigation: 29   Jan.
tn
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Oct
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Oct
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
• 142.91
102.3
144 46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
142.91
102.3
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
142.91
102.3
144.46
163.06
164 08
Daily ETo
mm
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
586
6.18
4.66
5.26
5 86
6.18
6.2
4.61
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
No. of days
no
3
30
31
31
28
31
6
12
30
31
31
16
0
18
31
28
31
4
12
30
31
29
0
Kc value
0.35
0.35
1.15
1.15
1.15
0.35
035
0.3
0.3
1.15
1.15
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.2
1.2
0.5
0.35
0.35
1.15
1.15
035
ETc
mm
4.84
35.81
166.13
187.62
188.69
67.06
13.02
16.6
30.69
166.13
187.62
28.13
0
26.16
48.92
196.9
229.9
12.4
19.36
35.81
166.13
175.42
0
Re monthly
mm
42.4
9.9
357
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
42.4
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
CWR
mm
0
26.91
130.43
186.02
186.09
68.76
0
686.2        0
20.79
130X3
186.02
26.63
0
361.77
0
46.42
194.3
221.6
0
462.32
0
26.91
130.43
172X2
0
329X6
Re/day
mm
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.37
0.33
1.15
008
0.09
0.27
115
0.08
0 09
0.27
0.61
1.37
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
Re of Period
mm
4 11
9.9
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
3.66
16.44
9.9
35.65
2.48
1.44
0
20.7
2.48
2.52
8.37
2.44
16.44
9.9
35.6S
2.32
0
PSI
mm           50
0
o
0
0
ro
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
[50
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm            60.73
26.91
130X8
186.04
186.17
68.68
9.36
•46.37      60.16
20.79
130X8
186.04
26.69
0
413.16
64.46
46.44
194.38
221.63
9.96
626.76      52.92
26.91
130.48
173.1
0
382.41
NIR/ha
000 m’       0.61
0X6
14
1X5
1.86
0.68
0.09
6.46          0.6
0X1
1.3
1.86
0.27
0
4.13
0.64
0.46
1.94
221
0.1
6X7           0.63
0.26
1.3
1.73
0
3.82
Total NIR
000 m’ |     2.64
1.3
6X2
9X6
9.31
2.93
0.47
32.32        3.01
1.26
7.83
111
1.6
0
24.79
8.17
6.97
29.16
33.23
1.49
79.02        4.23
2.07
10.44
13.85
0
30.59
Crop: Chickpea
Duration: 128 days
Crop:Soybean
Duration: 120 days
Crop: Cowpea
Duration: 107 days
Crop: Lentil
Duration: 139 days
Area: 6ha
Date: 11^ Nov-19"1 March
Area: 6ha
Date: 29"1 Nov.-2t"' March
Area: 4ha
Date: 21“ Nov.-T1 March
Area: 3ha
Date: 28°'Dec. - 17^ May
Details of records
Unit
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 28 Feb.
1
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 9" March
Cutoff date for last    Irrigation: 17"’ February
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 28°' April
Nov
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
May
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
102.3
144 46
163.06
164 oe
191.58
102.3
144 46
163.06
16408
191.58
102 3
144 46
163.06
164 08
191.58
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
180 73
DaBy ETo
mm
3.41
4.66
526
5.86
6.18
3.41
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
341
466
5.26
5 86
6.18
466
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
583
No. of days
no
20
31
31
28
0
2
31
31
28
9
10
31
31
17
0
3
31
28
31
28
0
Kc value
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.5
0.5
0.4
1 15
1.15
0.35
0.35
0.4
0.4
1.15
1.15
0.35
0.35
ETc
mm
27.28
166.13
187.62
67.43
0
2.73
166.13
187.62
82.04
27.81
13.64
166.13
187.62
34.87
0
6.69
66.22
188.69
220.32
60.76
0
Re monthly
mm
9.9
35.7
25
26
8.3
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
83
9.9
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
46.4
CWR
mm
17.38
130X3
186.02
54.83
0
387.66
0
130X3
186.02
79.44
19.61
<14.4
3.74
130X3
186.02
32.27
0
361X6
0
62.72
186.09
212.02
42.66
0
603.39
Re/day
mm
0 33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.33
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.33
1.15
0 08
0.09
0.27
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
061
1.5
Re of Period
mm
6.6
35.65
248
2.52
"6
0.66
35.65
2.48
2.52
2.43
3.3
35.65
2.48
1.53
0
3.45
2.48
2.52
837
17.08
0
PSI
NIR/ha
mm
50
0
"6
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
70.68
130.48
186.04
54.91
0
441.11
62.07
130.48
186.04
79.62
26.31
472X8         60.34
130X8
186.04
33.34
0
409.2
62.14
62.74
186.17
211.96
43.68
0
566.61
000 m’
0.71
1.3
1.86
0.66
0
4X1
0.62
1.3
1.86
0.8
0X6      .
4-72        || 0.8
1.3
1.86
0.33
0
4.09
0.62
0.63
1X6
2.12
0.44
0
S.67
Total NIR
000 m’
3.63
6.62
9X6
2.76
0
22.06
2.6
6.62
9X5
3.98
1X7
23-82      || 2X1
6.22
7.4
1.33
0
16.37
1.66
1.88
6.59
6.36
1.31
0
18.7FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Shallot
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Potato
Duration: 130 days
Crop: Tomato
Duration: 130 days
h
Date: l“Dec.-9* April
Area: 2ha
Date: 1“ Dec.- 9   April
m
Area: 2ha
Date: 1* Dec.-S* April
Area: 2ha
Date: 1* Dec.-9*’ April
Details of records
Unit
Crop: Onion
Area: 6ha
| Cutoff d< ite for last Dec.           Jan.
11
irrigation: 19 * March
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 19“’ Mar.
Cutoff date for last irrigation: 19“' March
Cutoff date for last Irrigation: 19th Mar.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total           Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
144 46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
144 46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
Dally ETo
mm
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
4.66
5 26
586
6.18
62
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
4.66
5.26
5.86
6.18
6.2
No of days
no
31
31
28
19
0
31
31
28
19
0
31
31
28
19
0
31
31
28
19
0
Kc value
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
0.7
1.05
1.05
095
0.95
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
0.7
1.05
1.05
0.95
0.95
ETc
mm
101.12
171.21
172.28
111.66
0
101.12
171.21
172.28
111.66
0
101.12
171.21
172.28
111.66
0
101.12
171.21
172.28
111.66
0
Re monthly
mm
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
CWR
mm
66.42
168.71
169.68
103.26
0
607.06
66.42
168.71
169.68
103.26
0
607.06
66.42
168.71
169.68
103.26
0
607.06
<6.42
168.71
169.68
103.25
0
507.06
Re/day
mm
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.15
0 08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
Re of Period
mm
35.65
2.48
2.52
5.13
0
35.65
248
2.52
5.13
0
35.65
2.48
252
5.13
0
35.65
2.48
2.52
5.13
0
PSI
mm
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
11647
168.73
169.76
106.42
0
660.39
116.47
168.73
169.76
10842
0
660.39
116.47
168.73
169.76
106.42
0
660.39
116.47
168.73
169.76
106.42
0
560.39
NIR/ha
000 m1
1.16
1.69
1.7
1.06
0
6.6
1.16
1.69
1.7
1.06
0
6.6
1.16
1.69
1.7
1.06
0
6.6
1.16
1.69
1.7
1.06
0
6.6
Total NIR
000 m’
6.77
8.44
8.49
6.32
0
28.02
2.31
3.37
34
2.13
0
11.21
2.31
3.37
3.4
2.13
0
11.21
2.31
3.37
3.4
2.13
0
11.21
Crop: Fodder
Duration: 130 day*
Area: 4ha
Date: 1“ Dec.-9* April
Total volume of NIR in ootion-l and ootlon-ll croDolna Darter ns
Option-I: Total volume of NIR for 27.039ha CCA » 571.86 x 27,039/100 = 154.6
1
25,225.4m =154.63 Million m
3
Details of records
Unit
1
Cutoff date for last irrigation: IS ” March
1
Optlon-ll: Total volume of NIR for 27,039ha CCA = 410.41 x 27,039/100 = 110,970,759.9m -110.97 Million m
1
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
April
Total
Mean Monthly ETo
mm
144.46
163.06
164.08
191.58
186
Daily ETo
mm
4.66
5.26
586
6.18
6.2
No. of days
no
31
31
28
31
10
Kc value
0.65
0.92
0.92
0.85
0.85
ETc
mm
122.78
160.02
160.96
162.84
62.7
Re monthly
mm
35.7
2.5
2.6
8.3
18.2
CWR
mm
87.08
147.62
148.36
164.64
34.6
672
Re/day
mm
1.15
0.08
0.09
0.27
0.61
Re of Period
mm
35.65
2.48
2.52
8.37
6.1
PSI
mm
50
0
0
0
0
NIR/ha
mm
137.14
147.64
14843
16447
46.6
634.18
NIR/ha
000 m’
1.37
1.48
148
1.64
047
6.34
Total NIR
000 m1
6.49
6.9
6.94
6.18
1.86
25.37FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Table 6. 7 Crop-wise summary of seasonal CWR & NIR for Wolkayite Irrigation Development on a 100ha Command Area
Rainy season
Dry season
Rainy & Dry seasons
Crops
CCA
(%)
CWR (mm)       NIR in 000’ CCA       CWR (mm)    NIR in        C:ca CWR
m3
(%)
000’m3          ( 7o)        (mm)
Sorghum                 14         92.40              13.08            -
-
-
NIR in 000'm3
-
Total
CCA (%)    CWR (mm)         NIR in OOO’m3
14              92.4                    13.08
Fingermillet             10         0.00
0.20               -
10              0
0.20
Teff                         5           21.18              1.08
-
5                21.18                  1.08
Wheat                     2            0 00
0.00               -
Barley                     3            0 00               0.00
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
20
30
0.00
0.00
Rice                        3            0 00               0.14               5            361.77           20.65
Maize
--
-
11          462.32           57.95
Sesame 16 27.57 4.96 17 329.26 6501
Noug 5 27.57 1.55 3 586.20 19.39
Soybean 2 27.57 0.85 4 414.40 18.90
8 361.77 2079
11 462.32 57 95
33 356.83 69 97
8 613.77 20.94
6 441.97 19.75
Fababean               2            0.00               0.04
-
-
-
20
0.04
Chickpea
Lentil
Cowpea
--
--
--
-
-
-
5 387 66 22.05
3 503 39 1670
4 351.46 16.36
Cotton                     5            97 68             8.42
-
-
-
Vegetable               5            22.08             0.35                10          2,028.24        56.05
Fruit                        4            3,955.12        40.72             4
-
-
-
5                 387.66               22.05 3                 503.39                16 70 4                 351.46                16.36 5                 97 68                  8.42 15              2.050 32             56.40
8                 3,955 12             40 72
Fodder
4
28.11
1.12
4
572.00
25.37
-
8
600.11
26.49
Total
80
4,299.28
72.51
70
5996.70
318.43
150
10,295.98
390.94
Sugarcane
-
-
-
-
20
844.4
180.92
20
844.4
180 92
Grand total
80
4,299.28
72.51
70
5996.70
318.43
20
844.4
180.92
170
11,140.38
571.86
3
3
Total NIR for 27,039ha CCA = 571.86 x 27,039/100 =154,625,225.4m =154.63 Million m
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT. LTD
62FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project___________________ Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Table 6. 8 Crop-wise summary of seasonal CWR & NIR for Wolkayite Irrigation Development on a
100ha Command Area (Option-ll)
Rainy season
Dry season
Total
Crops
CCA
(%)
CWR
(mm)
NIR in
000'm3
CCA
(%)
CWR
(mm)
NIR in OOO'm3
CCA
(•/.)
CWR
(mm)
NIR in OOO'm3
Sorghum
15
92.4
14.02
-
0
0
15
92.4
14.02
Finger-millet
10
0
0.2
-
0
0
10
0
0.2
Teff
6
21.18
1.29
-
0
0
6
21.18
1.29
Wheat
3
0
0
-
0
0
3
0
0
Barley
3
0
0
-
0
0
3
0
0
Rice
3
0
0.14
6
361.77
24.79
9
361.77
24.93
Maize
-
0
0
15
462.32
79.02
15
46232
79.02
Sesame
28
27.57
8.67
8
329.26
30.59
36
356.83
39.26
Noug
5
27.57
1.55
5
586.2
32.32
10
613.77
33.87
Soybean
3
27.57
1.28
5
414.4
23.62
8
441.97
24.9
Fababean
5
0
0.11
0
0
0
5
0
0.11
Chickpea
-
0
0
5
387.66
22.05
5
387.66
22.05
Lentil
-
0
0
3
503.39
16.7
3
503.39
16.7
Cowpea
-
0
0
4
351.46
16.36
4
351.46
16.36
Cotton
5
97.68
842
0
0
0
5
97.68
8.42
Vegetable
6
22.08
042
11
2,028.24
61.65
17
2.050.32
62.07
Fruit
4
3.955.12
40 72
4
0
0
8
3.955 12
40.72
Fodder
4
28.11
1.12
4
572
25.37
8
600.11
26.49
Total
100
4,299.28
77 94
70
5.996.70
332 47
170
10,295.98
410.41
Total NIR for 27,039ha CCA = 410.41 x 27039/100 = 110,970,759.9m3 =110.97 Million m3
6.6.2.1. Sorghum
CWR of sorghum was  only  nominal during first three months  since effective rainfall was relatively  lower during these months. No supplemental irrigation was  required during July  to October (harvesting time of local varieties). It was  because enough of effective rainfall was received to meet the crop water needs.
NIR  (Net  Irrigation  Requirement)  as  estimated  respectively  for  WIP  command  area  of  14
and 15% cropping intensity  was  13.08 and 14.02 thousand m3 for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns. Provision of this  volume of irrigation water is  expected to give a good crop productivity  and production of sorghum. Replacement of long duration varieties coupled with improved crop production technologies  expected to augment the production.
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6.6.2.2. Finger-millet
Unlike sorghum, the CWR of finger millet was  zero during the crop season as  the effective rainfall was  able to meet the water requirement in full measure. The estimated NIR for 10% cropping intensity  of finger-millet for the rainy  season was  0.20 thousand
3
m  under both proposed options of cropping patterns.
6.6.2.3.Teff
Teff requires  special treatment of soil. Therefore, its  sowing is  taken up after the receipt of rains  in the month of July. As  per the record, there was  enough of rainfall (effective rainfall) during the month of July  and hence seed-bed preparation could be done without any  problem. A cropping intensity  of 5 and 6% hasbeen proposed for tef under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns  respectively. The total NIR for both options  of cropping patterns  is  1.08 and 1.29 thousand m3 of water which will be met through supplemental irrigation.
6.6.2.4.   Wheat, barley and Rice
It was  observed that these proposed crops  would need no supplemental irrigation if the rainfall is  enough and distributed uniformly  over the growing season under both proposed options of cropping patterns.
6.6.2.5.   Sesame
Sesame would continue up to September-October and hence supplemental irrigation would be needed to grow a good crop. The proposed cropping intensity  for option-l (16%) and option-ll (28%) may  need 4 41/0 55 and 7.72/0.95 thousand m3 of irrigation water during the months of September to October after cessation
of rains  respectively. The water requirement slided down during the month of September since the crop advanced towards  maturity  The total NIR worked out to be 4.96 and 8.67 thousand m3 during the life cycle of sesame crop under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns.
6.6.2.6.  Niger I Noug
Niger/Noug is  locally  popular oilseed crop and takes  about 148 days  period from seed to seed. Its  growing season is  spread over about six  months  and hence would need some supplemental irrigation. It was  noticed that the proposed 5% cropping intensity  would need 1.38m3 and 0.17 thousand m3 NIR during September and October. The overall
3
total NIR requirement would be 1.55 thousand m  under both proposed options of
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6.6.2.7.    Soybean
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Soybean is  both a grain legume and an oilseed crop and the growth period is  expected to spread over about 150 days  (June to November). Though its  growth period was  as long as  that of noug. its  CWR was  lower than that of noug. It would respectively  need 0 55/0.30 and 0 83/0.45 thousand m3 of irrigation water for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns  during the months  of September and October for the proposed cropping intensity  of 2 and 3 %. The overall total NIR requirement would be 0.85 and 1.28 thousand m under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns.
6.6.2.8.   Fababean
Fababean   would   take   about   144   days   from   seed   to   seed.   It   may   respectively   need   0.04
J
and   0.11   thousand
3      of   water   through   supplemental   irrigation   mainly   during   the   month m.
of    October    for    option-l    and    option-ll    cropping    patterns    for    the    proposed    cropping intensity of 2 and 5%.
6.6.2.9. Cotton
Seeding   of   cotton   commences   from   April   onwards   in   the   Wolkayite   command   area   and could   generally   call   for   pre-sowing   irrigation   if   adequate   rain   (sufficient   to   prepare   the seed   bed)   is   not   received   during   the   month   of   April   for   land   preparation   to   provide   a good   seed   bed.   Expected   NIR   during   the   months   of   April.   May,   June   and   October   May be   0   55.   3.34,   4   04   and   0.49   thousand   m3,   respectively   amounting   to   a   total   of   8.42 thousands   m3    for   the   proposed   cropping   intensity   of   5%   under   both   proposed   options   of cropping patterns.
6.6.2.10. Vegetable Crops
Vegetables  constitute an integral part of a balanced human diet beside the meat and eggs  and thus  claim an important place in drawing of crop plan(s) for an agricultural area It would be highly  relevant as  well as  essential to make it clear that a professional agriculturalist (vegetable grower) would hardly  provide any  significantly  lengthy  turn around period between two crops. All the same, in the proposed plan of crops  for the Wolkayite command area, one month has  been provided as  the turn-around period because practically  no vegetables  are grown by  the farmers  at present. After, receipt of irrigation, the growers  in the area adjust their vegetable crops  plans(s) to match the household and market needs  as  would be observed with the passage of time during the period of irrigated farming. The proposed plan of vegetable culture brought out that pre sowing irrigation may  be needed during the month of December which generally remains rainless. But. growing of vegetables would certainly require varying volumes of
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irrigation  water  from  December  onwards  till  April  depending  upon  the  quantum  and distribution of rainfall. It may need some water during the month of June as well The total estimated NIR for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns worked out to be 56.40 and   62.07   thousand   m3    for   the   suggested   cropping   intensity   of   15   and   17% respectively.  NIR  requirement  increased  continuously  from  December  onwards  until March and declined thereafter. In fact, much would largely depend on the water need of the vegetable crop in question.
Although no vegetables are practically grown in the command area, it is expected that crops namely onion, shallot, potato, tomato and/or alternatives leafy vegetable or spice crops like garlic, cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, pepper (chilies) and other adaptable and locally popular vegetable crops would find a place in crop plans for the area at times of project implementation upon the receipt of irrigation.
6.6.2.11.             Fruit Crops
Like vegetables fruits also occupy an important place in a well-balanced human diet. These continue to grow round the year and hence are classified as perennials. Though at  present  in  the  command  area  hardly  any  fruits  are  gown,  there  exists  a  distinct possibility  to  grow  papaya,  banana,  avocado,  guava  and  citrus.  Mango  can  also  be grown in Wolkayite command area. In case of crops, which are perennial, NIR was fully met by rainfall during July and August. These two months (July and August) received the  maximum  rainfall  during  the  rainy  season.  NIR  in  case  of  fruit  crops  rises  from September onwards and attains the peak during January, February and March. There appears a necessity to make provision for supplemental irrigation during the period from September  Io  June.  The  volume  of  irrigation  water  would  vary  from  one  Io  the  other month during this period. The total volume of irrigation water required for a total of 4% cropping  intensity  has  been  estimated  to  be  40.72  thousand  m3   under  both  proposed options of cropping patterns.
6.6.2.12. Fodder crops
Wolkayite   Irrigation   Command   Area   (WICA)   has   predominantly   a   livestock-based economy. Thus, it is imperative to maintain the animal population in good health for the reasonably  acceptable  productivity  and  production.  Healthy  and  productive  livestock population  would  serve  as  insurance  for  well  being  of  human  population  both  at household  and  community  level  which  would  be  finally  reflected  by  Kebeles,  Woredas and the region at large. Keeping this in view, an area of 4 ha of CCA has been proposed for the cultivation of fodder and forage crops in addition to the existing grasslands and pastures   The   proposed   fodder   crops   comprise   both   graminacious   and   leguminous crops to be grown either singly (pure) or in different locally acceptable and adaptable
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crop combinations. Like vegetables, May  and October have been proposed as  the turn around period for the fodder crops. These crops  are also planted at a close interval of time in order to maintain the supply  of green fodder, that is, one month as  turn-around period may  not be allowed in actual practice NIR as  per proposal was  observed to be zero during July, August, September and October. That is  the crop water need appeared to have been fully  met by  rainfall. It would begin to rise from December onwards  and reach maximum during the month of March. In June, however, enough of rainfall was received to satisfy  the NIR. The total NIR for the proposed cropping intensity  of 4% to be put under fodder crops  amounted to 26.49 thousand m3 under both proposed options of cropping patterns.
6.6.2.13.             Sugarcane
Sugarcane has  been proposed to be introduced in the WICA after the receipt of the irrigation. The proposal for this  commercial crop has  been made since a sugar mill has been proposed in Humera in this  region. This  is  fairly  close to the proposed site of the proposed sugar mill. The sugar mill is  expected to cater to Humera and Wolkayite area. All the same, it may  be made clear as  was  done in the preliminary  (inception) report that besides  the sugar mill, the provision of all weather motorable road connectivity  would be absolutely  necessary  to sustain sugarcane cultivation in both of these command areas. In addition to road connectivity, a number of agronomic, plant-protection, Socio economic, availability  of implements  and services  etc. would be needed to be put in place in order to make the crop of sugarcane profitable to the farmers  on one hand and to meet the regional and national aims and objectives on the other.
It  has  been  suggested  to  plant  the  sugarcane  in  the  first  half  of  December  after  giving one   pre-sowing   irrigation   of   50mm   depth.   The   estimated   NIR   data   evinced   that   it increased   with   advancement   of   cane   plant   growth   and   touched   the   maxima   in   the months  of  March-April  and  slided  down  significantly  in  the  month  of  June.  No  irrigation was  required  thereafter  because  rainfall  water  was  adequate  to  satisfy  the  NIR  during July,  August  and  September.  The  crop  was  expected  to  attain  maturity  by  October.  The total  estimated  NIR/ha  worked  out  to  be  904.63  mm.  The  total  values  of  CWR  and  NIR for  20%  cropping  intensity  has-been  estimated  to  be  844.40  mm  and  180.92  thousand m  respectively.
6.6.3. Dry Season Crops
A  cropping  intensity  of  70  %  each  has  been  assigned  for  option-l  and  option-ll  cropping patterns.    Both    options    include    the    cultivation    of    cereals,    oilseeds,    pulses,    cotton, vegetables,   fruits   and   fodders   in   common.   Sesame,   maize   and   vegetables   have   been respectively proposed higher cropping intensity of 17, 11 and 10% in option-l cropping
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pattern. Similarly, a cropping intensity  of 8, 15 and 11% has  been assigned for the same crops  in option—II cropping pattern, since these are the most important crops  in the command area (Table 5.3 and Table 5.4). Total CWR during the dry  season for the 70% of the CCA for all the crops  in this  season, excepting sugarcane, have been estimated to be 5,996.70mm for both options  of cropping patterns. The NIR is  318.43 and 332.47 thousand m3 for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns  respectively. During dry  season, maximum irrigation water using crops  are sesame, maize and vegetables  respectively amounting to 65.01, 57.95 and 56.05 thousand m3 under option-l cropping pattern. In option-ll cropping pattern, maximum irrigation water using crops  are maize and vegetables  amounting to 79.02 and 61.65 thousand m3 respectively. The remaining crops followed the aforesaid crops in respect of CWR/NIR (Table 6.7 and Table 6.8).
As  expected, CWR and NIR were mostly  met out by  irrigation water during this  crop season. Details  of CWR and NIR computation, inclusive of ETo, Kc  value and Etc, for option-l cropping pattern have been presented in Table 6.3 and Table 6.5 for rainy  and dry  seasons  respectively. The same have been presented in Table 6.4 and Table 6.6 for option-ll cropping pattern.
A  further  perusal  of  the  data  would  evince  that  the  total  CWR  and  NIR  in  option-l  and option-ll   cropping   patterns   for   the   whole   cropped   area   with   170%   cropping   intensity   is 
11,140.38/571.86   and   10,295.98/410.41   thousand
3       respectively.   The   total   irrigation m,
need for 27,039 ha has  been respectively  estimated to be 154.63 and 110.97 million m3 under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns. The data Presented in Table 6.7 and Table 6.8 would provide a room to select the crops  by  a farmer suiting the operational convenience and the actual water availability.
6.6.3.1.   Maize
A   132   days   maize   crop   recorded   estimated   NIR   value   of   21.38/24.37   and   29.16/33.23 thousand  m3    for  option-l  and  option-ll  cropping  patterns  in  the  months  of  February  and March,   respectively.   The   total   seasonal   NIR   respectively   amounted   to   57.95   and   79.02 thousand   m   for   11   and   15%   cropping   intensity   in   option-l   and   option-ll   proposed cropping  patterns.  Therefore,  it  would  be  essential  for  a  grower  to  take  a  decision  in  this regard keeping in view the productivity as well as comparative economics.
6.6.3.2.    Rice
A   rice   crop   would   normally   take   about   a   period   of   138   days   and   the   estimated   NIR amounted   to   20.65   and   24.79   thousand   m3    for   3%   and   6%   cropping   intensity   under option-l   and   option-ll   proposed   cropping   patterns   respectively.   It   needed   6.52/9.25   and 7 83/11.10 thousand m of irrigation water during December and January for option-l
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and   option-ll   cropping   patterns   respectively.   During   December   effective   rainfall   was 35.70 mm and hence the lower NIR values were noted.
6.6.3.3. Sesame
Like rice, 120 days  sesame crop also recorded high values  of NIR during December and January  due to receipt of low effective rainfall especially  during January  (2.50mm). The estimated NIR respectively  amounted to 65.01 and 30.59 thousand m3 for 17 and 8% cropping intensity under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns.
6.6.3.4. Niger / Noug
This  crop  occupied  the  field  for  about  148  days  and  the  highest  NIR  is  5.55/5.59  and 9.25/9.93   thousand   m3    in   the   months   of   January   and   February   under   option-l   and option-ll  cropping  patterns  respectively.  Its  NIR  is  less  than  that  of  sesame  because  of its  lower  cropping  intensity.  The  estimated  NIR  is  19.39  and  32.32  thousand  m3   for  3% and   5%   cropping   intensity   under   option-l   and   option-ll   cropping   patterns   respectively. Therefore,  the  farmer  has  to  make  the  choice  as  to  which  of  the  two  crops  sesame  or noug  should  be  grown  for  better  economic  gains  as  well  as  to  meet  local  consumers' demand.
6.6.3.5.         Grain legumes
All  the  grain  legumes  viz.,  chickpea,  lentil,  soybean  and  cowpea,  have  been  clubbed together   since   their   growth   rhythm   is   almost   identical.   The   NIR   of   these   legumes exhibited   high   value   between   December   and   March   as   conditioned   by   their   growth, flowering  and  pod  formation/filling  stages.  The  respective  values  of  NIR  and  cropping intensities  (in  parenthesis)  for  the  above  listed  grain  legumes  is  22.05(5%),  16.70(3%), 18.90(4%)   and   16.36(4%)   thousand   m3    under   option-l   cropping   pattern.   Likewise,  NIR and   cropping   intensity   (in   parenthesis)   values   for   the   same   crops   respectively   have- been    22.05(5%),    16.70(3%),    23.62(5%)    and    16.36(4%)    thousand    m3      for    option-ll cropping pattern.
The total NIR during the dry  season for option-l and oiption-ll cropping patterns  would be 74.01 and 78.73 thousand mJ respectively. The respective values  of the total cropping intensity  would be 16 and 17%. The maximum NIR value under option-l and option-ll was  observed respectively  for chickpea and soybean for there is  relatively  more area proposed under these crops.
6.7. SUMMARY OF CWR AND NIR
• Field crop-wise CWR and NIR have already been briefly dealt with in this Chapter. Summation of these parameters for different crops and seasons have
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been presented in Table 6.7 and Table 6.8 Table 6.3 and Table 6 4. An examination of the data set out in Table 6.7 (option-l) would bring out that among the field crops, sugarcane recorded the maximum NIR value of 180.92 thousand m3 because it has  been proposed for cropping intensity  of 20% greater than any one of the field crops. Fruits, vegetables  and fodder crops  showed the estimated CWR amounting to 3,955.12, 2,050.32 and 600.11 mm/ha respectively. The respective values  of the estimated NIR depending upon the proposed cropping
3
intensity of 8%, 15% and 8% amounted to 40.72, 56.4 and 26.49 thousand m . Contrariwise,  the  data  set  out  in  Table  6.8  (option-ll)  would  bring  out  that  among the  field  crops,  maize  with  15%  cropping  intensity,  greater  than  any  one  of  the field  crops,  recorded  the  maximum  NIR  value  of  79.02  thousand  m3    because  it has    been    proposed    during    the    dry    season    under    irrigated    condition.    The remaining    crops    following    closely    the    aforesaid    crop    are    vegetables,    fruits, sesame  and  noug  in  respect  of  NIR  The  respective  values  of  the  estimated  NIR depending   upon   the   proposed   cropping   intensity   of   17%,   8%,   36%   and   10% amounted   to  79.02,  62.07,  40.72,  39.26  and  33.87  thousand  m3.  The  estimated CWR     amounts     to     2,050.32,     3,955.12,     356.83     and     613.77     thousand     m3 respectively.
•        It  is  important  to  note  that  sugarcane  would  claim  lion's  share  in  total  volume  of irrigation  water  proposed  to  be  brought  to  the  command  area.  Its  share  works  out about  32%  as  against  all  the  other  proposed  crops  which  are  expected  to  use 68%   of   the   total   irrigation   water.   Thus,   sugarcane   would   need   more   than   one- third  of  the  total  irrigation  water  proposed  to  be  brought  to  WICA  under  option-l proposed   cropping   pattern.   Therefore,   it   would   be   absolutely   essential   to   make other   production   inputs   available   on   time   in   required   quantity   at   a   reasonable price    particularly    for    sugarcane.    Simultaneously,    means    of    transport    including road   connectivity   could   call   for   to   be   put   in   place   so   that   the   cane   may   be transported   to   the   proposed   sugar   mill   expeditiously   for   the   benefit   of   both   the grower and the sugar mill.
•        Further,  examination  of  the  data  in  Table  6.7  (option-l)  would  evince  that  among the   proposed   crop   categories,   next   to   sugarcane,   cereals   (sorghum,   finger-millet, teff,   wheat,   barley,   rice   and   maize)   ranks   second   in   their   irrigation   requirement. As  per  the  proposal,  cereal  crops  would  need  about  16.3%  of  irrigation  water,  for the   53%   total   cropping   intensity.   Oilseeds   namely   sesame   and   noug   altogether would    require    nearly    15.9%    of    the    irrigation    water.    Pulse    crops    (soybean, fababean,   chickpea,   lentil   and   cowpea)   would   require   13.1%   of   the   irrigation water. The respective NIR percentage for vegetable, fruit, fodder and cotton
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crops  has  been worked out to be 9.9%, 7.1%, 4.6% and 1.5%. Data comparison among the proposed individual crops  showed that sesame and maize with respective total cropping intensity  of 33 and 11% rank  orderly  in their irrigation water requirement amounting to 12.2 and 10.1% next to sugarcane.
•   Under   option-ll   cropping   pattern,   the   data   in   Table   6.8   would   reveal   that   among the  proposed  crop  categories,  cereals  (sorghum,  finger-millet,  teff,  wheat,  barley, rice   and  maize)  ranks  first  in  their  irrigation  requirement.  As  per  the  proposal, cereals  would  need  ab^ut  29.1%  of  irrigation  water,  for  the  61%  total  cropping intensity.   Oilseeds   namely   sesame   and   noug   altogether   would   require   nearly 17.8%   of   the   irrigation   water.   Pulse   crops   (soybean,   fababean,   chickpea,   lentil and    cowpea)    would    require    19.5%    of    the    irrigation    water.    The    respective percentage  for  vegetable,  fruit,  fodder  and  cotton  crops  has  been  worked  out  to be    15.1%,    9.9%,    6.5%    and    2.1%.    Data    comparison    among    the    proposed individual  crops  showed  that  maize  and  vegetables  with  respective  total  cropping intensity    of    15    and    8%    rank    orderly    in    their    irrigation    water    requirement amounting to 19.3 and 15.1%
In nut shell, under both options  of cropping patterns, apportionment of expected irrigation water among crops  can be subsequently  modified to commensurate with the local, regional and national need.
6.8.    RECOMMENDED MEASURES FOR EFFICIENT IRRIGATION WATER UTILIZATION
6.8.1. Introduction
Water per se is  a highly  prized and valuable commodity. It is  treated as  life of all the living beings. In Ethiopia as  in other developing countries  bringing irrigation up to the crop fields  entails  very  high cost. Therefore, it is  absolutely  essential to make profitable use of each drop of water efficiently. An economically  viable and efficient water use for crop production calls  for integrated knowledge of soil and crop characteristics. The important ones are briefly discussed below.
6.8.2. Soil Type
The depth of irrigation per irrigation depends  on the textural class  of the soil. The data set out in Table 6.5 would reveal that the depth of water per irrigation was  the maximum for very  heavy  textured soil and the minimum for sandy  soils. The soils  of WICA are vertisols  (clay) and hence depth of water per irrigation would be in between clay  loam and heavy  clay  soil. This  information would greatly  help the irrigation engineers  to decide the volume of water to be made available to the farmers to grow a good crop.
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Soil type
Irrigation depth (mm)
Sandy
25-50
Sandy loam
45-80
Loam
75-110
Clay loam
80-120
Heavy clay
100-140
Source: Basics of agriculture (2002)
6.8.3. Rooting depth of crops
Utilization of applied irrigation by a crop or a plant is conditioned by the rooting depth. Crops like onion and garlic are shallow rooted and hence would use soil moisture from the upper 10-12 cm depth. This is the reason that these crops need frequent irrigations. On the other hand, sorghum, chickpea, cotton, sugarcane and grain legumes are deep rooted crops and the temporal space between the irrigations would be larger than that either for onion or for shallow rooted leafy vegetables. The information presented in Table 6.6 would also be useful to the irrigation engineers to decide the time interval of release of water between two irrigations enabling the farmers to grow a good crop and to realize high crop productivity. Besides engineers, the information is also useful to the crop production specialists who are also expected to generate such information for all the  crops  in  WICA.  This  information  can  be  gainfully  made  use  of  to  develop scientifically sound crop rotations plans for remunerative crop production.
Table 6. 6 Rooting depth of different crops
Shallow rooted
Medium rooted
Deep rooted
Very deep rooted (> 90cm)
Nursery beds leafy Vegetables,      Onion,      Garlic. Flowering annuals.           Potato, Cabbage. Cauliflower. Spinach
Rice.           Maize. Wheat
Millets. Carrot Fieldpea. Chilies. Groundnut Cereal forages, Vegetables. Papaya. Banana
Lucerne
Berseem Cotton, Chickpea. Sorghum. Barley, Soybean Tomato. Sugarcane. Grain legumes Castor, Citrus, Coffee
Forest species. Fruit-trees
other than those mentioned in this table
Source: Basics of agriculture (2002).
6.8.4.Physiological and critical crop growth stages
In addition to the depth of irrigation and root depth (say rooting habit which includes the root volume and weight), an agronomist should also know the crops'  physiological growth stages sensitive in respect of irrigation. These stages greatly help in scheduling
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of irrigation. Further, still more important are the critical stages  because soil moisture stress  during any  such stage drastically  reduces  crop growth and productivity  for example, soil moisture deficit at pre-flowering and boll formation in cotton causes  a very remarkable decline in its  yield. Similarly  in chickpea, pre-flowering has  been identified as a critical stage. In sugarcane sprouting is the critical stage (Table 6.7).
Table 6. 7 Critical Crop Growth Stages
Crop
Physiological Stage
Critical Stage
Rice
Sorghum Wheat
Fingermillet Maize
Early tillering, Panicle initiation, Flowering, Milk and Dough
Crown Root Initiation, Late Tillering, Late jointing Flowering, Milk and Dough
Early Vegetative Growth Tasseling, Silking and Dough
Chickpea Pre-flowering and pod formation
Soybean Early seedling, Pre flowering and
Cotton
Boll development
Branching, Pre-flowering and Boll formation
Sugarcane             Sprouting, Tiller initiation and Grand
Sesame
growth
If needed, then after seeding Irrigate at 12-15 days interval
Early tillering and Flowering
Panicle initiation and Grain filling Crown Root Initiation, Flowering
Panicle initiation and Grain filling Tasseling and Silking
Pre-flowering
Pre-flowering and pol development Pre-flowering and ball formation Sprouting
Flower initiation and Capsule formation
Source: Basics of agriculture (2002).
6.8.5. Computation of Available Soil Water (ASW).
An irrigation field worker should know the computation of ASW in a specified soil profile depth-wise. It would greatly  help him/her in knowing the status  of ASW in a specified soil depth usually  0-90cm, the depth of roots  exploring water availability  to sustain growth and development. An example has been cited in Table 6.8.
Table 6. 8 Available Soil Water (ASW) in Different Soil Layers Soil depth
(cm)
Field capacity (%)
Permanent wilting point (%)
Bulk density (g/cc)
0-15
26 8
10.2
1.50
15-30
26.5
10.5
1.52
30-45
25.9
9.9
1.55
45-60
26.0
10.2
1.60
60-75
25.6
10.0
1.60
75-90
26 3
103
1 67
Source: Pal M. (2002).
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ASW can be calculated with the formula
ASW (cm) = [(F.Ci - PWPi) x bdi x Di ] /100
Where, FCi = Field capacity, dry weight basis of ith layer.
PWPi = Permanent Wilting Percentage dry-weight basis of ith layer.
Di = Depth in cm of ith layer.
bdi = Bulk density, g/cc of ith layer.
So, the ASW with respect of depth will be:
0 -15 cm= [(26.8-10.2) x 1.50x15] /100=3.74 cm
15-30 cm= [(26.5-10.5) x 1.50x15] /100=3.65 cm
30 - 45 cm= [(25.9-9.90) x 1.55x15] /100=3.72 cm
45 - 60 cm= [(26.0-10.2) x 1.60x15]/100=3.79 cm
60 - 75 cm= [(25.6-10.2) x 1.60x15] /100=3.74 cm
75 - 90 cm= [(26.3-10.3) x 1.60x15]/100=4.01 cm
Total ASW holding capacity=22.65 cm
6.9. INTERIM RECOMMENDATIONS
6.9.1.  Introduction
As  indicated earlier as  well that water regardless  of the source of availability  plays  an important role in the life of all living being including men and animals. It comprises the life and blood of agriculture and hence agricultural water management calls  paramount importance. Like other developing countries, in Ethiopia also a very  large section of population is  employed in Agriculture (85%). Further, the Water Availability  Index  (WAI) indicates  the Critical Water Stress  Level (CWSL). According to Mitra (2004) WAI and CWSL are as follows:
Water Availability Index (WAI) (m /capita/annum) Critical Water Stress Level (CWSL)
3
More than 1700
Satisfactory
1000-1700 500-1000
Water stress 
Water scarcity
Less than 500
Water sho/100 rtage
Source: Mitra, A P. (2004),
Fortunately, in Ethiopia water availability per capita per annum stands at 1743 m3, which is  satisfactory. This  state of water availability  may  not continue for long since average population increase is estimated at about 2.8% annually.
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6.9.2. Water availability in Ethiopia
Ethiopia covers  12 river basins  with an annual runoff volume of 122 billion m3 of water with an estimated 2.6 billion m3 of ground water potential. The estimated irrigation potential is  3.50-4.25 million hectares  (Belete, 2006) Regardless  of this  potential and challenging problem, very  small volume of this  large water resource is  made use of for irrigation or other economic  purposes. Annual average rainfall in low lands  and highlands  (1200m) has  been noted as  200-800 and 800-2,200 mm respectively. In WICA, the estimated annual rainfall amounts  to 1,114mm. Thus, there is  a very  great scope to make maximum possible and sustainable use of the available water resources.
6.9.3. A Farmer's Duty
A   Tigrarian   farmer   has   rightfully   thought   that   the   government   has   to   do   nearly   every thing  for  the  people  as  he  thought.  In  respect  of  water  management,  farmers  can  take up  rain  water  harvesting  on  community  or  even  individual  level  to  make  use  of  the  God given  water  in  the  form  of  rain.  Lack  of  water  storage  capacity  and  large  spatial  and temporal  variations  in  rainfall,  in  spite  of  1743  m3    of  water  availability  per  person  per year,  there  is  not  enough  water  to  produce  more  than  one  crop  in  one  year  that  too accompanied   with   frequent   crop   failure   due   to   dry   spells   and   droughts.   In   such   a situation,    rain    water    harvesting    (RWH)    embodies    great    significance    even    without substantial government intervention.
6.9.4. Partitioning of Rainfall at Field Level
RWH is essential to make profitable use of rainfall because estimates reveal that 30- 50% and 10-30% of rainwater accounts for soil evaporation and surface runoff respectively. In drylands like those of Wolkayite Woreda deep percolation amounts to 10-30% of rainfall, while only 5-10% is used for transpiration, that is, it is the productive
green water flow (GWF) deep percolation and surface runoff is blue water flow (BWF). Partitioning of rainfall at field level has been depicted through Fig 6.1.
Source: Regassa Namara et al. (2006).
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Figure 6.1 Partitioning of rainfall at field level Source: Regassa Namara etal. (2006)
Fig.6.1 provides  a conceptual diagram illustrating the potential for improving the productivity of rainfall, if unproductive evaporation, runoff and consumption by weeds are reduced, there will be more water available for the crop. It calls for agricultural water management (AWM) interventions to make use of rain water for profitable purposes. Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) methods can be undertaken immediately in Wolkayite Command area to develop suitable water storage structures commensurating with the local conditions. These methods can greatly help in augmentation of crop and animal productivity, which, in turn, can improve food and fodder availability. Road runoff has been harvested into a channel for banana production (Fig. 6.2). RWH can be taken up as  an interim measure immediately  till river water becomes available for agricultural purposes.
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Figure 6. 2 Road runoff harvesting into a channel for banana production, Arbaminch, Ethiopia, 2006
6.9.5. Irrigation Water Management Problem.
Though  as  much  as  122  billion  m3  with  an  estimated  2.6  billion  m3  of  ground  water from  12  river  basins  is  available  for  use,  there  is  lack  of  storage  capacity  coupled  with large  spatial  and  temporal  variability  in  rainfall  which  limits  the  attainable  cropping intensity. There is inadequate watef available to grow mofe than one crop in a year. The problem is further complicated with frequent crop failures due to extended dry spells and droughts.   The   Agricultural   Water   Management   problems   (AWMP)   are   briefly   listed below.
Long dry or rainless spells
Water resources suffer from spatial and temporal variations.
Under -utilization or no-utilization due to lack of required infrastructure. Lack of supporting institutions
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•             Transboundary   nature   reverse-stagnation   to   augment   crop   production   and productivity using water resources.
•           Lack  of  water  use  rights  and  management  In  Ethiopia,  a  number  of  large  (more than  3000  ha),  medium  (200-3000  ha)  and  small  (less  than  200  ha)  irrigation schemes/projects   are   in   progress.   Their   management   calls   for   further   stream lining to take their maximum advantage.
6.10. IRRIGATION STATUS IN TIGRAY REGION
Existing irrigation schemes  are traditional and modern (medium and small). Small irrigation schemes are grouped as traditional small (100 ha) and modern communal (200 ha). It is  very  important and commendable on the part of the farmers  that they  make. Traditional Spate Irrigation Schemes  (TSIS) sometimes  with technical and material support provided by  the government. These schemes  are managed by  local Water Users' Associations (WUA's). The member farmers of the WUA are known to each other and they  are committed to cooperate to achieve the common objective. A WUA comprises up to 200 users sharing the water from a main or branch canal. For the ease and efficiency, a WUA may  be grouped into a number of operative teams  each one consisting of 20-30 member-fanners. The function of a WUA comprises  construction, water allocation, operation and maintenance of the water supply  systems. These WUA in the region if not already  existing in WICA may  be formed with the government help. WUA so constituted can join hand RWH for local economic  use including drinking and farming purposes.
6.11. IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY
The gross  requirement of water for irrigation system is  very  much dependent on the overall efficiency  of the irrigation system, which, in turn, is  dependent on factors  like method of irrigation, type of canal (lined and /or unlined), method of operations (simultaneously  & continuous, or rotational water supply) and availability  of structures (for controlling, distribution, measuring and monitoring)
6.11.1. Efficiency for Unlined Canal System
In a view of soil characteristics  i.e. texture and structure, it is  proposed to plan and design concrete lined main canals and unlined (earthen) subsidiary canal system. All the other components  of canal system from primary  to quaternary  and field and farm channels are proposed to be unlined canals. In view of this, based on the experiences in this country and also in other countries of the world, it is assumed that the canal losses
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will vary  between 35 to 40% of the discharge. Accordingly, it is  proposed to adopt total canal loss  from primary  to Field I farm channel of 37.5%. In other words  the conveyance efficiency of irrigation system would be 62.5%
6.11.2.          Field Application Efficiency / Method of Irrigation
Besides  the  losses  in  the  canal  system,  water  loss  also  takes  place  in  the  field  where water   is   applied.   This   depends   on   the   method   of   irrigation   which   is   conditioned   by factors  namely,  type  of  crop,  soil  and  land  characteristics,  water  availability  etc.  In  case of  rice,  where  water  is  applied  to  the  pool  of  water  already  ponding  in  the  field,  the losses  will  be  less  and  efficiency  will  be  high.  Its  field  application  efficiency  may  vary from  0.75  to  0.85.  Therefore,  it  is  suggested  to  adopt  a  field  application  efficiency  of  0.8 for  paddy.  In  case  of  other  crops,  like  wheat,  maize,  sorghum,  fingermillet,  teff,  grain, legumes   and   oilseeds   like   sesame   and   noug   etc   the   application   efficiency   has   been observed  to  be  less  than  rice.  It  is  proposed  to  adopt  a  field  application  efficiency  of  0.65 for other non-ponded crops indicated above
6.11.3. Overall Irrigation Efficiency
With conveyance efficiency  of 62.5% and field application efficiency  of 80% for rice and 65% for other non-ponded crops, the overall irrigation efficiency  will work  out to be 50% for paddy  (ponded) crop and 40% for other non-ponded crops. In case of Wolkayite Imgation Project an average value of overall irrigation system is  assumed as  47.8 percent in case of lined main canals and unlined other canals.
6.11.4. Techniques for Improving Irrigation Efficiency
Though the proposed irrigation efficiency  of 50% for rice and 40% for other non-ponded crops  is  considered very  appropriate and justified, in view of the very  low irrigation efficiency  in existing irrigation schemes  of Ethiopia and other countries  of the world, it is considered necessary  to incorporate measures  both under hardware and software categories  in order to achieve even this  moderate value of irrigation efficiency. The measures  under the category  of hardware include structures  inherent in planning and
design and are as follows
• 
Structure for regulation of discharge without use of gate (proportionate divider)
• 
Duckbill weir for maintaining Full Supply Level (FSL)
• 
Modular outlet for delivering equitable water to the fields.
The measures under the category of software include measures under on-farm
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•    Rotational water supply at macro- level.
•    Introduction of irrigation schedule
•    Regulating as per irrigation schedule
•    Rotational water supply at micro-level.
•    Turn- by- turn
•    For fixed duration.
These measures are expected to reduce the losses, improve the quality of services and efficiency of the irrigation system.
6.12.  RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION
As indicated earlier as well that in Ethiopia agriculture employs 85% of population. It is solely based on rainfed conditions. Country is blessed with 110-120 billion of cubic meter of surface water and 2-6 billion cubic meter of ground water as well as 3.5-4.25 million hectares of irrigable land. After the 1984 drought, enormous pressure has been exerted to expand irrigation project. WICA appears one such irrigation project initiated to improve  the  fate  of  population  in  the area of  Tigray  National  Region.  It  has  been reported that about 477  irrigation schemes with estimated command area of about 52,000 have been completed and commissioned till 2006. However, the data obtained from regions show that only 361 (75%) schemes are operational, rest of them are either non-functional or abandoned due to operational and management inefficiency. WICA may not meet this unwelcome fate; therefore, the remedial measures suggested by Belete (2006) that the previous experience are the corner stones for successful planting, implementation and sustainability of an irrigation project. The suggested measures have been presented below to avoid any such possible failures.
1)       Adoption of participatory approach
2)        Removal dependency syndrome
3)        Multidisciplinary approach
4)        Planning watershed based water resources
5)
Efficient and scientific watershed management
6)
Availability and accessibility to market
7)
Establishment of database centers
8)
Efficient and sufficient extension
9)
Post construction maintenance and repair
10)      Involvement of social organization in water management
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11)       Cost recovery mechanism
12)       Adequate training
6.13.  TARGET SMALLHOLDERS
According to IFAD (2001) more than 1.2 billion people live in "extreme consumption poverty" living on less  than one USD a day  and 75% of them live in rural areas. They own very  small plots  of land. They  should grow high value crops  to enhance their well being and income. But, this  would need irrigation. In past such land holders  practised traditional irrigation practices  and could not utilize the water efficiently  as  gauged through crop yield per unit of water. Unfortunately, the available configuration of the modern and efficient water supply  strategies  and irrigation technologies  were designed for relatively  well financed larger farms  unsuitable for small holders. Therefore, this sophisticated water management technology  calls  for downsizing to suit the small plot holders. This  should aim at low investment cost, suitability  for small plots  without additional cost, quick  returns, affordable maintenance and fit to operate at very  low pressure heads, that is, the technology  should essentially  be energy  efficient, environmentally  sound, labor intensive and controllable by  the local community. This  is the objective of Poverty  Reduction through Irrigation and Smallholder Markets  (PRISM) which is  based on water control, supply  chains  and market access. The above suggestions  should be followed in letter and spirit for the success  of WIP since the area is  dominated by  the majority  of smallholders  mainly  engaged or dependent on agriculture for their livelihood.
6.14. WATER FOR RAINFED CROPS
Computation  of  CWR  for  the  rainy  season  indicated  no  need  of  irrigation  based  on  the climatic   data   used   to   determine   the   crop   water   needs.   But,   history   of   rainfall   behavior over  a  long  period  of  time  shows  that  rainfall  is  undependable.  Its  failure  in  past  has caused  droughts  and  famines.  The  famine  of  1984  still  haunts  country's  bitter  memories. Therefore,   it   is   strongly   felt   and   recommended   that   about   25%   of   the   total   annual computed   irrigation   water   needed   be   upgraded   to   meet   such   an   emergent   situation whenever   required.   Therefore,   the   total   irrigation   water   need   at   the   field   level   would approximately   be   175   million   mJ     annually.   It   is   sincerely   expected   that   this   provision would,  by  far,  nullify  the  adverse  impact  of  extended  rainless  periods  and/or  total/partial failure of rains during the rainy season
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7.0 CROP PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY OF IMPORTANT CROPS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) through a network  of Agricultural Research centers  in country  has  been engaged in conducting the agricultural research mainly  on rainfed crops  for development of production technologies  on various  crops  and livestock for different agro-climatic  regions. Only  very  limited efforts  have, so far, been made on the generation of adequate appropriate technologies  for irrigated production systems with high-yielding, genetically  high potential and high input -use efficient cultivars  to achieve the food and nutritional security  along with efficient land-use and high profitability. Hence, it is  necessary  that applied research related to irrigated-crop production technology  under the agro-climatic  condition of Wolkayite Irrigation Project command is  separately  perused to develop location-specific  agro-techniques  and varieties  and hybrids  for intensification of production system. This  will help in attaining high level of production from different crops  as  well as  full and efficient utilization of available land and water resources. While the above efforts  may  take time and more resources, the agro-techniques  and varieties  developed under irrigated production system of the appropriate part of the world may  be introduced and tested for their adaptability  and immediate use. Meanwhile efforts  have been made by  consultant to include the crop production technologies  of the important crops  identified for the command area that can be authenticated as  and when more and better information generated by  the local research centers. The present information given is  a collection of materials  from IAR and other authenticated sources  and experience of the consultant on crop production and management in irrigated production system for most responsive, efficient and potential crops for the Wolkayite command area.
7.2 SORGHUM
Scientific name: Sorghum bicolor
Localname: Mashila
It is  one of the major crops  produced in Ethiopia, and it is  the fourth important crop in respect of area and production. Sorghum is  adapted to highlands, medium altitude and low land areas  and is  highly  adaptable in soil moisture stress  areas. The crop occupies about 1.46 million hectares  to give a grain production of 23.16 million quintals  annually. Based on EIAR package of practices  grain yield of sorghum in in research managed field is 30 - 45 q/ha. In farmers field the yield is about 25-40q/ha. The dry Fodder yield is 80-120 q/ha. Its  grain is  consumed by  human beings  and also used in bevrages  like porridge, “Nefro", instant food, syrup. "Tella" and “Arekie". It makes  a good fodder crop both in the form of dry stalks and green plants. Its dry stalks are used as fuel wood.
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Soil and Climate
Sorghum is  grown on a variety  of soils  from light to medium; deep black  soils. It is  grown in lowland areas. Heavy, deep-cracking valley  bottoms  soils  i.e., soils  with vertic properties, good structured, heavy  clays, needs  fine and firm seed-bed with no clods. The optimum PH is  5.5 - 8.2 but the range is  5.2 - 8.5 PH. sorghum needs  moderate soil fertility. The roots  penetrate upto 1m with a spread of 1 0 - 1.5m, maximum rooting depth is 1 - 2m, maximum nutrients uptake is from one meter.
The crop is  drought hardy  and is  hence comprises  an important component of rainfed / dryland agriculture. In Ethiopia, it can be grown between 1450 and 1850 masl in areas receiving 600-900 mm of average annual rainfall. The optimum temperature is  21-320C. Less  than 200C extends  growth period by  10-20 days  for each 0.50C. Poor seed setting & ripening problems  occurs  at <150C and > 350C. Critical period for irrigation is  10-20 days  after sowing, at flowering and seed formation upto physiological maturity. It can tolerate drought upto 14 days. It can also tolerate waterlogging but waterlogging reduces yield at a later stages.
Seedbed Preparation
Carry  out one ploughing well before the onset of rains  to expose the sub-soil to bright sun so that soil insect-pests, disease inoculum and weed seeds  are killed. Then plough the soil once or twice after rains  and do levelling for uniform rain or irrigation water distribution and spread
Planting Dates and Rates
Sorghum is  mostly  planted in mid-July  after the onset of rains  in Meher season. It can also be sown in dry  seedbed. Recommended seed rate for line and broadcast sowing is 5-10 and 15-20 kg/ha, respectively. Row to row and plant to plant spacing of 45 cm and 10-12 cm is  recommended respectively. The recommended plant density  is  180,000 plants/ha. Maintain only one plant per hill after final plant population adjustment.
Use of Manures and Fertilizers
Apply  well decomposed FYM or compost well before preparatory  cultivation @  5-10 t/ha. The dose of 80 + 40 kg/ha of N and P2O5 is  recommended Half of the nitrogen, that is, 40 kg N/ha and full dose of phosphorous  is  to be applied at the time of sowing preferably  through placement in rows  below the seed Fertilizer should not be in direct touch with seed. Remaining half dose of nitrogen is  to be applied 30-40 days  after sowing. Give the second installment of nitrogen at the proper soil moisture status  and mix it well with the soil.
Inter-cultivation
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One or two inter-cultvations  with bullock  drawn blade harrow or cultivator within 35-40 days  after sowing would not only  check  weed growth, but would also facilitate free drainage of soil to provide good aeration to the roots.
Weed Control
Spraying atrazine @  0.5 kga.i/ha after sowing but before starting germination (pre emergence) keeps  the crop free from dicot weeds  for about one month. In case of dry sowing spraying should be done only  after receiving adequate rain, but before germination. Subsequently, one weeding at about 20 days  after sowing along with the above mentioned intercultivation provides effective control of weeds.
Striga Control
Adopt crop rotations  using trap crops  like cotton, sunflower and groundnut coupled with the use of striga resistant cultivates. The losses  due to striga are brought down in the long run by  the rotational cropping. For immediate results, hand pulling when striga population is sparse or spraying of soduim salt or 2, 4-D @ 2 kg a.i/ha helps to reduce the adverse effects  of striga. Pre emergence application of primagram or gesaprim @ 41/ha dissolved in 400 liters of water also gives good control.
Major Insects and Their Control
Need-based chemical control methods  should be adopted to minimize the losses  due to specific insects. It is always recommendable to use chemicals selectively as a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety  of the pesticides. The major insect pests and their control measures are given below:
Shoofly
It damages the crop during 1 - 4 weeks after germination. Maggots feed on growing tips causing willing of central leaf and later drying gives  a typical appearance of dead heart. To schedule chemical control, monitor the egg laying on lower side of seedling leaves before the formation of dead hearts. Its  infertation can be avoided, if sowing is  done within 7-10 days of the onset of rains. In late plantings, use of Furadan @ 50-sp @ 100 g/kg of seed gives  its effective control. Application of granular formulation of Furadan 3G or Phorate 10 G at the time of sowing as  soil application in seed furrows  @  20 kg/ ha also provides satisfactory control.
Stem Borer
It infests the crop from second week after sowing till maturity. Initially, the larvae feed on
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upper surface of whorl of leaves  leaving the lower surface intact as  a transparent window. In case of severe damage scratches of epidermal feeding appears prominently. Sometimes, dead hearts  symptoms  also develop due to early  attacks. Uprooting and burning of stubbles and chopping of stems prevent the carry over effect. Application of Endosufan 4G/4D, carbarye 5G, Malathion 10G or Furadan 3G @ 8 and 12 kg/ha at 20 and 35 days after emergence respectively gives good control.
Sorghum Midge
Maggots that hatch from eggs deposited in spikelets at flowering panicles prevent kernel development. In severe infestation, panicle appears blasted and red liquid oozes out on pressing of spikelets. Early  planting, destruction of chaffy  panicles  and earchead residues and removal of alternate host grassy weeds help in its control. Carbaryl 50 5P @  3 kg/ha in 500 litters  of water/ha. Endosulfan 4D or Carbaryl 5D @  20 kg/ha at prebloom and 4-5 days thereafter checks the infestation.
Shoot Bug
Though  sporadic  may  cause  serious  damage  Application  of  Endosulfan  4G  or  carbaryl 5G gives good control. Dose will be as suggested earlier.
Earhead Bug
Infests panicles and feeds on developing seeds and other panicle parts. Early planting and application of Carbaryl 50 5P @  3 kg/ha in 500 liters/ha or Endosulfan 4D or Carbaryl 5D @ 20 kg/ha to panicles once at prebloom followed by another at milk stage gives good control.
Major Diseases and Their Control
Major  diseases  of  sorghum  usually  coincide  with  grain  maturation.  But,  the  diseases cause much less damage than the insects. Some of the major diseases are:
Downy Mildew
Vivid green and white stripes  appear on the leaves  which subsequently  are shredded leading to stunted growth. The infested plants  fail to head and if heads  appear, these are exserted, small, and compact or club shaped and have no or little grain set For its control, seed dressing with Metalaxyl, that is, Ridomil 25 @ 1 kg a. i./ liter or Apron 355 5D @ 1 g a.i./kg of seed with Thiram and BHC control the disease Spray of Dithane M) -45 (0.3%) at 7 days interval beginning from germination gives satisfactory control.
Grain Molds
Grain infected with Fusarim moniliforme develops fluffy white or pinkish coloration and if by Curvularia lunata a black colour. It may cause loss of yield upto 100%. Spraying of
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eacheads  with Aureofungin (200 ppm) and 0.2% Captan three times  from flowering at 10 days  interval gives  satisfactory  control. Three spray  applications  of distance Dithane- 45 (0.2%) and Bavistin (0.2%) or Thiram (0.2%) can also control grain molds  if sprayed as indicated above.
Ergot
Commonly  called sugary  disease wherein a secretion of clearly  sticky  liquid (honey  dew) from infected florets  takes  place. Destruction of collateral hosts  and removal of sclerotia from seed by  washing in 30% salt solution thrice or spraying with Benlate (0.1%) or Thiram (0.2%) thrice at 50% grain formation stage has been found effective.
Charcoal rot
Lodging and poor grain filling are the symptoms. Losses in grain yield and seed size are observed. Minimal dose of nitrogen and low plant density  minimize the intensity  of the disease Soil treatment with Thiram at sowing also reduces the charcoal rot damage.
Rust
Small flecks on the lower leaves with purple, tan or red colour appear depending on the variety. Use of clean seeds, crop rotation, destruction of refuse of previous  crop, resistant cultivars  is  some to the recommended practices  to reduce the incidence and virulence of the disease.
7.3 FINGERMILLET
■Scientific name: 'Eleusine coracana’
Local name: Dagussa
Fingermillet occupies  the largest area among small millets  in Africa, South of Sahara and in eastern part of the continent. It grows right from mean sea level to an elevation of 3000 m and embodies  great range of adaptability  to variation in season, soil and temperature. Its  estimated water requirement is  350-400 mm, but can be grown in high rainfall areas  receiving annual average rainfall of 500-2000 mm It is  photo and thermo insensitive. According to CSA (2008) the estimated area was  374,071 ha and the average grain yield is 12.9 q/ha and the total production is 4.24 million quintals. With the use of improved variety  and adoption of above agro-techniques, an average grain yield of 20 q/ha in rainfed crop and 35 q/ha in irrigated crop is expected.
Soil
Fingermillet is  mainly  grown on red and laterite soils. But, can be cultivated on alluvial and black  soils  with adequate drainage. It thrives on damp soils, steep slopes  or at mild elevations under the climatic conditions similar to those needed for rice. Fingermillet is
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highly  drought tolerant, grows  rapidly, adapts  well to different agroclimatic  conditions and marginally  fertile soils. It is  a dryland crop. But embodies  high yield potential and hence adoption of improved agronomic  practices  is  necessary  to harness  the maximum possible production potential.
Varieties
Specific  varieties  need be identified and used for different seasons. Right choice of a variety  helps  a great deal in realizing higher yields. Initially  the high yielding varieties and germ plasms can be introduced from India for their evaluation.
Seedbed Preparation
Both primary  and secondary  tillage is  necessary. It requires  a loose, friable and levelled seedbed free from weeds  If a ploughing has  been done immediately  after harvesting, practise one or two ploughings  to a depth of about 15 cm either after first rainfall of the season or after presowing irrigation. It is  recommended. If there is  crust formation due to rain within 4-5 days  after sowing (DAS), use spiked crust breaker to facilitate seed emergence and growth of seedlings.
Seed Rate and Sowing
The recommended optimum plant density  is  4-6 lac  plants/ha. Line sowing is  the best. Use animal or tractor drawn seed drill. Use 10 kg seed/ha. Keep 20-25 and 8-10 cm
spacing   between   rows   and   plants   respectively.   Its   seed   is   very   small   (about   400
seeds/g)  and  the  recommended  seed  rate  would  contain  about  4  million  seeds.  Inter  and intra-row  distance  can  be  so  reduced  that  plant  population  per  hectare  is  not  effected. Fingermillet  can  also  be  transplanted  and  maintenance  of  plant  density  is  not  a  problem in  the  transplanted  crop  Grow  the  seedling  on  raised  beds.  Transplant  in  the  main  field after   21   DAS.   Seed   required   is   half   (5   kg/ha)   of   the   quantity   needed   for   drilling. Seedlings  of  20-25  days  old  are  considered  ideal.  Transplant  in  rows  opened  20-25  cm apart with 2 seedlings/hill at 10 cm distance. Do not use over-grown seedlings.
Sowing Time
It can be grown round the year except the periods of extreme cold.
Use of Manures and fertilizers
Fingermillet responds  well to manuring and fertilization, especially  to N and P. Recommended dose should be based on initial fertility  status  of the soil, that is, the soil test report. However, in general 40+20+20 and 60+30+30 kg/ha of N+P2O5+K2O dose is  recommended for rainfed and irrigated conditions  respectively. All the P and K. and half of N should be applied at sowing in seed rows  below the seed. The seed should not come in direct contact of the applied fertilizers. Remaining half of nitrogen should be
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applied 40-45 DAS. In addition to inorganic fertilizers, compost or farm yard manure should be incorporated into the soil at last ploughing preferably  2-3 weeks  before sowing. Seed treatment with suitable strain of Azospirillum proves  beneficial in increasing the yield and could also save 25-30% of recommended dose of fertilizer N.
Weed control and interculture
Timely  weeding and interculture is  necessary  to obtain high levels  of yields. Intercultivation twice coupled with hand-weeding before the crop is 35 days old is highly beneficial Intercultivation besides  control weeds  also helps  in removal of excess seedlings and augments aeration. Use of herbicides has also been found useful. Pre emergence application of nitroen @ 0.5-1.0 kg a.i./ha or post-emergence use of 2,4-D @ 0.5-1.0 kg a.i./ha provide effective control of weeds. In the transplanted crop, the advocated dose of 2,4-D should be applied 10 days after transplanting. It is necessary to know the use of herbicides  well; it should be cost effective to control the weeds. Incidentally, it may be added that severe weed infestation reduces the crop yield upto 50% or even more.
Crop Protection
Though insects  usually  constitute no major problem, stem borer, aphids  and ear caterpillars may cause damage to the crop. Aphids can be controlled by dusting either 10% BHC or 4% endosulfan or 4% Malathion @ 18 kg/ha. Recommended dose of Malathion or spraying 0.05% endosulfan provides control of ear-caterpillar.
Diseases viz., blast helminthosporum blight or brown spot, root rot. green ear, grain smut and virus diseases infest fingermillet plants. Blast and brown spot are important diseases. Spray 0.2% of Dithane M-45 or 0.1% of Kitazine or 0.3% of Cuman twice at flowering and 15 days thereafter controls blast and brown spot diseases. Mottle streak and streak  virus  are transmitted by  leaf-hoppers. On noting the symptoms  of the disease, rogue out the infested plants and spray 0.5% Rogor or any other systemic insecticide for its control. Repeat the same spray if demand necessary.
It is always recommendable to use chemicals selectively as a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality to the produce. To lessen this situation, technical staff has to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
Harvesting and Threshing
Fingermillet is harvested by 2 methods. The most common practice is to harvest ripe heads from the standing crop, dry them in the sun and beat with sticks on the threshing
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floor to separate the grains. In the other method, the whole plant on maturity is cut at the base, dried in the field for 3-4 days, tied into small bundles, and then they are spread on the threshing floor and run over by  stone roller to separate the grains. The separated grains are winnowed, dried and stored.
7.4     TEFF
Scientific name: ‘Eragrostis tef’
Local name: Tef
Ethiopia is not only the place of origin of teff, but it is also the center of diversity. Out of
10 million and teff is grown on about 2.4 million hectares. It is the most adapted crop in the diverse agro-ecologies of the country. It is used to prepare injera (Ethiopian spongy and slightly sour breead), porridge and some native alcoholic drinks. The straw is mainly used for animal feed. In fact, Ethiopia is the only country in the world where teff is widely cultivated. The other important cereal crops in terms of production an area are sorghum and maize in that order. Teff is grown either as stable or as standby. As a stable, it is planted  as  other  cereals,  normally  sown  late  and  harvested  during  the  dry  season. During  dry  seasons  or  late  onset  of  rains  the  production  area  of  teff  increases.  As  a standby,  the  farmers'  wait  until  the  main  crops,  maize  and  sorghum,  show  signs  of failing. Then they sow a fast maturing teff variety as a backup source for sustenance in the case of disaster.
Most tef is made into injera, flat, spongy bread like a pancake. Injera made out of tef is the stable food for the majority of Ethiopians. Tef is made into flour, prepared as gruel (muk), baked into pancake and sweet dry unleavened bread (Kita) Teff straw is also an important  animal  feed  particularly  during  the  dry  season  and  farmers  rely  on  it  to strengthen their oxen at the end of the dry season As fodder the plant is quick to raise and  produce.  Its  straw  is  soft  and  quick  to  dry.  It  is  both  nutritious  and  exteremely palatable  to  livestock.  Its  leaf  stem  ratio  (average  73:37)  is  high,  its  digestibility  (65%) relatively  high,  and  its  protein  content  (1.9-5.2%)  low  but  valuable.  Tef  straw  is  also  a preferred binding material for walls, bricks and household containers made of clay. The major problems, which constrain increased tef production, are indicated as follows.
•     Tef is grown as a food crop in Ethiopia and there is very limited research work outside Ethiopia to share experience, thus all crop improvement methods have to be initiated by Ethiopian scientists.
•     The crop is not easy for improvement by breeding, because the flowers are small and open only early in the morning.
•     The agronomic problems related to tef production include the requirement of fine seedbed preparation, requiring several plowings.
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•    The weeding requirement is also high compared to other crops, so production is 
labor intensive.
•     Insect pests such as Wello bush cricket, central shoot-fly and weeds (string
infestation on tef is also increasing) are also constraining tef production.
The   varieties   released   for   moisture   stress   areas,   growing   conditions   and   agronomic characteristics are indicated on Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Major Teff Varieties recommended for different agroecological zones in the Semi-Arid
Areas of Ethiopia
Variety
Altitude
Rainfall (mm)
Seed (Kg/ha)
Days  to
Maturity
Potential
Yied q/ha
Seed Colour
Cross - 37
1886
134
25-30
82-90
28-30
White
2000
500
DZ-196
1800
300
25-30
80-113
25-30
White (Magna)
2400
700
DZ-354
1600
300
25-30
85-130
30-40
Pale
2400
700
DZ-01-99
1400
300
25-30
85-130
28-30
I Red
2400
700
DZ-CR-44
1800
300
25-30
125-140
25-30
White
Source: EIAR, Teff handbook (1995)
Management practices:
Land preparation:
Teff is a very small seeded cereal and therefore, requires very smooth and fine seedbed preparation for uniform germination and weed control, 3-4 times  land preparation is required for successful production.
Fertilizer
The  fertilizer  rates  and  type  recommended  for  teff  production  is  60  kg  ha-1  of  N  and  26 kg ha-1 P for vertisol and 30 kg ha-1 of N and 40 kg P ha-1 for light textured red soils.
Insect- Pests and Weed
There are several insect and weed pests, which attack  teff and result in substantial yield reduction. Need-based chemical control methods  should be adopted to minimize the losses  due to specific  insects. It is  always  recommendable to use chemicals  selectively as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides
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Insect Pests
Wolo bush cricket
Welo  bush  cricket  is  one  the  major  insect-pests  constraining  tef  production  in  Ethiopia. The following control measures are recommended:
•     Lindane 20% EC emulsifibl compound diluted to 0.026% a.i.
•     Technical fenitrothion applied undiluted as ULV spray
•     Lindane dust
Central shootfly
Central shoot fly is also an important insect pest of teff.
Control  measures  include;  Use  of  Carbaryl  85%  W.P.  or  1.5  kg  of  95%  trichlorfon,  mixed in 100-300 liters of water per hectare.
Weed Control
Crop loss  due to weed competition is  estimated to be about 50%. Hand weeding once at early  tillering stage (25-30 days  after emergence) is  adequate, if the weed population is low. If the infestation is  high, a second weeding should be done at the stem elongation period. There are also several chemicals  recommended for weed control in teff. Broad leaved weeds  can be controlled by  applying 2, 4D @  1.0 liter/ha 4-5 weeks  after planting.
7.5. MAIZE
Scientific name: Zea mays
Local name: Bekolo
Introduction
Maize  is  grown  for  grain  as  well  as  forage.  Maize  is  one  of  the  most  important  cereals  of the  world  and  ranks  as  a  first  followed  by  rice,  wheat  and  millets.  It  is  said  to  be  the native  to  the  Americas-region  of  Central  America  Present  world  production  of  maize  is about  445  million  tons  from  about  118  million  hectares.  Out  of  many  crops  grown  in  this country,   maize,   which   is   comparatively   of   recent   introduction,   ranks   first   in   yield/ha, fourth  in  total  grain  yield  and  fifth  in  total  hectarage  (after  teff,  barley,  sorghum  and wheat).  The  crop  is  used  as  a  staple  food  for  humans  and  fodder  for  livestock.  Different types  of  food,  like,  ‘Injera1,  porridge,  malting  and  brewing  products  etc.  are  prepared from  maize.  The  green  cobs  are  roasted.  In  future,  maize  can  be  a  source  of  starch, protein and oil. Maize is fermented and distilled to provide industrial products like
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Varieties
There are seven main groups of maize varieties, namely, dent corn, flint corn, sweet corn, flour or soft corn, waxy corn, pop corn and pod corn. Major area under maize is covered during wet season as  rainfed crop. In the absence of regular rainfall, production remains low. Varieties/hybrids vary in their duration from 60-70 to 100-110 days from seed to seed. After emergence the grain colour also varies from yellow to orange and white. Mainly flint kernel type is preferred one. Based on the maturity period, the varieties can be grouped as full season maturity, medium maturity, early maturity and very early maturity. Hybrids and composites of full season maturity group- require 100-110 days or more to mature. These cultivars are more suitable for the areas having assured rainfall or sufficient irrigation water during the crop-growing period. Similarly, the medium maturity group cultivars requiring 85-95 days to mature can be grown under both rainfed and irrigated production system.
Climatic conditions
Maize because of its many divergent types is grown over a wide range of climatic conditions, ranging from near sea-level to several thousand meters above sea-level from temperate to tropic. Maize is essentially a warm weather crop; winter maize cultivars are more available. These varieties can be grown in hilly areas where no snowfall occurs and have recorded much higher yield than warm season varieties. It is widely cultivated from sea level upto an altitude of 2,400m where mean daily temperatures are above 150c. Adaptability of varieties and hybrids in different climates vary widely. The right choice of the variety should be such that the length of growing period of crop matches with the length of growing season. Maize is a sun and water-loving crop and long hot growing season with plenty  of sunshine is  favorable If the mean daily temperature during the growing season is above 200c, the crop takes much less period to mature than in lower temperatures. At temperatures ranging between 10 to 150c, the seed setting is generally hampered. Optimum temperature for germination is 180 to 200c. The crop fails at temperatures above 450c. It can tolerate hot and dry weather conditions provided there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Temperature requirements, expressed as the sum of mean daily temperatures are 3,700 degree-days for late, 2,500 to 3,000 for medium and 1,800 degree-days for short duration varieties. Maize is very sensitive to frost particularly at seedling stage. The growing period can be reduced with irrigation.
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Maize can grow on any type of soil ranging from deep heavy clays to light sandy ones However, heavy dense clay and very sandy soils are not so suitable but heavy soils with clay content possess a high water holding capacity, organic matter and nutrients. Deep, fertile, well-drained medium soils  (loam to silty  loam) are most suited to the crop. The crop is  susceptible to waterlogging and poor aeration conditions. The fertility  demands for grain maize are relatively high and, in general, the crop can be grown continuously as long as the soil fertility is maintained. The crop is moderately sensitive to salinity but a soil PH in the range of 7.5 to 8.5 supports  good crop growth. The yield decreases under increasing soil salinity.
Field Preparation
A clean, smooth, deeply ploughed but firm seedbed is ideal. It is desirable to give first ploughing with mould board plough to bury  the previous  crop residues. Two to three subsequent harrowing may be done to obtain fine tilth. Surface drains can be provided under conditions where waterlogging is suspected.
Time and method of sowing
The date of sowing has  to be suitably  adjusted to realize maximum yield potential by making best use of natural precipitation. Maize is generally sown in June or even earlier with the out break  of rains. Late maturing varieties  are essentially  sown early. Dry season maize can be sown with irrigation in December-January. It is generally sown by seed drill in rows spaced at 60 to 75cm apart. Spacing between plants in a row is kept at 18 to 20 cm. The depth of sowing is  about 3-5cm. Spacing varies  with variety  and agro-climatic  conditions. In wet season crop a population of 70,000-75,000 and December crop 80,000-90,000 plants  /ha should be maintained at harvest for good yield.
Seed rate
A seedrate of 20 to 30 kg/ha is sufficient for the seed crop depending upon the
variety/hybrids, seed weight and agroclimatic conditions. In case of fodder, the seedrate
is raised to 40-50 kg/ha. When mixed with sorghum or any legume, the seedrate is reduced. It should be ensured that the seeds have at least 95% germination. Seed lots with less than 80% germination are likely to impart poor seedling vigour.
Manure and Fertilizer
Fertilizer is  one input, which plays  a vital role in obtaining optimum yield. Maize is  a heavy  feeder of nitrogen, phosphorous, potash, calcium and magnesium. Maize contains more N in its grains than any other soil-derived nutrients; hence require more of N for its production. Fertilizer application to provide 80-120 kg nitrogen, 40-60 kg P2O5
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and 30-40 kg of K2O per hectare may  be given depending upon soil fertility, variety grown and adequacy  of water availability. One-fourth of total nitrogen and total quantity of phsophatic and potassic fertilizers may be applied as basal dose at the time of sowing or applied in bands 5-7 cm deep before sowing. The rest of N should be applied in two equal doses  as  side-dressing. When the crop is  at knee high stage (20-30 days  after germination) and rest of N should be applied after the emergence of flag leaf but before tassel emergence. Zinc  sulphate @  10 to 20 kg/ha may  be applied as  basal, if zinc  is deficient. The fertilizer should be applied 10-12 cm away  from the base of the plant to avoid any leaf injury.
Interculture
Weeding can be done either manually  or mechanically  between the rows. However, within row itself it should be done by  hand. Two to three timely  weedings  may  be necessary  to keep the field completely  free from weeds  and attain high yields  The crop may  be earthed up to provide for better standability. Weeding after flowering may damage lateral roots. Weeds  can also be controlled by  the use of herbicides, like Atrazine @1.0 kg a.i. /ha as  pre-emergence application after sowing combined with 1-2 hand weedings.
Water requirements
Maize is  an efficient user of water in terms  of total dry  matter production It is  potentially the highest yielding grain crop among cereals. The water requirement of medium duration crop is  between 500 to 800 mm depending upon climatic  conditions. The crop coefficient (Kc) for different growth stages  are: initial stage 0.3-.0.5 (15 to 30 days), development stage 0.7-0.85 (30 to 45 days), mid season stage 1.05-1.2 (30 to 45 days), late season stage 0.8-0.9 and at harvest 0.55-0.6. Frequency  and depth of irrigation has  a pronounced effect on grain yield. Crop is  tolerant to water deficits  during vegetative and ripening periods  and sensitive during flowering period including tasselling, silking and pollination. Severe water stress  during flowering may  result in little or no grain yield due to drying of silk. Water deficit during grain formation may lead to reduction in grain size and yield. Waterlogging, particularly  during flowering and grain formation stages may reduce grain yield upto 50%.
Most of the roots of maize are concentrated in the upper 80-to100 cm depth and 80%
water is depleted from this zone. The optimum water depletion level is about 40% in establishment period, between 55-65% during vegetative, flowering and grain formation periods and upto 80% during ripening period.
Intercropping
Short  duration  varieties  of  pulses,  most  vegetables,  and  oilseed  crops  can  successfully be intercropped in maize. Though maize yield under inter cropping is not less than that
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of the sole maize, rather crop yield is  a bonus  to the farmers. Short statured varieties  of maize with erect leaf orientation Performs  better under inter cropping as  they  not only avoid over-shadowing of the intercrop, but also make a better use of sunlight.
Harvesting and yield
Harvesting of crop is  done when grains  are nearly  dry  and do not contain more than 20% moisture The appearance of the plant may  be misleading particularly  in case of high yielding hybrids  whose grain may  dry  while the plant may  still look  green. Ears (cobs) are removed manually  from the plant and dried in sun before shelling. In case of delayed sown crop the field is  required to be prepared for next season by  harvesting whole plant and cobs  removed later on. All parts  of the plant including the cobs, from which the grain has been removed, are utilized.
In  experimental  plots,  yields  upto  120  q/ha  have  been  obtained.  However,  under  good field conditions, yield between 60 to 70 q/ha of seed can be expected.
Pests and Disease Controls
Various  pests  and diseases  inflict damage on maize yield. Therefore, need-based chemical control methods  should be adopted to minimize the losses  due to these insect pests  and diseases. As  a precaution, chemicals  should be used selectively  as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, the indiscriminate use of chemicals  derived from organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety  of the pesticides  The control measures  on maize are as  follows: The various pests and diseases inflicting maize and their cure are as follows:
a)          Maize   stalk   borer,   Busseola   fusca:   Mostly   found   at   elevations   ranging   from 1,235 - 2,600 m.
Cultural control measures include
i)          Horizontal laying of stalks in the open field for several weeks.
ii)           Removal  of  all  trash  stubbles,  volunteer  plants  after  harvest  and  destruction  of  all wild host plants,
iii)         Early planting
iv)          Some   hymenopterous   parasitoids   are   known   among   which   Apanteles   seasmiae is the most widespread internal larval parasitoid killing 25.4% - 32.7% of the pest
v)            No   resistant   variety   is   available   in   the   country   to   date,   hence   generation   of resistant hybrids or composite is important.
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Chemical Control Measures Include
i)
Endosulfan @ 1 kg a.i. /ha three applications or
ii)
Carbaryl @ 1.3 kg. a.i./ha; three applications
iii)
Diazinon @ 10 kg. a.i./ha; three applications
b)
Spotted stalk borer, Chilo partellus:
To control 0.1% endosulfan (35 EC) should be applied on 10-15 days  old crop, followed by  second application of 4% Endosulfan granules  at 15kg/ha in the plant whorl at a fortnight later, if necessary.
c)        African bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera
Their  existence  is  found  at  altitudes  of  about  1,500m.  The  same  control  measures  as for maize stalk borer may be adopted.
d)        Maize aphid, Rhopalesiphum maydis
Cultural control measures are
i) Timely harvesting and
ii) Use of lodging resistant varieties.
Chemical control measure
i) Seed dressing by aldrin 40 WP @ 20-40 g a.i./1 Okg of seed.
e) Army worm, Spodoptera exempts
i)  Use  light  and  pheromone  traps  to  predict  outbreak.  Seed  dressing  with  insecticides and/or fungicides is not effective.
f) Diseases
a.          Southern corn blights (Heleminthosporium maydis)
b.          Brown spot of com (Physoderma maydis)
The  diseases  can  be  controlled  by  spraying  fungicides  and  sowing  resistant  varieties, hybrids or composites.
7.6. RICE
Scientific name: ‘Oryza sativa'
Local name: Ruz
Introduction
Rice is  one of the three most important food crops  in the world, forms the staple diet of 2.7 billion people. It is  grown in all the continents  except Antarctica, occupying 150 million ha, producing 573 million tonnes paddy, with an average productivity of 3.83 tons
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/ha. The area, yield and production of in 2004-2005 were, 6,241ha, 18.02 q/ha and 112,443 quintals, respectively  in Ethiopia (CSA, 2008). The cultivation of rice is  of immense importance to food security  of many  countries  particularly  in Asia. Rice provides 32-59% of dietary energy and 25-44% of the dietary proteins in 39 countries of the world.
Rice belongs to the genus oryza, sub-tibe oryzea of family gramineae. It is one of the few crop species  endowed with richest genetic  diversity. There are 21 recognized species  in genus  oryza and they  show a remarkable range of adaptation to different habitats. The sub-species  or varietal groups  of Oryza sativa viz., indica, japonica and
javanica are the result of centuries  of selection by  man and nature for desired quality and adaptation to new nitches  They  are believed to have evolved from 3 different populations  of O. nivara existed then in deferent regions The hill rices of south - east India, the japonica-like type of south-west China and hill rices of Indo-china are said to have directly  evolved from the annual wild species  of the respective regions. Rice is known to have grown in china for more than 4000 years ago.
Cultivated rice plant is an annual grass with round, hollow and jointed culms, flat leaves and terminal inflorescence, called panicle. Each culm or tiller is a shoot, which includes root,  stem  and  leaves.  There  are  two  types  of  roots  in  rice-primary  (seminal)  and secondary  (adventitious  or  crown).  The  crown  roots  are  two  types  -  original  and superficial  roots.  The  roots have root  hairs,  which  are  tubular  extensions  of  outer  most layer  of  root.  These  root  hairs  help  in  water  and  nutrient  uptake.  These  are  generally short-lived.  At  later  stages  of  plant  growth  roots  develop  horizontally  from  internodes and form superficial or mat roots. The rice is essentially grown in waterlogged areas or the area having plenty of irrigation to support in case of failure of rain. In WIP command there are quite large hectareage prone to water logging conditions with low permeability due  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Rice  is  the  most  suitable  and  economically  viable  crop  for such areas under irrigated agro-ecosystem.
Growth Stages
Normally  cultivated rice varieties  take 110 days  from germination to physiological maturity  of seed for completing their life cycle. The life cycle can be divided into 3 important phases  vegetative, reproductive and ripening. The vegetative phase is  most variable and highly  influenced by  day-length and temperature in photoperiod or thermo sensitive varieties. This  is  the main determinant of total growth duration of a variety. The reproductive phase (panicle formation to flowering) requires  about 35 days  while ripening (flowering to harvesting) requires  around 30 days. Hence, the long or short duration of a variety is determined by the length of their vegetative phase
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Varieties
The traditional rice farming systems  broadly  include wet land or lowland and dry  land or upland systems. The cultural practices  developed for these systems  depend on soil type, season, rainfall pattern, irrigation source and other growing conditions. The introduction of high yielding, photo-insensitive, semi-dwarf varieties  /hybrids  have shown more responsiveness  to nutrients  and other management pracities. The varieties  of indica group are photosensitive and japonica group photo-insensitive. The varieties  also vary  in their grain quality, length of grain and cooking quality. A large number of such hight yielding varieties  have been developed for irrigated agro-ecosystems  and water logged conditions  in other countries  particularly  in south-east Asia. Such high yielding varieties  of semi-dwarf, photo-insensitive nature may  be introduced and tested at the research centers  in or near command area as  early  as  possible to see their adaptability for cultivation both in wet and dry seasons in irrigated agro-eco-regions.
Climatic Requirements
Rice is  grown successfully  in different part of the world from 390S (Australia) to 500 N latitude (china). It can be grown successfully  in different eco-systems  from shallow (upto 30 cm) to deep (1-6m) water. The optimum climatic  requirements  for its  optimum growth include 20-350C temperatures  through out the crop duration, clear sky  during the day  for better interception of solar energy  and high photosynthetic  activities  and low night temperature for reduced maintenance respiration. Rice can grow successfully upto an altitude of 2500m. The response of rice to temperature differs  with the variety. Germination normally  does  not occur at temperatures  below 120c. Rice seedlings  from nursery  can be transplanted in the field when daily  mean temperature is  about 13-150c or more. Temperatures between 22-300c are ideal for growth at all stages.
Soils
Rice is  grown in all types  of soils. However, soils  capable of holding water for a longer period such as  heavy  neutral soils  like clay-loam, clay  or loamy  are most suited for its cultivation. The most important group of soils  for successful rice cultivation are alluvial
soils, red soils, laterite or lateritic  soils  and black  soils  with PH ranging from 5 to 8. Because of its  better adaptation, it can also be grown in highly  acidic  (PH 3.0) to highly alkaline (PH 10.0) soils, though the productivity  remains  low under such adverse situations. The decrease varies from 10% to 50%.
Preparation of Mainfield
The main field is  dry  ploughed 2-3 weeks  before planting and sub-merged with 5-10cm of standing water. If possible 10 tonnes  of dung manure or 10-20 tonnes  of green manure (sesbania, crotalaria, or Gliricidia) are incorporated and field is levelled properly.
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The field should be flooded with water (15-25 cm) at least 3 days  before transplanting and recommended basal dose of fertilizers  be incorporated before the lost puddle. Field is  nicely  leveled after puddling. In general rice fields  are comparatively  small in size and have bunds all around to impound water.
Raising Seedling
Choice of method of raising nursery  depends  on soil type, irrigation water availability and seasonal factors. There are 3 recognized methods  of nursery  raising namely  dry nursery  where dry  seeds  are sown in dry  seed-beds; wet nursery  where in sprouted seeds  are grown on moist puddled soil; and dapag method where in a very  thick  stand of seedlings is raised without any contact with or use of soils.
I) Wet nursery
Seedbeds  are prepared about 25 days  before the scheduled transplanting time by ploughing the field twice in dry  conditions  and puddling later in standing water (2-3 cm deep), 3 times  at 5 days  interval. The total seedbed required is  10% of the total area of transplanting. For every  100m2 seedbed, nitrogen, phosphorus  and potassium are applied at the rates  of 0.5 - 1.0 kg, N, 0.5 kg P2O5 and 0.5kg K2O before final leveling of nursery  bed. During low temperature period the quantity  of nutrients  should be doubled.
The seeds  are soaked in gunny  bags  for 48 hours  to incubate them beneath rice straw with occasional sprinkling of water. The seeds  may  be treated with pyroquilon or tricylazole at the rate of 1g/kg seed. Sprouted seeds  are broadcast uniformly  on the prepared seed-bed. To protect young seedlings  from gallmidge and stem borer, apply carbofuran or phorate granules  at the rate of 1.0 kg a.i. per ha The water level is maintained at 2-3 cm depth. N-fertilizer is  top dressed at the rate of 0.3 to 0.6kg N/100m2 nursery-bed. Weeding is  done manually  15 days  after seedling emergence. The seedlings are ready for transplanting in 25-30 days after germination.
ii) Dry nursery
The procedure for raising dry  nursery  is  similar to that for raising wet nursery  except that the field is  ploughed 3-4 times  at 5 days  interval at the onset of mansoon or in wet season. The dry  seeds  are sown either broadcast or in close lines  and covered with a thin layer of soil. Wherever, monocotyledonous  weeds  pose problems, butachlor (1.0kg a.i./ha) is  applied or hand weeding is  taken up once a week  after sowing. Dry  beds  are irrigated frequently  in areas  of calcareous  and highly  alkaline soils. Seeds  should be soaked overnight in 2% ferrous  suphate solution to save the nursery  from the malady  of chlorosis  caused by  iron deficiency. Seedlings  are ready  for transplanting in 20-25 days after germination. While uprooting the seedlings, adequate moisture should be ensured
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iii)         Dapog Nursery
This  nursery  can be raised at any  location in just half the time required for normal nursery. Although, this  method requires  more care, it saves  water and expenses  on nursery  uprooting. Seedlings  can be transported easily  over long distances  and used in mechanical transplanting Only  a small area of 30m2 is  required to raise seedlings sufficient for one hectare. Mat nursery  is  raised at any  flat surface including cement floors, which should, however, be lined with polythene sheets  to prevent direct contact between seedlings  and surface. A mixture of soil and farm yard (dung) manure in equal proportion is  sprinkled as  a thin layer before sowing. Pre-germinated seeds  are sown on the top of the polythene sheets at the rate of 1 kg seed /m2. Seed is irrigated to 1-2 cm water depth after 6 days. Seedlings  are ready  for transplanting 14 days  after sowing.
Transplanting and Spacing
The 25-day-old seedlings  (4-5 leaf stage) uprooted from the nursery-beds  and transplanted in well leveled puddled fields  having 3-4 cm deep water. The transplanting should be done at a spacing of 20 cm x 15cm or 20cm x 10cm with 2-3 seedlings per hill in line planting system but it is  10cm x  15cm in random planting. In dapog nursery, 14- day-old seedlings  are planted with 5-6 seedlings  /hill. In direct drilling of rice, seed is planted in rows  15-25 cm apart. Transplanting should be done in June-July  after the out break of rains. Dry season crop is transplanted in December-January.
Fertilizer Management
In all 80-100 kg nitrogen is  applied in 3 equal split dose, one - half (40-50kg) as  basal dose, one fourth (20-25kg) as  top dress  at early  tillering stage and the remaining (20- 25kg) a week  before panicle initiation. In areas, where top-dressing is  not possible due to excess  standing water, nitrogen should be applied as  a basal dose in the form of neem-cake or coltar coated urea. Alongwith N as  basal dose, 40-45kg P2O5 and 30-40 kg K2O depending on soil test value should also be applied. In normal soil, zinc sulphate at the rate of 40kg/ha should be applied once in 3 crop seasons  but the quantity  may  be increased to 100 kg/ha in saline-sodic  soils. Use of green manures  or biofertilizers  such as  blue-green algae or Azolla would provide at least 25-30 kgN/ha as partial supplementation to inorganic fertilizers.
Water Management
Proper water-management facilitates good tillering and better nitrogen uptake and helps reduce weed population. Uniform leveling of field and proper drainage are most
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essential for an effective water management in irrigated field. It is ideal to maintain 2- 5cm water through out the growing season. The total water requirement varies from 497 - 658 mm depending on the crop season.
Weed Control
Weeds cause as much as 10% yield losses worldwide. Hand -weeding should be done before fertilizer application at least 2-3 times at 20 days interval starting 20 days after planting. In acute problems  of weeds, herbicides  such as  Butachlor (1.5kg a.i/ha) Anilophos (0.6 kg a.i./ha), Pentilachlor (0.4kg a.i./ha) or any one of them in combination with 2,4-D (0.4kg a.i./ha) should be applied followed by need based hand weeding 20 days later. In general, puddling helps in better control of weeds.
Harvesting
Harvesting should be undertaken as soon as rice grains mature, not with standing the stalks remaining still green to avoid grain shattering and development of sun-cracks. In early and medium duration varieties 25-30 days after flowering and 35-40 days after in late varieties, are considered proper stage for harvesting. Field should be drained when the grains in the lowest portion of the panicle are in dough stage (about 20 days after 50%  flowering)  to  facilitate  proper  filling  and  hardening  of  grains  The  moisture  content of paddy at harvesting should be around 20%. The harvested grains should dried under the shade to bring down the moisture content to around 14% for storing and milling.
Yield
Under good managements  with the high yielding insensitive semi-dwarf varieties, the transplanted rice will be able to yield at least 60-65 q/ha. Under local conditions, some farmers have already harvested upto 30 q/ha in project command area.
Integrated Crop Production Strategies
Various  integrated crop-management practices  have been developed and are being adopted in other countries for sustainable use of natural resource bases in general and soil and water in particular, besides other production inputs like fertilizer, pesticide etc.
Nutrient Management
Fertilizer is the most important input in crop production. Area-specific fertilizer recommendations are largely based on short-term trials, which do not give precise idea
of their long-term impact on resource-base, productivity, environmental quality and human health. Excessive and exclusive use of inorganic sources of nitrogen over years would bring in new problems like threatening of soil productivity on a sustainable basis 
Continuous and intensive cultivation of rice in a field for 5 years or more using only inorganic sources of nutrients would drastically reduce the soil-carbon content showing
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the deficiency of N, P, K, Zn and S. Addition of dung or farm yard manure at the rate of 10 tonnes per hectare to supplement 50% of the recommended dose of N+P+K+S+Zn is essential for maintaining soil fertility. The practice of raising pre-wet season green manure crops  like sesbania or crotalaria helps  ensure production sustainability  in rice based cropping systems. The agronomic  efficiency  of green manure nitrogen in terms of yield responses is relatively more during wet cropping season than during dry season. In low lands, rice derives  almost two third of its  total N-requirements  from native soil N pool even when the recommended dose of N fertilizer is  applied. About 40-60-% of the N applied through chemical fertilizer is lost through various pathways - 23% by ammonia volatilization, 15% by  denitrification, and 2% by  leaching. Top dressing of N in such low lying areas results in N losses due to excess standing water hence, it should be added as basal in the form of slow release N fertilizer urea to check the N losses and enhance the uptake of N. DAP as a basal dose has been found an efficient source of phosphorus in the above situation. Mixing of single super phosphate with fresh cow-dung helps reduce fixation at the rate of 50% by weight of super phosphate. Practical and easy - to use diagonistic  methods  have recently  been developed for major nutrients  (NPK) to predict the status  of soil-nutrient supply  and to determine variable fertilizer needs  of the crop. Chiorophyll meter method is  one of the excellent techniques  to measure the leaf N-status of rice and synchronize N application with crop demand.
Crop Management
Crop rotation or growing more than one crop in sequence in a year on the same land is a practice followed in general Crops  are chosen for rotation keeping in view climatic suitability, sustence of soil fertility, socio-economic  needs  of farmers, market demand etc. With the advent of high yielding photo-insensitive varieties of rice and wheat, cereal based (rice-wheat etc) or mono crop based (rice-rice etc.) cropping systems  have replaced the age old practice of multi-crop rotations involving invariably  a legume. Rice based cropping systems  are the most common form of intensified agriculture for enhancement of food production per unit area to sustain the food security. It can be made possible in many  developing countries  only  by  extensive adoption of short duration varieties  of wheat and rice resulting in increased cropping intensity. Crop rotations  increase the yields  and facilitate sustained productivity  through increased nitrogen supply, improvement of soil health, water and nutrient availability, and improvement in soil microbial activity, improvement in weed control, decreased disease pest pressure and availability  of growth promoting substances  originating from crop residues.
Water Management
Quantum of water needed for growing rice is determined by climatic, soil and water
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management factors. The amount of waler consumed by  rice for producing one kg grains  is  far greater than that required for most of the crops. Daily  water requirement for meeting evapo-transpiration, percolation and seepage losses  would vary  from 5-12 mm/day  depending on the season and soil related variability. The total water requirement to grow a mid-early  (110days) rice variety  is  estimated tobe between 800- 1500mm which includes  250mm water required for land preparation and 50mm for nursery  raising. The water required to complete tillage and prepare land for transplanting is  much less  than the actual amount of water used for this  purpose. The same holds  true for various  stages  of crop growth as  well This  results  in water losses by  surface runoff, percolation and seepage. When all losses  accounted for the water use-efficiency  in most irrigated systems  is  30-40% in wet season and 40-60% in dry season. About 40% less  water is  needed for growing transplanted rice without affecting yield, if the conventional shallow depth water (5-7 cm deep) regime is  replaced with saturated soil regime (1-2cm deep).
Integrated Diseases and Pest Management
Diseases  and insect-pests  take a heavy  toll of rice crop. Some of the diseases  likely  to occur are false smut, sheath rot and bacterial leaf blight and insects-pests  like brown plant hopper, white backed plant hopper, yellow stem borer and rice hispa. The damage caused by  these is  estimated to the range of 10-51%. There are certain varieties resistant to the above. Chemical control is  another effective and readily  available tool. However, Integrated Pest management (IPM) combines  several techniques  such as cultural, mechanical, biological and chemical to sustain productivity  with minimum adverse effect on environment.
It is  always  recommendable to use chemicals  selectively  as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
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Table 7. 2 Chemical control of various diseases and insects-pests of Rice________________________
No.
Stage
Threshold level
Recommended Control
i         False smut at flowering ii        Sheath blight
At pre-tillering to booting
-
Apply chlorothalonil 40sc @ 2ml/liter
5% or more affected        Apply carbendazim, hexaconazole
iii
Sheath rots, brown spot or
grain discoloration
At flowering and after
iv
Stem rot.
tillers/m2
Light Moderate
At panicle initiation to booting
(contaf 5EC) @ 2ml /litre, or propiconazole (Till 25Ec) @ 1ml /litre, reduce or delay top dressing of N fertilizer and apply in 2 or 3 split doses Apply mancozeb (dithane M-45) or carbendazime @ 0.1% during early morning or after noon.
spray mancozeb (dithane M-45) @ 0.1% or add organic manure to reduce disease incidence.
V
Baterial leaf blight.
Light 2-5% disease          Reduce N application and apply N in
At pre-tillering to mid-tillering
severity
split doses.
At panicle initiation to booting
Light to moderate             Skip top dressing of N fertilizer
vi
Blast in nursery
Brown plant hopper
Light
5-10 insects/hill
At planting to mid-tillering
Vii
Panicle initiation and after
5-10 insects/hill
Spray carbendazim or ediphenphos @ 0.1%
Spray carbaryl (0.75kg a.i/ha) monocrotophos. phosalone, BPMO @ 0.5kg a.i./ha, acephate w.p. @ 0.6kg a i /ha fipronil sc @ 50g a.i./ha, ethofenprox EC @ 75g a.i/ha, apply carbofuran granules @ 0.75 kg, apply carbofuran granules @0.75kg, a.i./ha, phorate granules @ 1.25 kg a.i./ha or fipronil granules @ 75g a.i./ha Preferably apply carbo furan @ 0.75 kg a.i./ha, phorate granules @ 1.25kg
a.i//ha, fipronil granules @ 75g a i./ha or spray as recommended earlier
viii      Green leaf hopper-Planting to         2 insects /hill in                Spray monocrotophos. carbaryl,
pre-tillering and mid-tillering            tungro endemic
and after
areas, 10 insects perhill in other areas
phasalone @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha, cartap wp. @ 300g a.i./ha, ethopenprox EC @ 75g a.i./ha. apply carbofuran granules @
1.25kg a i./ha, phorate granules @
1.25kg a.i./ha or fipronil granules @ 75g a.i./ha.
Leaf folder
at planting and after ix
X             Stem borer in nursery
1-2 damaged leaves        Spray monocrotophos. chlorpyriphos,
/hill
quinolphos or phosalone @ 0.5kg
a.i./ha. apply cartap w p.@ 300g a.i./ha. fipronil sc @ 50g a.i./ha or cartap 4G @ 1.0 kg a.i./ha
Moderate to severe          Apply carbofuran, phorate granules @
incidence
1.0 to 1.25kg a.i./ha, spray monocrotophos @ 0.5kg or carbaryl @ 0.75kg a.i./ha
Apply carboburan (0.75 kg a.i. ha).
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No.
Stage
Threshold level
Recommended Control
Planting to mid-tillering
5% dead hearts or
phorate, quinolphos, cartap or sevidol
one egg mass/mI) 2
granules @ 1.0kg, phorate @ 1.25 kg,
fipronil granules @ 75g a.i./ha
Panicle initiation and after
1 moth/m2
Spray quinolphos, phosalone,
monocrotophos. chlorpyriphos or
endosulfan @ 0.5 kg a.i./ha, cartap
w.p.@ 300g a.i./ha or fipronil sc@ 50 g
a.i./ha, Repeat 7-10 days after or apply 
carbofuran, isazophos granules @ 0.75
kg a.i./ha or phorate ganules @ 1.0 kg
a.i/ha
Stink bug
one or more bugs/ hill
Dust malathion @ 30kg /ha or spray with
xi
at flowering and after
monocrotophos, endosulfan, carbaryl @
0.4 kg a.i./ha during after noon hours.
xii
White-backed plant hopper At
10 insects/hill
Spray quinolphos, chloropyiphos,
planting to mid- tillering
carbaryl, monocrotophos or BPMC @
0.5 kg a.i./ha, acephate w p.@ 600 g
a.i./ha, fipronil sc @ 50g a.i /ha or
ethophenprox @ 75g a.i./ha, apply 
carbofuron granules @ 0.75kg a.i./ha,
phorate granules @ 1.25 kg a i./ha or
fipronil granules @ 75% a.i./ha.
Preferably apply carbofuran @ 0.75 kg
a.i./ha, phorate granules @ 1.25 kg
Panicle initiation and after
5-10 insects/hill
a.i./ha or fipronil granules @ 75g a.i /ha
I) Cultural Control
Many cultural practices like repeated ploughing or deep ploughing expose many insect pests and kill them. Suitable crop rotation interrupt the relationship between host plant and pest, interplanting of trap crops.
ii)  Biocontrol
Use of living antagonistic organisms, insect specific predators, parasites and pathogens.
iii)  Use of biopesticides
Use of biopesticides  derived from micro-organisms  like bacteria, viruses  and fungi for pest control. The nuclear ployhedrosis viruses (NPV) and granulosis viruses (GV) have a high degree of host specificity and do not affect non-target organisms.
Rice-Fish Integrated Farming System
This system can be practiced in those areas where only monocropping is possible with
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low yielding rice and land is  covered with 30-100 cm deep water. The rice -fish farming comprises  2.5m wide bunds  raised to 1m all around the main field and a water storage system in the form of 2 lengthwise side trenches  with gentle slope (0.5%) connecting a wide pond refuse at the lower end. The net area covered by  bunds  and water storage system is  maintained at 20 and 13 percent respectively. The land use ratio between trenches  and pond refuse should be 1:1, keeping average depth of trenches  1m and pond refuse 1.75 m. The cultural operations  under the system involve growing of submergence tolerant variety  under dry  row seeding using 80 kg seed /ha before the onset of wet season. NPK @ 40kg N, 20kg each P and K should be applied basally.
Fresh water major carps  suitable for the area and common carps  fingerlings  are grown along with juveniles  prawn species  if possible Fish species  should include 30% surface feeder, 20%column feeder and 50% bottom feeder. The fish stock  should regularly  be fed with oil cake and rice polish mixture @ 2% of the biomass besides regular manuring and liming of water body. Vegetables  can be raised year round on the bunds. This system of integrated farming is  found to be more productive and economical in such a waterlogged area where only one crop of coarse grain, variety of paddy is taken.
Nutritional Quality
Among cereal proteins  rice protein is  biologically  the richest by  virtue of its  high true digestibility  (88%), high lysin content (4%) and relatively  better net protein utilization but it has only 6-8% proteins
7.7 SESAME
Scientific Name :( Sesamum indicum L.)
Local name: selit
Sesame is  locally  called selit and is  an important oilseed crop in Ethiopia. Sesame is grown as per estimate for 2005-2006 (CSA, 2008) on 211, 312 ha of area. The yield and production of the crop have been estimated at 7.7q/ha and about 1.49 million quintals respectively. It is  mostly  grown under rainfed conditions, but gives  high levels  of productivity  under assured supply  of irrigation water. Normally, sesame culture is concentrated in plains, it could be successfully  grown upto 1200 m msl. The maximum yield is  obtainable under fairly  higher temperature and evenly  distributed rainfall conditions. It cannot withstand frost, prolonged drought, wet weather or water logged conditions  especially  at flowering and pod formation stages  Low temperatures  at flowering may  cause premature flower drop or production of sterile pollen. Brief highlights  of climatic  requirements  of sesame and obtainable yield under optimum situationsare as follows:
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Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project___________ Agronomy & Agriculture Planning Optimum temperature: 25-290C, for seed germination >200C
Rainfall: 300-800 mm
Soil: Well drained Loam soil
Soil Reaction: Range pH 5.8 - 7.0, Yield Decreases at pH 4.5 - 8.5
Grain yield ranges from 1.2 - 1.5 t/ha; the optimum level being 2.0 - 2.4 t/ha
Soils
Sesame can be grown on wide variety  of soils, but well drained light to medium textured soils  are best suited to harness  its  maximum yield potential. It does  best on sandy  loam with adequate moisture. Acidic  or alkaline soils  are unsuitable for sesame. The optimum pH range is 5.5 to 9.0.
Varieties
Sesame is  highly  sensitive to seasonal varieties  in terms  of day  length and temperature. Therefore, it is  necessary  for its  commercial cultivation, that the recommended variety/varieties are location and season specific.
Cropping systems
Some of the proposed systems  of cropping sequences  for irrigated farming include Rice- Sesame; Cotton-Sesame; Sesame-Chickpea; Sesame-wheat; Potato-Sesame, Wheat- Sesame etc. It can be mixed/intercropped with maize soybean, groundnut, cotton etc.
Land preparation
Sesame needs  well pulverized seed bed to fine tilth for good germination and the optimum plant population per unit area. Plough the soil once followed by  2 or 3 harrowings  to prepare desired seedbed. Keep the field free from weeds  and perfectly levelled to provide quick  drainage to avoid water logging. Water stagnation even for a short period leads to death of plants and reduction in plant density per unit area.
Seed rate
Sesame is  usually  sown broadcast. Easy  interculture and realization of higher yield could be achieved by  resorting to line sowing. Recommended seed rate is  4-7 kg/ha. By use of seed-drill seed rate may  be reduced to 2.5-3 kg/ha Mixing the seed with either sand or earth or well sieved farm yard manure entails  easy  seeding and even seed distribution. In a mixed cropping system sesame seed rate seldom exceed 2.5 kg/ha.
Spacing
Inter- and intra-plant spacing depends upon the variety chosen for cultivation, that is,
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branching  potential,  close/open  branching,  and  the  season.  Commonly  advocated spacings are 45 x 10/15, 30 x 15/10 cm.
Method of seeding
Deep seeding should be avoided to obtain good seed germination. Treat the seed with thiram @ 3 g/kg. Wherever, bacterial leaf spot disease is a problem, soak the seed for 30 minutes in 0.025% solution of Agrimycin-100 prior to sowing.
Use of matures and fertilizers
Apply about 10 t/ha of well decomposed farm yard manure before the last ploughing and incorporate it thoroughly into the soil. Sesame responds well to inorganic fertilizers. The quantum of nutrients to be applied depends on the variety, crop season, soil fertility status, preceding crop, rainfall, soil moisture and availability of assured water supply especially  at critical growth stage(s). However, generally  20+20+0 and 40+25+0 of N+P2O5+K in heavy and light textured soils, respectively. Give half dose of nitrogen and dose of phosphorus and potash at the time of seeding. Remaining half of nitrogen dose should be top dressed 30-35 days after sowing subject to soil moisture conditions or the availability of irrigation during rainless/extended drought period or summer season crop.
Weeding
The crop is very sensitive to weed competition during the first 20-25 days. A minimum of two weedings, one after 15 days  of sowing and another 15-20 days  thereafter are required to keep the fields weed free and make moisture and nutrients available to the crop. For interculture, use hand hoes or bullock drawn blade harrow. Application of 1 kg a.i./ha as pre-emergence spray is equally effective in checking weed growth and hence may be resorted to wherever weed growth is severe and labour is scarce, followed by one hand weeding, if required around 30 days after sowing.
Irrigation
Protective irrigation greatly  benefits  the rainy  season crop, whenever there are prolonged dry spells. For irrigated crop of sesame, give the irrigation, if soil moisture conditions warrant, immediately after sowing so as to improve germination and stand establishment. The subsequent irrigations  may  be given at intervals  of 12-15 days depending on the soil type, weather conditions and season. For good capsule filling and yields, irrigation at flower initiation and capsule formation are most critical.
Crop protection
Sesame  is  affected  by  a  number  of  insect-pests  and  diseases.  Appropriate  control measures should be taken up to reduce yield losses. Organophosphate chemicals like
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malathion and diazinon have a residual action that prolongs  effectiveness  in the field, they  may  give rise to undesirable residues  in the seeds  that can impact worker safety and market acceptability. It is  always  recommendable to use chemicals  selectively  as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
Major     insect     pests     and     diseases,     their     characteristic     symptoms     and     measures recommended for their control are furnished in Table 7.3 and 7.4.
Table 7. 3 Important insect pests of sesame and their integrated management
Insect
Nature of
damage
Stage of crop
when damage
occurs
Period of
activity
Integrated management
Leaf roller and capsule borer (Antigastra catalanunalis 
Dup)
In   early   stage   of crp,        caterpillar feeds       on       the tender  leaves  and remains  inside  the leaf web               At flowering,      larvae feed     inside     the flowers     and     on capsule    formation larvae    bore    into the   capsules   and feed                    on
developing seeds
The first attack of pest starts when the crop is 15 days old
July  to
September
Early  sown (first week  of July) early sown crop is  less  infested than late sown crop.
-Removal of larvae from the leaf webs during the initial stages  of plant growth.
-2 sprayings  of endosulfan 0.07% or carbaryl) 0.25% or quinalphos  0.05%, first at 30 days  after sowing (DAS) and second at 45 DAS.
-Two rounds of dusting with phosalone 4%, malathion 5% and endosulfan 4% dusts @ 25 kg/ha first at 30 DAYS and second at 45 DAYS
Gall fly 
(Asphondylia sesami Folt)
Maggots         feed inside   the   flower leading                 to formation of gall like buds which
do not develop into seed/capsule. The affected buds wither and drop
At   the   time   of bud initiation
September
to
November
Clipping of the galls  picking and burning the shed buds  may  help as prophylactic  measures  -Spray  crop at the bud initiaton stage with dimethoate 0.03% or monocrotophos  0.05% or endosulfan 0.07%
Hawk moth
(A cherontia Styx
W)
Caterpillar feeds on the leaves  and defoliates  the plant
Throughout the crop season on young and grown up crop
August to October
-Deep ploughing
exposes the pupae for
predation to
insectivorous birds.
-Collection and
destruction of
caterpillars.
Two rounds  of dusting with phosalone 4%, malathion 5% and endosulfan 4% dust @ 25 kg/ha, fist at 30 DAS and second at 45 DAS
Bihar hairy             ] In        the       early
Starting         from
August to
Destroy the young larvae during
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Insect
Nature of
damage
Stage of crop
when damage
occurs
Period of
activity
Integrated management
caterpillar
(Spilosoma oblique W
stages, larvae  are gregarious    feeds and                   are concenlrated      on few             plants. Mature   aterpillars migrate   to   other plants   and    feed voraciously  on  all parts  of  the  plant leaving   only   the stem
vegetative stage till maturity  of crop
Oclober
gregarious phase
Spray  at the bud initiation stage with (0.03%) Dimethoate, Monocrotophos (0.05%) or Endosulfan (0.07%).
Dusting   with   phosalone   4%, malathion  5%  and  endosulfan  4%  @ 25 kg/ha first at 30 DAS and second at 45 DAS
Sesame Seed
Bug
Crop       damage begins in the field and       continues during           post harvest          and storage.    Feeding reduces   yield   & quality  leading  to secondary    fungal infection        and, further
diminishing crop
value
Green pod stage
September
to October
—
-     Use of non shattering varieties
-     Control of alternate weed hosts Removing crop residues 
Block sowing
Early harvesting
Regular field scouting
Neem seed kernel extract
- For the standing crop use Malathion
(1 -1.5 l/ha), Sevin 80 (1-2 l/ha). Diazinon (1.1 - 2.2 l/ha). Pyrenone. Pyrelin EC (0.75 -1.5 l/ha). Rotenox. Rotenone (2-4 l/ha)
-        For    ware    houses    use    2    Its Malathion/100  Its  of  water,  Pyrenone, Pyrelin  EC  1;t  in  50  Its  of  of  water, Phostoxin 25-50 tablets/cubic meters
Table 7. 4 Important sesame diseases and their control
Disease(causal
organisam)
Stage  of  the  corp  when disease appears
Management/ Control
Seedling                     blight (Phytophthora parasitica vax. Sesame)
Post emergence blight at seeding stage to flowering stage
— One year crop rotation
—  Seed  treatment  before  sowing  with  Apron 35SD (0.3%) or Thiram (0.3%)
As  the disease appears  foliar spray  with Ridomil MZ (0.25%), Kavach (0.25%) or Copper oxychloride (0.25%) and continue two more sprays at 10 days interval.
Bacterial blight (Xanlhomonas  capmeslris pv Sesami)
Spots  appear from 4-5 leaf stage of the crop and continue till maturity
—       Seed   treatment   with   hot   water   at   52 degree centigrade for 10 minutes
—     Steep  the  seed  in  Argimycin-100(25  ppm) or  Slreptocyline  suspension  (0,05%)  for  30
minutes.
—  Foliar spray  with streplocycline (500ppm) as  soon as  symptoms  are noticed. Continue two more sprays  at 15 days interval if necessary.
Altermaria        leaf        spot (Altemaris sesame)
Spots    appears    when    the crop is nearly one month old.
—       Seed   treatment   with   Captan   (0.25%) 8avistin (0.1%) or Thiram (0.25%)
—  Foliar spray  with Topsin- M (0 1%). bavistin (0.05%), Zineb (0.25%) or mancozeb (0.25%) as and when
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symptoms   are   noticed.   Give   two   more sprays at 10 days interval.
Stem and root rot (Rhizoctonia bataticolam Macrophomina phaseolm)
Seedling  to  maturity  stage  of the crop
—      Seed  treatment  before  sowing  with  0.3% Thiram,    Captan    0.3%    or    Carbendazim
0.2%
—      For  stem  rot  spray,  Bavistin  (0.05%)  or Copper oxychloride (0.25%)
Phyllody (Phytoplasma)
Symptoms      are      seen      at flowering stage
—  Aplication of systemic  insecticide particularly  phorate @ 10kg/ha in soil or alternatively  2-3 foliar sprays  of Dimethoate or Monocrotophos(0.03%) to reduce vector population (0.055) or Tetracycline @ 0.002%
—    Delay sowing in the endemic areas
Bacterial leaf spot (Pseudomonas  stringae pv.S esami)
Seeding stage to maturity
—       Seed   treatment   with   hot   water   at   52 degree centigrade for 10 minutes
—      Steep  seed  in  Agrmycin-100  (250  ppm)  or Streptocycline     sustension(0.055)     for     30
minutes
—  Foliar spray  with streptocycline (500 ppm) as  soon as  symptoms  are noticed, continue two more sprays  at 15 days interval if necessary
Powdery  mildewfO/d/um sps  Sphaerothera sps. Leveillula sps}
45-90 days old crop
— Foliar spray of 0.2% wettable sulphur (wsulf/sulfex) at flowering to capsule
formation stage
Cercospora       leaf       spot (Cerocospora sesame)
Spots  appear from 4-6 leaf stage of the crop and continue till maturity
—        Seed   treatment   with   Captan   (o.25%), Bavistin (0.1%) or Thiram (0.25%).
—  Foliar spray  with Topsin- M (0.1%), Bavisfin().05%), Zineb (0.25%) or mancozen(0.25%) as  and when symptoms are noticed. Give two more sprays  at 10
days interval
7.8    CHICKPEA
‘Scientific name: Cicer arietinum’
Local name: Shimbra
Introduction
Chickpea  (Cicer  arietinum  L)  like  other  pulses  is  a  rich  source  of  protein  for  human  diet. It  is  believed  to  have  originated  from  Southwest  Asia  but  it  was  first  domesticated  in Middle   East.   It   is   widely   cultivated   in   India.   Mediterranean   area,   the   Middle   East, Ethiopia,   Mexico,   Argentina,   Chile   and   Peru.   Total   world   production   of   chickpeas   is about  6  million  tons.  The  seed  is  eaten  raw  when  green,  roasted,  parched  or  boiled  in split  form  and  used  in  many  other  preparations  for  its  flour.  Green  foliage  is  used  as vegetable.   Germinated   seeds   have   medicinal   value.   Soaked   grain   or   husk   are   fed   to horses   and   cattle   respectively.   Chickpeas   are   an   important   highland   pulse   in   Ethiopia. The  crop  ranks  third  in  terms  of  yield  per  hectare,  gross  production  and  hectarage  after faba  beans  and  field  peas.  It  was  grown  on  200,066ha,  yielded  12,69q/ha  and  the  total production was apporximately 2.54 million quintals during 2005-2006 (CSA, 2008). The
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crop is  generally  grown as  a rainfed mono-culture. In Gojam, Gonder and Harerage regions, it is  grown mixed with maize or sorghum. The protein content of grain is  about 24%. It is grown in a rotation with cereals and cash crops and acts as a fertility restorer. The plant is a small herbaceous annual 25 to 50cm tall with erect much branched stem. The fruit is an inflated pod about 2cm long and 1cm broad and germination is hypogeal.
Varieties
At various  agricultural research stations, hybridization and selection methods  were adopted for varietal developmental work  but only  limited information are available for improved varieties  for the project command area. Hence, it is  recommended that promising varieties  with disease and insect-pest resistant, may  be introduced and thoroughly tested as a part of on-farm testing for enhanement of productivity
Climatic Conditions
Chickpeas  require cool and dry  climate. The crop is  well adapted to arid and semi-arid regions  with low to moderate rainfall. Heavy  rains  after sowing or at flowering and pod formation stages  are harmful. Frost is  also injurious  to the crop. The optimum mean daily  temperature for the crop is  between 15 to 200C, although it can also be grown at temperature ranges  between 12.5 to 150C and 20.0 to 25.00C. Similarly, most suitable altitudinal range is  1,800 to 2,400m. It can, however, grow at altitudinal ranges  of 1,200 to 1,800m and 2,400 to 2,800m with reduced yields. Optimum rainfall for the crop is 650-700mm/season or cultivated in Irrigated production sytem.
Soils
The crop requires  deep heavy  soils  with good water retentive properties  though it grows well in all types of soil. Deep alluvial clay is ideal. The optimum PH range is 6 to 7 and the crop is  highly  sensitive to acidic  or alkaline conditions. The crop requires  well- drained and well-aerated soil conditions.
Cropping system
Chickpea  is  generally  rotated  with  maize,  rice  or  any  such  cereals  or  oilseeds.  It  can also be sown as intercrop with wheat, barley, rapeseed and mustard.
Field Preparation
The crop does not need any thorough pulverization of soil and can be sown under rough field conditions. One or two ploughings  including one deep ploughing, maybe adequate. Ploughing in August will help to keep the field weed-free. The crop is  generally  sown in cloddy fields.
Time and Method of Sowing
Since the crop is sensitive to heavy rains, sowing is done in 2nd week of August or early
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September when rains  recede. Yield increase due to sowing during this  period has been found to be 25 to 50%. Dry season crop can be sown in December and January. The crop is  sown both by  broadcast and drill in rows. Drilling seed in lines  at an optimum depth of 6 to 8cm gives  uniform stand and high yields. It also reduces  the incidence of wilt. Under irrigated conditions, when double cropping can be practiced, sowing time will have to be enhanced.
Seed rate and Spacing
The crop is  generally  sown as  rainfed and on conserved soil moisture. Comparatively higher seedrate of 65 to 100kg per ha or more is adopted depending upon size of the seed and method of sowing The crop is  sown at a close spacing of 30cm between rows and 5 to 10 cms between plants within a row at a depth of 7-10 cm. It is desirable to treat the seed with Rhizobium culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
Manuring
The crop being leguminous, the application of large quantity of fertilizer is generally not required However, phosphatic  fertilizers  @  30 to 40 kg P2O5/ha may  be beneficial in phosphorus deficient soils. A starter dose of N is needed for initial growth of plants and development of nodules in roots. Only 15-20 kg N/ha along with 40kg P2O5 required.
Interculture
In order to keep the field completely free from weeds, one weeding after about 3 weeks of sowing may De desirable. Since the crop is sown at a comparatively closer spacing, thick  canopy  gets  developed during a short period, which has  a smothering effect on weed growth In case of luxuriant plant growth tips  are nipped to encourage branching and flowering resulting high yields.
Water Requirement
The water requirement for chickpeas  is  comparatively  low. The crop is  drought resistant. Since the crop is deep rooted and its length of growing period is also short, most of the water needs  are met from the conserved moisture. However, the crop responds  to irrigation, if made available. One or two irrigations  at growth formation, flowering and early  seed formation stages  may  be beneficial. Moisture stress  at seed formation stage may  adversely  affect the grain development and yield. The seeds remain less developed and shriveled under such conditions.
Harvesting
The crop matures after 100 to 125 days depending upon the variety and climate. When the seeds in the pods develop fully and get dry, plants are either pulled or cut with the help of sickles. The harvested plants  are brought to the threshing floor allowed to dry and then threshed. The seeds are stored in gunny bags after complete drying.
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The  crop  yield  varies  from  year  to  year  depending  upon  weather  conditions.  Under good conditions, grain yield is as high as 20-25 q/ha.
Pests and Diseases
a)  Pests:  Cutworm  (Agrotis  Psilon  h.)  is  controlled  by  dusting  the  crop  with  10%  BHC. Pod borer is another major pest.
b)    Diseases:  Among  the  common  diseases  are  wilt  (Fusarium  oxysporium,  root  wilt (Rhizectonia   batalicola)   and   collar   rot   (Sclerotium   spp).   These   diseases   cause   yield losses  upto  50-80%.  In  order  to  control  wilt  avoidance  of  late  sowing  and  waterlogging conditions  are  recommended.  For  collar  rot,  long  crop  rotation  and  soil  drenching  is recommended.  Use  of  disease  resistant  variety  is  another  important  aspect.  For  wilt and root rot seed should be treated with fungicides namely carbendazim + Thiram (1 g + 2g/kg) at sowing.
Seed  dressing  with  bioagents  Trichoderma  viride  @  4g/kg  seed  +  fungicide  carboxin (Vitavex) @1.0 g/kg seed should be followed.
Integrated Pest management
To control pod borer, it may  be useful to use sex-pheromone traps  (5 traps/ha) at flowering and pod formation stages. Economic  thresh hold limit may  be 1 larva/5-10 plants. Cultural practices  include deep summer ploughing, clean cultivation, inter cropping with linseed etc. Collection and destruction of larva also helps  control the borer. To have biological control spray  of polyhedroxis  virus  (NPV) @  20 larva equivalents  (LE)/ha on noticing eggs  of Helicoverpa armigera. Apply  3 sprays  at weekly intervals. For chemical control use Endosalfan (0.07%) Monocrotophos  (0.04%) as soon as economic threshold limit is crossed.
It is  always  recommendable to use chemicals  selectively  as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
7.9  LENTIL
‘Scientific name:’Lens culinaris’
Local name: Misir
Introduction
Lentil is one of the oldest leguminous crops believed to be indigenous to south West
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Asia originated in near East and Mediterranean region. It was  known to ancients  in Egypt and Greece. It had spread to Europe, India and China and now it is introduced and cultivated in most sub-tropical and warm temperate regions. Plant is  small green annual herb with branched stem. It is rarely taller than 40 cm. The pod is flatten and broad, about 12 mm long tipped by  a minute beak. The seeds  are lens-shaped, light red, brown, grey and of tan speckled with black.
The total world production of lentil is  estimated to be about 1.5 million tons. The average ccmposition of seed is  12.4% moisture, 25.1% Proteins, 0.7% fat, 59.7% carbohydrates  and 2.1% mineral matter. Lentil is  known to be very  nutritive. It has easily digestible protein as compared to animal protein. Unripe pods are eaten as green vegetable and dry leaves, stalk, husk and broken grain as cattle feed. In Ethiopia The crop ranks  fourth in terms  of yield per hectare. Its  area, yield and production during 2005-2006 as per CSA (2008) estimate were 97,110ha, 8.35 q/ha and 810,494 quintals. The crop is grown during wet season due to good rain. It has important place in cereal crop rotation as fertility restorer and as a protein supplement in peoples' diet.
Varieties
There are generally two types of varieties bold seeded and small seeded. Introduction of Mexican varieties  have helped in enhancement productivity  in this  country. Variety NEL (ILL) 358 appears to be better and high yielding giving 36% more yield than others. There is  a need to introduce more varieties  from out side to strengthen the varietal program and increase the productivity of lentil further.
Climatic conditions
Lentil is a cool climate crop. Optimum mean daily temperature during crop growing period is 15 to 25oC. It can also be grown with comparatively low yields at temperature ranges of 10.0 to 12.5 and 17.5 to 200C. Similarly, optimum altitude for good growth and high yield is 2,200 to 3,000m. It can, however, be grown at altitude ranges from 1.800 to 2,200 and 3,000 to 3,200 m also The length of growing period of the crop is about 120 days depending upon the variety and climate. The crop is raised successfully where the rainfall during the growing period is 650 to 900mm or in irrigated production system.
Cropping System
Lentil is generally grown as rainfed crop after rice and maize. In inter-cropping it is grown with crops like rape seed and mustard.
Soils
The crop is grown in a wide range of soils from light loam to fine-textured black soils.
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Most   suited   soil   type   is   medium-textured   loam   with   good   drainage.   The   crop   can tolerate salinity to some extent. The optimum PH range is 6 to 7.5.
Field Preparation
The crop does  not require thorough field preparation. However, the field should be completely  free from weeds. One deep ploughing with the help of mould board plough followed by two to three ploughing/harrowings may be enough for the crop.
Time and method of Sowing
The crop is sown in the month of June with the outbreak of rainy season. It can also be sown as  a dry  season crop in the months  of December and January  with irrigation. The crop is  sown both by  broadcast and drilling systems. For uniform stand and high yield, drilling seed in rows is recommended.
Seedrate and Spacing
The optimum spacing between the rows is 25 to 30cm. A seed rate of 30 to 40 kg/ha for small seeded and 50-60 kg/ha for bold seeded variety  depending on agro-climatic conditions, is  required. The optimum depth of sowing is  5 to 6 cm. Seeds  may  be treated with Rhizobium culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
Manuring
The crop being leguminous  is  generally  not manured. However, for good growth and high yield, application of fertilizers  may  be necessary. Application of 20 to 30 kg N per ha as  basal booster dose may  be very  beneficial. Placement of 40 to 60 kg P2O5 per ha may  also be done before sowing. Response to fertilizer application is  greater where water requirement of the crop is adequately met with.
Interculture
One   weeding   after   about   3   to   4   weeks  of  sowing  is   necessary   to  keep  the  field completely free from weeds.
Water Requirement
The water requirement of the crop varies  from 350 to 550 mm depending upon climate and crop duration. The crop is  sensitive to moisture stress  at growth, flowering and seed formation stages. First irrigation may  be applied after 45 days  of sowing, second at flowering and third at seed formation stage.
Harvesting
The  crop  is  harvested  when  the  plants  turn  brown  and  seeds  get  dried.  Harvesting  is done manually with the help of sickles Harvested crop is brought to the floor for further
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drying before threshing. The grains are cleaned and then stored in bags.
Yield
Under  good  conditions  including  facilities  for  irrigation,  the  yield  of  10  to  12  quintal  per ha can be obtained.
Pests and Diseases
a)   Pests:  The  pea  aphid  (Acyrthosiphon  pisum)  is  the  most  important  pest  of  the  lentil crop  with  infestation  level  reaching  upto  100%  and  yield  losses  estimated  upto  40%  in certain years.
b)    Diseases:  Among  important  diseases  are  wilt  root  rots,  asscochyta  blight  and  rust. Recent   studies   reveal   the   tolerant   lines   to   diseases   as   follows   for   which   the   seed production program be encouraged.
Line
Disease (s)
R59. R18
Assocohytal blight
NEL 358
Root rots
Precoz
Rust
Asscochyta  blight  can  be  controlled  by  treating  the  seed  with  thiabendazole  (TBZ)  @2.5 g/kg of seed.
7.10  GROUNDNUT
‘Scientific name: Arachis hypogaea'
Local name: Lewz or Ocholoni
Introduction
Groundnut   is   one   the   most   important   oilseed   crops.   It   originated   from   Brazil   (South America).  The  crop  spread  from  Brazil  to  Peru,  Argentina  and  Ghana  from  where  it  was introduced  to  Jamaica,  Cuba  and  other  West  Indies  islands.  The  plant  was  introduced by  the  Portuguese  into  Africa.  Annual  world  production  of  unshelled  nuts  is  about  18.5 million  tons  from  about  19  million  ha  Groundnut  seeds  (kernel)  have  a  very  high  caloric value,  349  cal/100  g,  which  is  5  times  that  of  beef.  It  is  eaten  raw  as  peanut  butter, peanut  flour,  peanut  milk  etc.  It  is  the  second  largest  source  of  vegetable  oil  next  only  to soybean.  About  66%  of  the  world's  groundnut  production  is  used  for  extraction  of  oil. Best  quality  of  oil  cake  is  produced  from  groundnut  The  composition  of  groundnut  is 47.7%  fat.  5.4  %  water,  30.4%  protein,  11.7%  carbohydrates,  2.5%  fibre  and  2.3%  ash. Oil  content  varies  from  44  to  50  %  depending  upon  the  variety.  The  oil  cake  contains  7- 8%  N,  1.5%  P2O5  and  1.2%  K2O  and  can  be  used  as  manure.  It  is  an  important supplement in cattle and poultry ration.
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In Ethiopia groundnut is cultivated as a food and cash crop and is used for oil production and as  an export commodity. The estimated per capita oil consumption in the country  at the rate of 1.03 f/yr. is  very  low. With the increasing population, there is  a need to increase the edible oil production. Groundnut is  presently  being grown in Harare and bordering Eritrea regions while other areas also have great potential for its production.
Groundnut, in general, is a short stature plant, with the main axis being upright (15 to 40 cm  long),  but  the  major  part  of  the  plant  consists  of  primary  branches.  Secondary  and tertiary   branches   are   found   in   semi-spreading   and   spreading   (Virginia)   types,   giving them   a   prostrate   stature.   The   leaves   are   alternate,   stipulate   and   quadrifoliate.   The flowers  are  orange  -  yellow,  typically  papilionaceous.  This  crop  is  predominantly  a  self pollinated   one   and   pollination   takes   place   early   in   the   morning.   As   soon   as   the fertilization   is   complete,   the   flowers   fade.   After   fertilization,   an   intercalary   meristen becomes   active   at   the   base   of   the   ovary,   above   the   point   of   attachment   of   the hypanthium,  producing  new  tissues  below  itseif  and  resulting  in  an  elongated  stalk  the peg.  The  pegs  are  positively  geotropic,  enter  soil  and  get  bend  in  horizontal  plane. Generally  two,  and  occasionally one,  three or  four  fertilized ovules  are  borne  at  the  tip of the  peg  which  later  swells  to  become  the  pod.  At  maturity,  kernels  are  contained  within this pod.
Varieties
There are two broad categories  of groundnuts  namely, bunch type and spreading type. The yield can be increased by  20 to 30% with the use of high yielding varieties. Efforts should be made to introduce germplasms  for development of varieties  to be grown under irrigated condition with moderate temperature. The bunch types  will fit well in the cropping systems.
Climatic conditions
Groundnut is  grown throughout the tropics  and its  cultivation is  extended to the subtropical areas  lying between 450 N and 350 S. It is  a warm season crop requiring abundant sunshine and grows  up-to an elevation of 1500 mask  Optimum mean daily temperature required for the crop is  22 to 280 C. Yield starts  getting reduced above 330C and below 180C. Germination of the crop is  delayed when temperature is  below 200C. Groundnut is  a day-neutral plant and day  length is  not a critical factor to influence yield. The crop cannot stand frost, long and severe drought or water stagnation. It can be grown at places receiving annual rainfall between 500 to 1250mm
Soil
Groundnut  can  be  grown  in  a  wide  variety  of  soil  types.  However,  the  crop  does  best  on deep sandy loam and loamy soils (S1 and S2) and in black soils with good drainage.
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The soil should be friable and loose at the top to allow pegs  (on which the fruits  are formed) to enter the soil easily. Fine-textured compact soils  are not suitable as  it may have problems  of drainage, aeration and digging the crop at the time of harvest. The crop is moderately sensitive to soil salinity
Cropping System
Groundnut can be rotated with rice, wheat, maize and vegetables. There is  a very positive effect on the yield of cereals  following groundnut. It can also be intercropped with maize.
Field preparation
Thorough field preparation is  done to obtain good tilth. One deep ploughing and 2-3 subsequent harrowings  are done for the purpose. The field should be completely  free from weeds  for good growth of the crop. Ridges  and furrows  can also be made if planting of bunch type variety is desired to be grown on ridges.
Time of Sowing
Groundnut is sown in June or July as a wet season crop after the out-break of rainy 
season. The sowing should not be delayed in rainfed situations as the crop may suffer
from moisture stress during pod formation stage. Dry season crop can be sown in
December or January.
Seed rate and spacing
The seed is  sown in rows  with the help of seed drills  or planters. If sown on ridges, harvesting is  comparatively  more convenient but yield is  somewhat reduced due to sparse plant population. In general, closer the spacing or higher the plant population/unit area, greater is  the yield. It also suppresses  late and ineffective flowering and helps  in compact fruiting, maturation and improved quality. Spacing depends  on nature and type like spreading or erect (bunch) type. Spacing of 30-45 x  15 cm for spreading and20-30 x  10-15 cm for bunch type is  generally  adopted. Seedrate of 100 to 120 kg/ha (kernel) depending upon variety, seed weight and agro-climatic conditions  is  recommended. Irrigated dry  season crop can be sown at 22.5 cm x  10 cm or 50cm x  7.5 cm spacing Optimum depth of sowing is  6 to 8 cm. Hand-shelling of seed is  preferred to avoid damage to the kernel, which should be obtained from healthy  and well-developed pods. Similarly, healthy  and bold kernels, shelled about a fortnight before sowing, should be preferred. For obtaining high yields, seed should be treated with fungicide (Captan @ 40 mg/kg seed) and inoculated with the culture of Rhizobium.
Manuring
Although a leguminous crop, groundnut responds to both nitrogenous and phosphatic
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fertilizers. Under irrigated conditions, fertilizer application @  20-40kg N, 40-60 kg P2O5 and 20-40 K2O/ha may  be beneficial depending upon soil tests. Phosphatic  and potasic fertilizers  are applied as  basal at the time of sowing. Nitrogen may  be applied in two splits, first as basal and the second as top dressing after 30 days of sowing. Application of gypsum @  4 q/ha at pegging stage enhances  pod formation and improves  shelling percentage. Being an oil crop, it requires  more sulphur to improve oil quality. Groundnut is  often preceded by  a crop like maize requiring higher fertilizer application. The crop rotation of 2 years  reduces  the infestation of root knot nematodes. To sustain overall health of soil and continued good yields, a desirable level of organic - carbon in the soil (0.3 to 0.7%) must be maintained by adding 10-15 tons/ha well decomposed compost.
Interculture
In order to control weeds  and to keep the soil friable, one or two hoeing is  generally done. Weeding is  carried out after about three weeks  of sowing. First hoeing is  done after a fortnight of weeding and the second after about a month of first hoeing. The hoeing operations  also induce sort of earthing, which is  desirable to the crop. Weeds can also be controlled by  the use of weedicides. The weeds  can reduce the yield ranging from 20% to 45% if not controlled timely. Pre-sowing soil incorporations  of Alachlor or Fluchloraline 1.5 kg a.i./ha or pre-emergence application of pendimethaline @  1kg a.i./ha alongwith 2 intercultures  at 30 and 45 days  have been effective and economical.
Water requirement
Water requirement ranges  from 500 to 700 mm. Crop coefficient (kc) values  are (i) initial stage 0.4-5 0 (15-35 days), development stage 0.7 - 0.8 (30 to 45 days) mid - season stage 0.95 - 1.1 (30-35 days), late season stage 0.7 - 0.8 (20-30 days) and harvest 0.55 - 0.6. Vegetative and reproductive stages  respond to water supply  but excessive soil water is harmful due to lack of oxygen. Flowering period is most sensitive to water stress  followed by  pod formation period. In case of limited water supply, water saving can be affected during periods  other than the flowering and early  pod formation. Groundnut crop extracts water mostly from first 0.5 to 1 0m of soil depth. The interval of irrigation can be 6 to 14 days  but may  be extended upto 21 days  depending upon agroclimatic  conditions. The soil moisture depletion below 50% should be avoided. Best results  of supplemental irrigation are obtained when waterings  are given at flowering and pod formation stages. Irrigation needs  to be terminated about 2-3 weeks before harvesting.
Harvesting
The  bunch  type  crop  matures  after  about  110-120  days  while  the  spreading  type  takes 140-150 days. The prominent symptoms of maturity are yellowing of leaves, shedding
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of older leaves  and dark  tint inside the shell. The bunch type crop is  harvested manually by  pulling. Spreading variety  is  harvested by  the use of groundnut digger or working a blade harrow or plough. Sufficient soil moisture al harvesting time makes  the operation easy  and efficient. The harvested plants  are turned upside down to dry  for a few days and stripped afterwards.
Yield
The stripped pods are cleaned and dried to a safe moisture content of not more than
5%. Under good conditions, yield of 30 to 10 q/ha of pods can be easily obtained
Being a leguminous crop, it fits well in crop rotation with cereal and cash crops.
Pest and diseases
a) Pests
Groundnut Aphids: Aphids can be controlled by spraying 0.025% of Methyldemetion
or Metasystox or 0.05% of Endosulfan. African bollworm, Heliothis armigera: 0.05% of Endosulfan. Pod borer and termite: Drilling of BHC 10% dust @ 25 kg/ha before
planting is recommended.
b) Diseases
Rust, Puccinia arachidis  is  caused by  Puccinia arachidis, which mostly  prevails  in eastern part of the country. Selecting the resistant varieties  and spray  of 0.02% Hinosan to check  the spread of the disease is  recommended. ‘ Rosette is  caused by  a complex  of 5 viruses  and can be checked by  controlling aphids  by  using Rogor @  400ml /ha to check  the transmission of this  disease." Bacterial wilt is  controlled by  crop rotation.
It is  always  recommendable to use chemicals  selectively  as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
7.11. Soybean
Scientific name: Glycine max
Local name: Akuriater
Introduction
Soybean is grown in the world for oil and protein accounting for nearly 50% of the total oilseeds hectarage as well as production. It provides approximately 60% of vegetable
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proteia and 30% of oil in the world. The present total world production is  about 6.2 million tons of seed from 45 million ha. The origin of the crop is expected in China during 2800 BC. It is  recognized as  one of the oldest species  cultivated by  man. Soybean was introduced in Ethiopia in 1950. Although the crop is  new to Ethiopia, it has  high growth potential as  well as  nutritional value (40% quality  protein and 20% oil). It has  been observed that soybean can produce the highest yield of protein per unit of land area. From the nutritional point of view, it ranks  at the top of the protein quality  index. The crop being leguminous, fits  well in crop rotation and helps  in building coil fertility. The area, production and average yield of soybean in Ethiopia are still low hence, require more attention and encouragement.
Soybean is used for food, milk, fat, protein, bakery products, varnish, paint, soap, enamel industry, cattle feed, pharmaceuticals (antibiotic), detergent, plastic industry, lubricants, insecticides and disinfectants. Food products like curd, cheese, sauce, flour
etc. are also prepared from soybean. It is also consumed as green, dry or sprouted Composition of seed is water: 5-9.4%, protein: 29-50.5%, fat: 13.3-24.2%, carbohydrates: 14 0-23.9%. fibre, 2.8-6.3% and ash 3.3-6.4%. It is planned to replace
the imported soybean flour in the preparation of 'Faffa' a children's food product, with
locally produced soybean flour. The antinutritional substances present in the seed
include trypsin inhibitor, hemagglutinins and oligosacharides.
Varieties
Soybean  cultivars  were  introduced  in  Ethiopia  from  INTSOY,  IITA,  AVRDC  and  FAO Following varieties are recommended for the country.
Early Maturity Group:
Medium Maturity Group:
Late Maturity Group: Hardee
i) Williams iii) Davis
ii) Clark - 63
iv) Cocker - 240
v) William S-79              vi) William S-82               vii) Craw fordviii)
The  duration  of  the  crop  is  100  to  110  days  for  early  and  110  to  120  days  for  medium and 120-150 days for late maturing varieties.
Climatic Conditions
The crop is  suited to warm conditions  in the tropics, subtropics  and temperate climates. The altitude range where the crop can be grown successfully  is  400 to 2,200m although ideal altitude is between 900 to 1.800 meters. The crop is resistant to low and very high temperatures  but growth and yield are severely  retarded above 32.5°C and below 17.5 C. The optimum temperature for rapid germination of soybean is 30°C. Flowering
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may  be delayed at temperatures  below 24°C. Minimum temperatures  are 10°C for growth and 15°C for reproductive phase. Soybean is  basically  a short-day  plant but response to day length varies with varieties. Increase in day length may lead to delayed flowering. Normally, there is no vegetative growth during pod formation stage.
Soils
The crop can be grown in a wide range of soils (S2 and S3) except very sandy types. The crop, however, does best under medium, deep, well-drained and fertile soils with good water holding capacity. The crop is  sensitive to waterlogging conditions. It is moderately tolerant to soil salinity. It grows well at PH 7. Yield decrease due to salinity is: 0% at ECe 5 mmhos/cm. 10% at 5.5, 25% at 6.2, 50% at 7.5 and 100% at ECe of 10 mmhos/cm.
Cropping system
Soybean being a leguminous crop is ideally suited for fitting in several sequence and inter-cropping systems like soybean-maize, soybean-sorghum, soybean-wheat, soybean groundnut and soybean in agro forestry.
Field Preparation
The crop requires fairly well prepared field completely free from weeds and clods. After initial deep ploughing with mould board plough, two to three subsequent ploughings/harrowings are done for obtaining good seed bed The field should be well leveled with fine seed -bed
Time and Method of Sowing
The sowing is done in the month of June or early in July after the onset of the rainy season. Dry  season crop can be sown in the month of December-January  with irrigation. Seed can be sown by broadcast method or in lines by drilling. Line sowing is recommended for obtaining best results. Soybean is  also inter-cropped with maize, sorghum or sweet potato as indicated above.
Seedrate and Spacing
Optimum plant population for early and late maturing varieties are 500,000 and 333,333 plants per ha. Row to row spacing varies from 40 to 60cm depending upon variety and agro climatic conditions Short duration varieties are sown at a closer spacing. Plant to
plant spacing within a row is about 5cm A seedrate of 75-80 kg per ha is considered adequate. The optimum depth of seeding may be 2.5 to 4cm. Seed may be treated
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with  Rhizobium  culture  to  encourage  fixation  of  atmospheric  nitrogen.  Planting  can  be done with seed drills.
Manuring
Although soybean is  a leguminous  crop and is  capable of fixing atmospheric  nitrogen, a starter dose of 15-20 kg N per ha is  desirable for good early  growth and high yields. Phosphatic  fertilizer @  20 to 40 kg P2O5 per ha is  recommended. However, the actual dose of fertilizers  should be decided based on soil test results. All the fertilizeis  are applied as basal dose and drilled before sowing.
Interculture
The crop may need one or two weedings  to keep the field completely  free from weeds. Weeding is done manually. First weeding is done after about 3 weeks of sowing and the second after 3-4 weeks  of the first. Weed control may  also be affected by  the use of herbicides. The most effective herbicides  are Fluchloralin or Trifluralin at 1.0kg a.i./ha as preplant incorporation.
Water Requirement
Water requirements  for high yields  vary  from 450 to 700 mm per season depending upon climate and crop duration. Crop coefficient (kc) for soybean during initial stage 0.3-0.4 (20-25 days), development stage 0.7-0.8 (25-35 days), mid-season stage 1.0- 1.15 (45-65 days), late season stage 0.7-0.8 (20-30 days) and at harvest 0 4-0.5. Adequate soil moisture should be present during the germination stage. Excess  or shortage of water at vegetative stage will retard growth and adversely  affect the yield. The crop is  sensitive to water stress  at flowering and early  pod formation (pod development) stages  The water deficit therefore, should not exceed 50% of the total available moisture. Under limited water supply  conditions, saving of water can be affected during vegetative period and near crop maturity. Avoid flooding of soybean field at any  stage of crop growth. Flooding at floral initiation is  detrimental as  it retards nodule and overall root activity.
Harvesting
The crop is harvested when the seeds in the pods are fully developed, become dry and golden yellow or black/grey. The plant also shows  symptoms  of withering and turns brown. Harvesting is  done with the help of sickles  The crop is  stored in small heaps and allowed to dry in the field before threshing and winnowing. The seeds are dried and cleaned before storing in gunny bags
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Yield
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Under good conditions, yield between 16.0 to 20.0 per hectare can be obtained. High yields  upto 30 quintal per hectare can also be obtained with improved varieties. The yield of as  high as  60 q per hectare has  been obtained under good management conditions  with high yielding varieties  in certain years, indicating great potential of soybean production in Ethiopia.
Pests and Diseases
Insect-Pests: Heliothis  armigera (African bollworm), Agrotis  segtum (Cutworm). Army worm and Rhizoderus  inexpertus (Green stink  bug). These can be controlled by  the use of chemical or biological control methods
It is always recommendable to use chemicals selectively as a last resort when other
control measures prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some
organophosphate/organochlorine compounds may leave residues that may impart
undesirable quality to the produce. To lessen this situation, technical staff has to be
contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
Diseases:
i)             Charcoal   rot   (Rhizoctonia   bataticola):   Adopt   summer   planting,   crop   rotation   and balanced  fertilization,  Treat  seed  with  Thiram  at  1  5g  +  carbendaxim  at  1.5g/kg  of seed before sowing
ii)            Rhizoctonia   bacterial   blight   (Rhizoctonia   solani):   Follow   summer   ploughing   and crop   rotation,   provide   proper   drainage.   Treat   seed   with   thiram   4   g/kg   before sowing Grow tolerant varieties.
iii)         Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria altemata') use disease and injury free seeds. Treat seeds with Thiram at 2g + carbondzim at 1 g/kg of seed before sowing.
iv)        Anthracnose (Colletotrichum truncatum): use pathogen free seed. Treat the seed before sowing with Thiram at the rate of 1.5 g + carbendazim at 1.5g/kg seed. Spray indofel M-45 at the rate of 2.5 kg/ha.
v)          Bacterial blight (Pseudomonas glycinea): Use certified disease free seed. Spray blitox-50 (0-3%) + streptocycline (0.1%)
vi)         Bean yellow mosaic virus: use of resistant variety
vii)        Soybean mosaic (Soja virus-1): Use of disease free seed
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7.12 Field peas
Scientific name: Pisum Sativum L.
Local Name: Ater
Introduction
Field peas  (Pisum sativum L.) are grown for both fresh and dried seed. Present world production of field peas  is  about 13.5 million tons  dry  peas  and 4 8 million tons  fresh peas. Field peas  are believed to have originated in Europe and western Asia from where the geographic  dispersion occurred to the temperate as  well as  the tropical regions  of the world, including Ethiopian highlands. Of the four major highland pulse crops in the country, fababeans (Vicia faba L.) and field peas rank 1st and 2nd in terms of area, production and production/ha.
It is  an important source of protein and has  soil amelioration characteristics. Fesh pea seeds  are eaten raw Dry  mature seeds  contain moisture-10.6%, protein-22.5%, fats- 1.0%, carbohydrate-58.5%, fibre-4.4% and ash-3.0%.
Varieties
Indigenous fieldpeas have poor harvest index, the plants are tall and deficient in disease resistance, the size of seeds  is  small and have mixed colors. Selection and hybridization programme was, therefore, initiated. A number of fieldpeas accessions/lines  have been tested through national variety  trials  at multi locations. There are two varieties  namely  Adet-1 and sefmesh released from Adet Agricultural Research center for cultivation. These are high yielding varieties  and shown at least 34% higher yield than local.
Climatic conditions
Pea is  a cool climate crop and requires  moderately  cool growing season Hot and dry weather greatly  reduce seed setting and yield. Optimum mean daily  temperature for the crop is  12.5 to 17.50C with lower and upper limits  of 100C and 230C. Period for germination is  increased with the decrease in soil temperature and reduces  with the rise in temperature. At soil temperatures  between 20 to 300C, germination takes  place within 6-7 days while at 50C, it takes 30 days or more. It is grown as a cool season crop in areas away from equator. The growing period of fresh pea is 75 to 100 days with an addition of 20 days  for dry  peas. With the increase in elevation and coolness, crop duration also gets  extended The crop is  sensitive to frost, particularly  at flowering and green pod stages  Young plants  can tolerate frost better The optimum altitude for growing peas is between 2200 to 3000 m but it can also grow with a little reduced yield at altitude ranges of 1800-2000m and 3000 to 3200m.
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Soil
The crop does  well with most of the soils  (S1 and S2) with good drainage and reasonably  good water holding capacity. Deep loamy  soils  are ideal for peas. The PH range is  between 5.5 to 6.5 Saline soils  are not suitable for the crop. The yield decreases  with different levels  of ECe. The crop is  sensitive to waterlogging conditions and requires good soil aeration.
Cropping System
Field pea is  more adopted than chickpea crop for late sown as  well high input conditions with these stipulations, it could replace the chickpea in crop sequences  and intercrops most appropriately
Field Preparation
Unlike chickpeas, the crop requires  thorough field preparation. After one initial deep ploughing with mould board plough, 2-3 harrowings/cultivations  may  be done to obtain good tilth. The field should be leveled and made completely free from weeds
Time and method of Sowing
The sowing of peas is done without the break of rainy season in June or July. In case of dry season, sowing is  done in December-January  with pre-sowing irrigation to ensure optimum moisture for germination Seed is sown in rows by drilling method.
Seed rate and Spacing
Spacing for the crop between row to row may be 40 to 50 cm and 5 to 10cm between plant
to plant depending upon varieties and their growth habits. Wider spacing is adopted when
grown along with stakes Depth of sowing should be 2 to 4 cm. The optimum seedrate is 
about 80 to 120 kg per ha depending upon variety and climate Seed may be treated with Rhizobium culture to encourage fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.
Manuring
The per hectare fertilizer requirement for obtaining higher yield is 20 to 40 kg N, 40 to 60kg
PO
2    5   ana  80  to
150kg  K O  depending  upon  soil
2
fertility.  All
the  fertilizers  are  applied  as 
basal before sowing. High dose of nitrogen can be split into two, half as  basal and remaining half after about 30 days  of sowing A general recommendation is  to apply  100kg DAP per ha by  drill method before sowing. Use of PSB culture improves  the status  of available phosphorus  in the soil. In addition application of 20kg sulphur/ha, 15kg zinc sulphate. 10kg borax. 1kg sodium molybdate improves the yield considerably.
Interculture
One weeding may be done after 20-30 days of sowing Second weeding may follow after 20
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Water Requirement
Water requirement for peas  ranges  between 350 to 500mm depending upon agro- climatic  conditions. The crop coefficients  (kc) during different stages  are: initial stage 0.4 (10 to 25 days) development stage 0.7-0.8 (25 to 30 days), mid-season stage 1.05- 1.2 (25-30 days), late season stage 1.0-1.15 (5 to 10 days) (fresh pod) and 0.65-0.75 (20-30 days) (dried) and at harvest 0.95-1.1 (fresh pod) and 0.25-0.3 (dried). The growth periods for various stages are given in the following table.
Growth Period of Peas
S.No
Stage of Growth
Growth Period (Days)
Fresh
Dried
1
Establishment
10-25
10-25
2
Vegetative
25-30
25-30
3
Flowering (including pod set)
15-20
15-20
4
Yield formation (pod development and pod filling)
15-20
20-25
5
Ripening
0-5
15-20
Total
65-100
85-120 day
Sensitive periods  for water stress  are flowering and seed formation. Water deficit at vegetative and ripening periods  of dry  peas  have comparatively  small effect on yield. Irrigation during flowering period increases  the number of pods  and during seed formation period increases  the weight of both pod and seed. For high yields, soil water depletion should not exceed 60% during vegetative period and 40% during flowering and seed formation periods.
For  harvests  consisting  of  one  picking,  it  is  recommended  to  withhold  water  at  later  part of pod filling period to advance ripening of most developed pods.
The effective depth of water uptake is  restricted to first 0.6 to 1.0 m depth. Irrigation frequencies  can be 7 to 10days. When water supply  is  short, irrigation should be adequate during flowering and pod filling periods  with possible savings  during vegetative and ripening periods. Most important irrigations  are at pre-sowing, flowering and at pod formation and pod filling stages.
Harvesting and Yield
Under   good   conditions,   200-to   300   q/ha   yield   of   unshelled   fresh   pea   pods   (70-80% moisture) and 10 to 15 q/ha of dry peas (12% moisture) can be obtained. Fresh pods of
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pea are harvested manually. The crop is  harvested when leaves  start getting yellowish and majority  of pods  are fully  filled with mature and dry  seeds. Peas  being leguminous are ideal as  a rotation crop with cereals  and cash crops  and help in restoring soil fertility. It is also a very good source of protein supplement for diet.
Pests and Diseases Control
a)           Pests:-  Acythociphom  pisum  (pea  aphid)  and  Heliothis  armigera  (pod  borer)  are the   major   pests   of   field   peas   Primphos   provides   good   control   of   aphids.   For   pod attacking   insects,   proper   use   of   recommended   pesticides   is   effective   in   reducing   the damage and in increasing the yield significantly.
b)             Disease:-     Erysiphe     polygomi     (Powdery     mildew)     and     Cercospora     indica (Assochyta  leaf  spot)  are  the  most  important  diseases,  the  former  being  serious  in  the lower  altitudes.  Under  moderate  conditions,  the  loss  of  yield  due  to  powdery  mildew  can be  about  20  to  25%  while  under  severe  situations;  the  loss  could  be  upto  90%.  The disease   could   be   controlled   by   spraying   copper   fungicides.   The   use   of   disease   free seed and crop rotation is also helpful in disease control.
It is  always  recommendable to use chemicals  selectively  as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
7.12. Cotton
Scientific name: Gossypium hirsutum
Local name: Tit
Introduction
Cotton is one of the most important fiber crops in the world. Cotton is mainly grown for
its fiber for the manufacture of clothes. The oil content in the seed, range from 15-25%
and the oil is used in industries for preparing many products. The pressed cake
obtained after the extraction of oil is a good concentrated feed for cattle.
The  major  cotton  growing  countries  in  the  world  are  USA,  Russia,  India.  China,  Brazil, Egypt. Turkey, Mexico and the Sudan
Climatic Requirement
Cotton  is  a  crop  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  climate.  A  minimum  temperature  of  16°c  is required for germination and 21 to 27°c for proper vegetative growth It can tolerate
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temperature as high as 43°c but does not well if the temperature falls below 21°c. Cotton requires  abundant sunshine during the growing season. Cotton plant can not stand frost. A well distributed annul rainfall of at least 500 mm is  required for proper growth and production unless it is grown on irrigated conditions. The weather should be clear at the time of maturity  and harvesting because rain at that time will discolour the lint thereby reducing the quality.
Soil Requirements
Cotton can be grown on different soil types  except sandy, saline and water logged soils. Cotton is  successfully  gown on sandy  loam, alluvial, black  cotton soils, red Sandy  loams and loam soils. Cotton needs  fertile, well aerated soils  with high water retentive capacity and good drainage. It cannot withstand excessive moisture and water logging. Soil reaction may be between 5.5 to 8.5 for a good growth.
Land preparation
For conserving soil moisture, good germination, proper growth and development of cotton, the field should be well prepared by  ploughing/harrowing it 2-3 times. The field must be free from weeds and crop debris from the previous year's harvest.
Planting
The seeds  of most of the cotton varieties  are covered with short fibers  called “Fuzz" which makes  the seed cling together. In order to facilitate sowing, the seeds  should be delinted either mechanically or by chemical (Sulphuric acid) method.
The   seed   rate   varies   according   to   seed   size,   germination   percentage,   variety,   soil fertility, soil moisture status and production practices.
A seed rate of 15 to 25 kg/ha at a spacing 60-75 cm between rows  and 30 to 45cm between plants  is  recommended. In case of broadcasting, the seed rate should be increased by  one and half times  the recommended seed rate. The plant population should be between 50,000 to 80,000 plants per hectare.
Gap filling and Thinning
Immediately  after emergence of the seedlings  gaps  in the field should be filled up by dibbling water soaked seeds  for quick  germination. Similarly, excess  seedlings  in the field should be removed or thinned to maintain optimum plant population. Thinning should preferably be done at the time of the first weeding to save the labour cost.
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Cotton plant being a heavy  feeder, needs  proper manuring for its  successful production. Both organic  and inorganic  fertilizers  can be used The rate and fertilizer requirement can vary  from place to place and in different soil types. Therefore, the best recommendation to use soil test based fertilizer application. However, general N, P, and K are used @ 60-80, 20-30 and 20-30 kg/ha respectively.
Water Management
The cotton plant being sensitive to both water deficit and water logging react strongly  to adverse soil moisture conditions. For a rainfed production, all soil water conservation measures  should be adopted to conserve as  much rain water in the soil as  possible. Under irrigated condition pre-sowing irrigation water application is  advised for assured germination. Second irrigation should be given 3-4 weeks  after germination if there is no rainfall. The interval between successive irrigation usually  ranges  between one week to two weeks depending upon water availability and rainfall.
The  crop  is  irrigated  until  it  stops  flowering  (about  6-8  irrigations).  Irrigation  after  this stage encourages vegetative growth and maturity is delayed.
Four    water    sensitive    critical    growth    stages    of    high    yielding    cotton    varieties    are recognized. These are:
Commencement of sympodial branching 60-70 days after sowing
-     Flowering (90-100 days after sowing).
-     Boll formation stage (125 days after sowing), and
-     Boll bursting (140 days after sowing)
At all these stages  adequate amount of soil moisture should be assured by  giving irrigation. At no stage, the crop should be allowed to reach to the wilting stage to avoid severe lose in yield. Similarly  cotton can not withstand excess  soil moisture or waterlogged condition at any stage of growth.
Therefore,  efficient  provision  should  be  made  to  remove  excess  water  or  drain  the  field quickly as and when needed.
Plant Protection
i)  Weed Control:
Cotton requires a weed free field during its early growth period up to 40-50 days after sowing. Hence control of weeds by manual, mechanical or chemical methods especially during early growth stage is a must The first weeding at early stage of the crop is done manually to remove all the weeds and to complete the thinning works. Subsequently
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hoeing is done frequently to check weeds, improve aeration and water intake.
ii)  Insect control
Insect pests  of economic  importance on cotton include:- African boll worm, pink  boll worm, spotted boll worm, cotton leaf roller, Jassids, Aphids. Thrips  and white fly. To control the boll worm spray  the crop with endosulfa 35% EC at the rate of 1.25 to 1.25 liters  per hectare with water To control the small sucking insects, spraying the crop with Dimecron 100 % E C at the rate of 250ml/ha or metasystox  25% EC at the rate of i.e. liter/ha or Roger 30% EC 1.0 liter/ha mixed with 1000 liters of water is suggested.
It is  always  recommendable to use chemicals  selectively  as  a last resort when other control measures  prove to be ineffective. If not selective enough, some organophosphate/ organochlorine compounds  may  leave residues  that may  impart undesirable quality  to the produce. To lessen this  situation, technical staff has  to be contacted for information on proper use and safety of the pesticides.
iii)          Disease Control
A  number  of  diseases  attack  the  crop  and  cause  severe  damage  and  reduce  the  yield significantly   if   not   controlled   timely.   The   important   diseases   on   cotton   are   Root   rot, fusarium  well  Anthracnose,  bacterial  blight,  leaf  spot  and  boll  rot.  Their  control  measures are given below
a)    To  control  Root  rot  use  good  crop  rotation  for  3-4  years  and  seed  treatment  should be resorted to with Brassicol at the rate of 5 grams for each kg of seed.
b)     To  control  fusarium  wilt  the  use  of  resistant  varieties  and  more  potash  application with adequate quantity of organic matter are recommended
c)   To  control  anthracnose,  seed  treatment  with  agrosan  at  the  rate  of  2.5  gram  per  kg  of seed may be done.
d)       To   control   bacterial   seed   treatment   with   a   mixture   of   fungicide,   collecting   and destroying plant debris at the end of the season are recommended.
e)    To  control  boll  rot,  spray  the  crop  with  copper  oxychloride  at  the  rate  of  2  kg/ha  and carbaryl at the rate of 2kg/ha at boll formation stage.
Harvesting and yield
Cotton   is   harvested   in   three   or   more   pickings   at   suitable   intervals   depending   upon maturing habit of the variety. When the boll matures, the cotton should be clean i.e free
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from dry  leave bracts  etc. by  hand and dried to get a good price. Picking should be done when bolls  begin to burst fully  and when fiber begins  to hang down. The time of harvesting varies with the sowing time and duration of the variety.
A   well   managed   crop   under   adequate   irrigated   condition,   the   yield   of   seed   cotton   may go 30-45 Q/ha.
7.13. SUGARCANE
Scientific name: Saccharum arundinaceum
Local name: Shenkora-ageda
Climate:
Needs  warm climate during growth period, bright sunshine during ripening and harvesting, dry, cool, frost-free weather, temperature (tolerates  light frosts; in the command area there is no frost and bright sunshine is available).
Temperature:
18-220c, but 200c  minimum for active growth, germinating foliage-formed are damaged at more than 200c, below 130c  needed for sucrose formation and accumulation at maturity, growth curtailed at and above 38°c, soil temperature is  more important than air temperature.
Relative Humidity:
RH range of 50-80%, is  suitable, for command area as  RH is  50.6%: in WIP area12-15 hrs/day  of sunshine is  needed which is  available in the command area and it is  hence suitable for sugarcane climatically. Strong winds are detrimental.
Water requirement:
Net WR ranges  from 1500 to 2500 mm/annum equivalent to about 15,000 to 25,000 m3/ha/season Vegetative growth is  directly  proportional to free water availability  especially to produce secondary  growth, cane can tolerate 1-2 weeks  of waterlogging and even flooding, but it may  cause fungal, viral and bacterial diseases. Its  deep rooted, sensitive to water supply, deep soil with more than 150 mm/m is ideal.
Soils:
Loamy  sand to permeable clays, moderately  structured friable clay  loam to permeable clays with at least 50% pore space, which at FC are half-filled with water, is  ideal. Soils  of WIP command area are moderately  to marginally  suitable, fine textured soils  pose drainage problem but cane can tolerate waterlogging/flooding. Capping on silty  soils  reduces  water penetration and alration. Coarse textured and/or strong sub-soils are unsuitable for surface
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irrigation, land preparation, exposes sub-soils, furrow construction and maintenance is a difficult job, may cause nematode infection, threatening the crop, limits AWC and leaching of nutrients. Deep and clay soils are ideal for surface irrigation in flat or almost flat conditions; high infiltration rate of more than 12.5 cm/hr is  unsuitable, loamy  soils  are marginally suitable
High BD hampers root development; germination is adversely effected by poor drainage, leads to patchy germination. WIP command area soils are tillable over a wide to narrow range of moisture as conditioned by texture.
Well planned drainage, suitable agricultural machinery  are needed for satisfactory  soil management, field layout and harvesting; land having long, and uniform slope of 1-3% or higher for heavier soils is needed for uniform water distribution rather than flat lands.
Ground water table should be more than 1.5 - 2.0 m; WIP command area is suitable in this regard. Cane protects soil against erosion due to extensive root system.
Soil Reaction: Optimum pH is 6.5, can grow in the range of 4 5 - 8.5, but less than 4.5 pH is unsuitable Nutrient needs are high and hence high CEC are more suitable. Cane is  sensitive to Fe-deficiency. WIP command area soils  are of high to moderate fertility, though low in OC and respond to applied nitrogen.
7.14 VEGETABLE CROPS
I) Potato
Scientific name: Solanum tuberosum
Local name: Dinich
Climate:
Potato is  largely  grown in cool regions, where mean temperature does  not normally exceed 18oC. Optimum temperature for potato growth and development ranges between 15 and 25oC Minimum night temperature is  of great significance for tuberization and yield Temperature below 21 oC is  favourable for tuber formation At temperature above 21 oC sharp fall in tuberization occurs. There is  little, if any, tuber formation at temperature above 29oC
Soil:
Potato can grow in all types  of soils, but light, well-drained sandy  loam soils  are best suited. With adequate fertilization, potato grows  well even in sand. Heavy types of soils are difficult to work  with and are not well-suited for potato cultivation. The potato plant prefers  soils  in acidic  to neutral range (pH 5.5-7.5). Black  soils  are, however, prone to cracking on drying and expose tubers to sun and tuber moth infestation.
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Varieties:
Propagation:
Potato is  conventionally  grown vegetatively  using tubers  as  planting material. Each tuber has  several eyes  distributed over its  surface with each eye having 3-5 buds  which develop into sprouts. When planted in the ground, the sprouted tuber establishes  itself into a plant. Each sprout, on mergence above the ground, develops  into a stem bearing leaves and branches
Seed plot technique:
This  technique of seed production envisages  raising a crop (using healthy  seed) during the period when aphids  (vectors  of virus  diseases) population is  very  low, taking precautions  of use of insecticides  and periodic  rouging of diseased plants  and finally dehaulming the crop before the aphids  reach the critical level of 20 aphids/100 compound leaves.
Seed size and spacing
All sizes of tubers can be utilized as seed but medium-sized (25-55 mm or 25-75 g) often
called as seed size is better than other grades. Even in seed size, tubers of 35-40 mm or 45-
50 g are ideal. Comparable yields can be obtained by planting medium-sized tubers (35-45
mm) at 60 cm x 20 cm spacing and large-sized tubers (45-55 mm) at 60cm x 25cm/75cm x 
30cm spacing keeping the plant populations at 83,000 and 67.000 plants/ha, respectively 
For small-sized seed (25-35 mm), a population of 1, 11,000 plants/ha (60 cm x 15 cm inter-
and intra-row spacings) is ideal The potato yield increases with increase in seed rate. The
optimum seed rate for getting high yield is 20-25 q/ha for 15 g seed, 25-30 q/ha for 30 g
seed and 30-35 q/ha for 45 g seed size.
Pre-sprouting of seeds:
Pre-sprouting of tubers  before planting ensures  multiple, stout and healthy  sprouts  which help in quick  emergence and uniform stand of crop. It also increases  the number of tubers and leads  to larger proportion of seed-sized tubers. For pre-sprouting, the tubers  are kept in shade in diffused light in baskets  or trays  or spread in thin layer on the floor. Seed stocks are examined twice a week  to remove rotton tubers. Seed tubers  when removed from the cold store, are generally  dormant and give low yields, when planted immediately. One week pre-sprouting period is sufficient for all sizes of tubers.
Cultivation
Planting:
If green manuring of the fields  is  not possible, farmyard manure @ 15-20 tonnes/ha may be incorporated and ploughed in field before planting. After deep ploughing and good
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pulverization of the soil, when the seed bed is  ready, tubers  are planted in lines. The first line is  drawn straight with a rope and subsequent lines  are marked at a distance of 60 cm from row to row with help of a marker. Half dose of N and full dose of P2O5 and K2O is  applied in furrows  and mixed in soil. Seeds  are kept in the furrows  at a distance of 20 cm, from tuber to tuber and covered with soil using a ridger. The planting should preferably  be done in the morning or in the evening to avoid heated up soil covering during mid-day in plains.
Manuring and fertilization:
Nitrogen is  most important nutrient for potato crop. A mature potato crop yielding between 25 and 35 tonnes/ha need to about 120-150 kg N/ha. The peak  period of N uptake varies from 40-70 days  in plains  and 65-85 days  in hills. The long-duration varieties  are more responsive to N fertilizers  than the short-duration ones. The N is  applied in split doses. Half of the dose should be applied at the time of planting and the remaining half at the time of earthing-up.
The P is  the second limiting nutrient in potato production. Its  deficiency  is  more pronounced in acidic  hill soils  and red laterite soils. An average crop yielding 25 tonnes/ha needs  about 45 kg P2O5. Phosphorus  deficiency, retards  growth, and leaves  become dull dark  without luster. The application of 50-100 kg P2O5/ha along with N is  required in most of the soils. Full dose of P is applied at the time of planting.
The application of K along with N and P is  needed to get optimum yield. Its  deficiency retards  plant growth and shortens  internodes. Leaves  become dark  bluish green in mild K deficiency, terminal leaves  show bronzing accompanied with necrotic  spots  On an average, potato plant removes  150 kg K/ha from alluvial soils  of the plains. Response to K is  highest in alluvial soils, followed by hill soils, red soils and black cotton soils. The optimum K dose is 98 kg/ha for alluvial soils, 93 kg/ha for hill soils, 111 kg for red soils  and 70 kg/ha for black soils
Interculture:
Earthing-up and weeding of potato are done as  soon as  weeds  emerge, but preferably when potato plants  are about 8-10 cm high. The final earthing-up in plains  is  done 25-30 days  after planting and in hills  when the crop is  about 6-8 weeks  old. Second half dose of N is applied at the time of final earthing-up.
Irrigation:
Water forms  nearly  80% of the potato tuber. Adequate and regular water supply  is, therefore, needed for its  sustained growth. The quality  of water used for irrigation is  an important factor. Water with high concentration of dissolved salts  is  undesirable for potato. First irrigation immediately after planting, particularly if soil is relatively dry, is
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desirable for better emergence. Second irrigation may  be given after 12-15 days  when 2-5% germination has  taken place. Subsequent irrigations  may  be given at 6-10 days intervals  depending upon soil and water demand. Water stress  reduces  tuber yield and increases  the proportion of small-sized tubers. Mulching helps  in getting higher yields  in warmer regions of the country.
Harvesting:
Potato tubers  are harvested as  soon as  they  mature. In loam or heavy  loam soils, tubers should not be allowed to remain in wet soil after maturity  because the lenticels  on their surface may  proliferate and impart unacceptable look  to the tubers. If harvesting is delayed, it is  best to leave the soil dry  and irrigate the field lightly  about the time of harvest. It is never advisable to harvest the tubers in wet land.
Post-harvest Management:
After harvesting, tubers  should be surface-dried and kept in shade in heaps  for 10-15 days. All rotted and damaged tubers  should be periodically  removed. The produce should be graded on the basis of tuber size and packed in gunny bags for marketing.
If the produce is  to be marketed early  to take advantage of high market price, it is  advisable to harvest potatoes  in stages. This  is  because of highly  perishable nature of the immature tuber. Fresh potato has  a delicate skin, which gets  bruised easily  and extensively  providing invasion site to rot-causing organisms. Also, bruising initiates  oxidation process, which subsequently imparts dark colour to the exposed surface of tubers reducing its market value
True potato seed:
The non-availability  of good quality  seed tubers, high seed cost, virus  infiltration in seed tubers  causing generation of seed stocks  and problems  of long distance transport of seed from seed producing areas  have led to the development of true potato seed (TPS) technology  of crop production. This  technology  envisages  the use of botanical seed or TPS for crop production. It has  gained significance because unlike seed tubers, the TPS can be produced by  providing extra light for 4-5 hours  depending upon climatic condition. It can be easily  stored over long periods  of time Disease transmission by  TPS is  negligible and it provides  cheap planting material. About 100-120 g TPS is  enough to raise a seedling crop or if the commercial crop is  to be produced using seedling tubers, the produce of 40-45 g TPS is  enough to plant one hectare crop next year. They  also provide better disease resistance because of high heterogeneity in the population.
A  ware  crop  of  potato,  using  TPS  can  be  raised  either  through  transplanting  of  seedlings in  field  or  by  using  seedling  tubers  as  planting  material.  In  the  first  method,  seed  is  sown in   nursery   beds   containing   soil   of   proper   physical   structure,   fertility   and   moisture   as practiced for seedling production of other vegetable crops Seedling of 4-5 leaf stage are
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In the second method, making use of seedling tubers  as  planting material, the seedlings can be grown in nursery  beds  till maturity  or they  can be transplanted in field to produce tubers  which are used as  seed for raising the commercial crop next year. The crop production using seedling tubers  is  successful in all potato-growing regions. The crop yields  are also higher with seedling tubers  rather than seedling transplanting method of propagation.
Physiological disorders:
There   is   another   group   of   diseases   commonly   referred   to   as   non-parasitic   diseases which   are   the   result   of   physiological   imbalance   caused   by   unfavourable   environmental conditions. These are
Internal brown spot. It is  characterized by  irregular, dry  brown spots  scattered through the flesh of tubers. These spots  are never found in vascular region as  in case of brown rot. It is  a very  minor disorder that appears  particularly  in light sandy  soils  which are not irrigated regularly. The affected tubers  lose much of their value as  table potatoes. It is not transmissible; however, planting of severely  affected tubers  should be avoided as they often produce weak plants.
Black heart:
If potato tubers  are stored in air at a temperature of 35-40oC they  develop in a few days, a condition known as  ‘black  heart’ in which the inner tissues  break  down and become black. Lack  of oxygen is  the probable cause. It is  also probable that at high storage temperature, accumulation of CO2 at the center of the tuber might contribute to damage and to the subsequent disease in respiration and development of black  heart. This  is  of minor importance as  it appears  only  in ordinary  over-heated and ill-ventilated farm stores. Therefore, avoid storage temperature above 35oC and poor ventilation.
Hollow heart:
Hollow  heart  consists  of  an  irregular  cavity  in  the  center  of  tubers.  In  tissue  surrounding the  cavity,  there  is  no  decay  or  discolouration.  Hollow  heart  condition  appears  often  in varieties   which    bulk   rapidly   and   produce    over-sized   tubers.   This   condition   can   be avoided by closer spacing of plants and avoiding excessive use of fertilizers.
Chilling injury:
Chilling injury  may  follow prolonged storage of tubers  at temperature of about OoC. This results  in discoloured blotches  in the flesh of tubers  which vary  from light reddish-brown to dark  brown, diffuse brownish black  patches  on skin and reduce or completely  inhibit sprouting of affected tubers when planted.
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Freezing injury:
Freezing injury  occurs  as  a result of rice formation in potato tubers  when exposed to temperatures  between -1o and -2oC. Tubers  which are only  briefly  frozen show, when cut in half, a blue-black  discontinuous  ring in the vascular region. More severe injury leads  to blue-black  necrotic  network  in the pith, in addition to necrosis  in the vascular region. In tubers  frozen for more than half an hour the cut surface of the thawed tuber shows  diffuse areas  of black  discolouration If the tubers  are frozen for about 4-5 hrs they  show no blotch or discolouration but on thawing the whole tuber becomes  wet and soft and liquid oozes out of it.
II. TOMATO
Scientific name: Lycopersicon esculentum
Local Name: Timatim
Introduction
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) is  most important and remunerative vegetable crop. A rich source of minerals, vitamins  and organic  acids, tomato fruit provides  3-4% total sugar, 4-7% total solids, 15-30 mg/100 g ascorbic  acid, 7.5-10 mg/100 ml titratable acidity and 20-50 mg/100 g fruit weight of lycopene.
Climate:
Tomato,    a    warm-season    vegetable,    is    grown    extensively    in    cool    season    also.    The optimum     temperature     required     for     its     cultivation     is     15-27oC.     At     high     and     low temperatures,   there   is   low   germination   of   seeds,   poor   plant   growth,   flower   drop,   poor fruit   set   and   ripening.   At   high   temperatures,   generally   the   quality   of   fruits   is   poor   and there     is    high     incidence    of    sun-scald.    Under    extreme    high    and    low    temperature conditions,   the   yield   and   quality   of   fruits   is   reduced.   Mild   winter   condition   is   ideal   for seed   germination,   plant   growth,   fruit   set,   fruit   development   and   ripening.   Excessive   rains adversely affect its fruit set causing flower drop.
Soil:
Tomato is  grown in varied types  of soil - sandy  loam to clay, black  soil and red soil - having proper drainage. However, sandy  loam, rich in organic  matter is  ideal for its cultivation. The pH of the soil should be 7-8.5. Tomato can tolerate moderate acidic  and saline soils
Cultivation:
Raising seedlings:
For raising the seedlings for one ha. 250 m2 area is required. Generally, in rainy season 75 rr x 1.2 m x 0.1 m beds are prepared. The beds are covered with a layer of farmyard
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manure and sand mixed in equal population. The farmyard manure should be used @ 4 kg/m2. During summer and rainy season, there is very heavy incidence of damping off. To protect seeds and seedlings, the beds should be treated with 10% formaldehyde. Before sowing the nursery beds should be drenched with 0.2% Dithane M-45 or treated with Difolaton or Captan Solarization is also useful to reduce the incidence of damping off. The seeds should be treated with Thiram or Bavistin @ 2 g/kg. Soon after sowing, the beds should  be  irrigated  with  rose  can  and  covered  with  paddy  straw  The  beds  should  be irrigated every day morning. Seedlings are ready for transplanting 4-5 weeks after sowing. Before  transplanting, seedlings should be treated with insecticides 0.1% Nuvacron and Dithane M-45, 0.2%. Hardening of seedlings before transplanting is essential for better setting  in  the  field.  Hardening  is  done  by  withholding  water  4-5  days  before  uprooting seedlings. Adding 4.000 ppm sodium chloride or spraying of 2,000 ppm CCC is effective for hardening of seedlings.
Direct seeding:
Tomato is also cultivated by direct seeding It results in early flowering, early fruiting, early yield and less incidence of pests and diseases. Close spacing has the advantage of higher yield by direct seeding. In California, more than 80% of the processing tomatoes are grown by this method. Seedling of 3-5 seeds in a clump at 25-30 cm ensures 2-3 plants/clump. Seeds should be sown 1.25 to 2.5 mm deep. After establishment of plants, thinning should be done to maintain 1-2 seedlings/hill.
Planting:
High yield is obtained due to more plants/unit area However, with closer spacing, quality of fruits is reduced due to more incidence of diseases and pests. The recommended spacing is 60 m x 45 cm or 90 cm x 30 cm. Flat bed and raised bed methods are used. Raised beds economize watering, there is less incidence of diseases and pests and sometimes has the advantage of staking. Mechanically harvested and processing tomatoes should be planted at close spacing. Hybrids are planted at wider spacing from row-to-row and close spacing of plant-to-plant to facilitate mechanization.
Training and pruning:
Training helps in better utilization of light and air. The fruits are trained under leaves to protect them from sun scald. For outdoor crop, where there is a limited area, stakes are used for training. Training, pruning or pinching are required to produce quality  fruits. In indeterminate tomatoes, training increases  number of fruits  and maintains  uniform size of fruits, increasing total yield and quality  of fruits. Training is done with the support of wire, string and stakes in glasshouse or greenhouse. In field crop, training is done with the support of bamboo sticks and wire or rope. If there is excessive growth, pinching or pruning of side shoots improves size and uniformity of fruits. Methylester of long chain
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acids  and alcohol suppress  the side shoot formation. Infra-red light and kinetin also suppress  the side shoot formation. Pinching of the main shoot at the top improves  the size of terminal fruits. This  is  done in indeterminate varieties  when plants  attain the maximum height. To reduce the incidence of diseases, mature old leaves  should be removed. However, during summer season, foliage should not be removed to protect fruits from sunscald.
Manuring and Fertilization
Application of N. P, K and B is  essential. However, their quantity  depends  upon the availability  of these nutnents  in the soil. The NPK 120:60:50 kg/ha should be used. However, for hybrids, higher quantity  of N is  applied A high level of N at seedling stage and moderate level at flowering and fruiting stage is  required. However, high level of N in plant reduces  the C/N ratio resulting in unfruitfulness. The application of P improves  root development, whereas  K promotes  colour of fruits. Higher level of K improves  the response of high levels  of N for growth and yield. Calcium ammonium nitrate and diammonium phosphate and superphosphate are better source of N and P. For better utilization of N, split application and band placement are ideal. Foliar application of urea (0.4-0.6%) is  very effective. A starter solution of 20 g of 12:24:12 N, P and K in 10 litres  of water should be applied with irrigation at transplanting.
For raising a healthy crop, application of green manure, farmyard manure, sludge, neem
cake and biofertilizer, is beneficial. Boron and Zn are important micronutrients required for
tomato cultivation. Boron is applied in the form of borax @ 20-25 kg/ha as soil application.
Spraying of 0.22-0.4% borax at fruit formation stage helps fruit development. Borax 
improves shape, size and colour of fruits. Thus every farmer should compulsorily apply 
borax. In Zn deficiency, zinc sulphate should be applied @ 25 kg/ha in the soil.
Aftercare:
Weeding,   hoeing,   earthing-up   and   mulching,   are   very   important.   About   2-3   hoeings   are essential   at   the   initial   stage   of   plant   growth.   The   soil   should   be   kept   loose   for   better growth   of   plants.   Two   earthing-up   are   sufficient   for   optimum   growth.   Although   manual weeding    is    mostly    followed,    several    chemicals    are   require   effective    to   control   weeds. Application    of    Pendimethalin    @    1    kg    a.i./ha    +    1    hand    weeding    45    days    after transplanting,  or  Sencor  @  2.5  kg  a.i./ha  or  Gol  @  0.25  kg  a.i./ha  applied  2-3  days  after transplanting   are   effective   to   control   weeds.   Since   40-45   days   after   transplanting   is   the most   critical   stage   of   crop   weed   competition   in   tomato,   weeding   at   this   stage   is   quite essential.   Weeds   may   also   be   controlled   with   the   application   of   mulches.   Straw,   saw dust    and    black    polythene    are    used    for    controlling    weeds.    They    also    help    conserve moisture and reduce incidence of insect pests and diseases.
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Irrigation:
Frequent irrigation is  essential for optimum plant growth, fruiting and yield. The crop should be irrigated at 8-12 days  interval. However, in summer, more frequent irrigation is required due to higher surface evaporation. Generally  open-furrow method of irrigation is followed. Now-a-days, trickle and drip method of irrigation are practiced. Drip system is highly  economical and produces  quality  tomatoes. The drip system has  been modified which provides  irrigation with fertilizer. This  method is  being used in greenhouses  or plastic houses.
Seed production:
Seed is  an important input in tomato production. To produce genetically  pure high quality  seed, isolation distance of 50-200 m between 2 varieties  is  essential. The production technology  of the seed crop is  almost the same as  that for the fresh market. Inspection of tomato crop before flowering, at flowering and fruiting and at fruit maturity and ripening should be done.
For extraction of seeds, fermentation method, alkali treatment method and acid treatment method are recommended In fermentation method, the ripe tomatoes  are crushed by  hand or mechanically. They  are kept for fermentation for 2-4 days  at 15- 24oC. Fermentation at high temperature reduces  the germination of seeds. After fermentation, the debris  on the top is  removed and seeds  settled down at the bottom of the container. All the liquid is  removed and seeds  are washed and dried in partial shade or drier.
In alkali treatment, the seed slurry  is  mixed with 10% washing soda with equal volume and kept overnight. The next day, all the seeds  settle down at the bottom of the container. The liquid is  decanted off and seeds  are washed with tap water. This  is  the safest and best method of seed extraction In acid fermentation, 250 ml of commercial hydrochloric  acid is  thoroughly  mixed with 10 litres  of slurry  and left for 30 minutes. The pulp is  stirred and seeds  are washed with water, dried in sun or drier. Seeds  can be extracted with concentrated hydrochloride acid @ 20 ml/kg for 30 minutes. The extracted seeds  are treated with 2-4% trisodium orthophosphate for 15-30 minutes  to inhibit viruses. Seeds  should be stored in air tight aluminium foil bag to cool temperature.
Harvesting:
Tomatoes  are harvested at several stages  - mature green, turning pink, red ripe and over ripe. The stage of harvesting depends  upon the purpose for which the tomatoes  are harvested Generally, tomatoes  are harvested at mature green to turning stage for distant marketing. For fresh consumption, pink to light red tomatoes are preferred. For
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seed production, red ripe tomatoes  are ideal. After harvesting, tomatoes  are cooled rapidly  at 13oC, which increases  their shelf-life. Tomatoes  are then graded into A, B and C grades  by  machine or hand. Tomato yields  around 250 q/ha. However, hybrids  with staking produce more than 400 q/ha.
Post-harvest management:
Tomatoes  ripen on plant itself. However, ripening may  take place after harvesting also For artificial ripening, tomatoes  are harvested at mature green stage or at turning stage and kept under room temperature (15-25oC). Then ripening takes  place with the evolution of endogenous  ethylene. There is  some weight loss  with artificial ripening but this  is  negligible The artificial ripening is  required when there is  very  low or high temperature. To enhance the ripening on plants, Ethrel @ 1,000-2,000 ml/litre should be sprayed at the start of ripening. Application of Ethrel at immature stage of fruits  causes injury to the fruits and plants.
The harvested tomatoes produce adequate quantity of ethylene which is sufficient for
their ripening. If tomatoes are kept in an air-tight place and ventilation is not allowed,
there is not need to apply Ethephon for their ripening. However, Ethephon can be
sprayed on plants to harvest early crop
For distant transpiration, wooden boxes, crates, polythene bags  or baskets, are used for packing tomatoes. The cardboard boxes  are ideal for packing. Polythene packing causes slow ripening, reduces weight loss and increases shelf-life of tomatoes.
High temperature, humidity  and oxygen pressure increase the spoilage of tomatoes, reducing their shelf-life. High CO2 and low 02 increase the shelf-life of tomatoes. CO2 (5%) and 02 (2.5%) are best atmospheric storage conditions.
Physiological disorders
Fruit    cracking,    blotchy    ripening,    puffiness,    cat    facing    and    sun-scald    are    important physiological disorders.
Cracking   of   tomatoes   is   very   common.   Four   types   of   cracking   -   radial,   concentric,   burst and  circular  -  are  found.  Concentric  and  radial  are  very  severe,  and  are  mainly  due  to the  effect  of  soil  moisture,  rain,  dew  and  plant  vigour.  When  rain  follows,  a  long  dry  spell there   is   cracking.   High   day   temperatures   followed   by   low   temperatures   with   high   relative humidity   also   cause   fruit   cracking.   In   calcareous   soil,   deficiency   of   B   causes   cracking. Soil   application   of   borax   @   15-20   kg/ha   or   spraying   of   borax   (0.25%),   2-3   times   at fruiting    stage    to    ripening    reduces   fruit   cracking.   There   should    be   proper   control   of moisture,   especially   at   fruit   maturity   and   ripening   stages.   Thick   foliage,   and   pericarp   of fruits are associated with less cracking.
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Greenish-yellow to whitish patch on tomato mostly on stem-end portion of the fruits, is called blotchy ripening. Caused mainly by K deficiency, it occurs due to imbalance of N and K. High level of N, Ca and Na are associated with blotchy  ripening. To control blotchy ripening, potassic fertilizer should be applied adequately and temperature should be controlled. Short photoperiod and relatively low day temperature reduce its incidence.
In puffiness, fruit surface is generally flattened and locules are unfilled with pulp and seed. The affected fruits become light in weight and more or less hollow. The outer wall (pericarp) shows normal growth but remaining internal tissue especially parenchymatous tissue are retarded in growth, resulting in light weight and partially  filled tomatoes. Puffiness  is  associated with poor pollination, and abortion of ovules  due to adverse environmental conditions particularly high and low temperature. To reduce its incidence, maintenance of normal temperature, frequent irrigation, spraying of boric  acid (10-15 ppm) and some growth regulators is required.
At low temperatures, generally, ridges, furrows, blotches at the blossom-end are
observed. Thus, there is multilocular formation and fruits become mis-shaped. This is 
due to faulty pollination at low temperatures. There is imbalance in the endogenous 
growth regulators due to faulty pollination, fertilization and seed development. This 
problem is more in the tropical and sub-tropical tomatoes grown in winter.
Sun-scald and low temperature injury  are general problems  of tomato in summer and winter respectively. On exposure of tomatoes  to high temperature (40oC and above) and high sunlight, whitish, grayish, sunken and papery  lesions  develop. These lesions may have secondary infection of fungus which show black dark spots, making tomatoes unfit for consumption. At low temperature also tomatoes  are frosted and injured showing whitish-yellow, sunken symptoms. Dense foliage varieties  with thick  pericarp developed in temperate countries are less prone to low temperature injury.
Blossom-end rot is a severe physiological disorder. It is caused by calcium deficiency in the greenhouses. However, if there is  an incidence of this  disorder, calcium sulphate, calcium hydroxide and calcium chloride should be applied.
Ill) CABBAGE
Scientific Name: Brassica Oleracea var. Capitata1
Local name: Gommen
Introduction
Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. Capitata) is  an important vegetable of Cole group. A rich source of vitamin A,B,C it also contains minerals. It covers about 4% of total area of vegetables in the world. It is grown year round. The heads of cabbage vary from flat-
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topped to long-oval. Varieties with compact, round heads are preferred. The tender
leaves are primarily used as cooked vegetable, more in raw than processed form
Varieties
In   this   country   only   limited   varieties   are   available.   In   general,   farmers   grow   only   local   or old varieties.
Climate
Since it is  a cool season crop, it thrives  best in a relatively  cool moist climate. It can withstand extreme cold and frost relatively  better than cauliflower. It loses  its  flavour in dry  warm weather. The optimum seed germination is  obtained at 12.8-150c  soil temperature. The growth is  stopped above 250c  temperature. However, the temperature barrier is removed in introduced heat tolerant hybrids/lines.
Soils
Cabbage can be grown on all types  of soils. In clay  loam or silt, higher yield may  be obtained from late crop. It does  not grow well on a highly  acidic  soil. The most appropriate soil PH for the crop is between 5.5 and 6.5.
Planting
The crop can be planted in June-August and November-January  The nursery  is  raised for production of seedling as  in case of tomato. The seedlings  become ready  for transplanting in 4-6 weeks  depending on the weather conditions. The seedlings  are transplanted in fully  prepared field at a distance of 45cm and 60-70 cm from row-to-row or 45-60cm from plant-to-plants. Pre-planting application of Trefluralin (1kg/ha), Fluchloralin (0.5kg/ha). Nitrofen (2kg/ha). Alachlor (0.2kg/ha) or Butachlor (2kg/ha) is recommended to keep the crop weed-free. On an average 500-750g of seed is  required for one hectare.
Manuring
The   nutrient   requirement   of   cabbage   varies   from   soils   to   soil   depending   on   their   nutrient
status,   agroclimates   and   duration   of   varieties.   Application   of   farmyard   manures   @   15
tons/ha   is   quite   useful.   In   general   crop   requires   150   kg   N,   80   kg   P   and   70kg   K   per hectare
Interculture
Shallow   hoeing   should   be   done   to   remove   the   weeds   and   loosen   the   soil   for   better aeration To produce solid heads, the plants are earthed 5-6 weeks after transplanting.
Irrigation
A continuous supply of moisture is essential for proper development of heads. The first
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irrigation  is  given  immediately  after  planting.  No  heavy  irrigation  should  be  given  at  the time of maturity of head.
Harvesting
Cabbage  heads  should  be  harvested  when  they  attain  full  size.  After  that  they  burst  or lose. Early varieties mature in 60-80 days and late varieties 100-120 days.
Yield
Early  varieties  yield  33-45  tons/ha  Hybrids  yield  70-80  tons/ha.  Cabbage  heads  can  be stored for 4-5 days under ordinary conditions.
Diseases and Insect-Pests
The following diseases may affect the cabbage production;
Damping off, Black rot, curd rot, stalk rot, Downy mildew and white blister.
The   important   insect-pests   are   Diamond   back   moth,   leaf-Webber,   Stem   borer,   Aphids, Gram-caterpillar, Tobacco caterpillar. Muster saw-fly. Striped-flea beetle, painted bug.
IV. CARROT
Scientific name: Daucus Carota
Local name: Carrot
Introduction
Carrot is  grown widely. It is  taken raw as  well as  in the cooked form. Carrot juice is  rich source of carotene and used for colouring foods. It also contains  appreciable quantity  of thiamine and riboflavin. Green leaves  are highly  nutritive, rich in proteins, minerals  and vitamins and used as fodder and also for preparation of poultry feed.
Varieties
There are two distinct groups of carrot-tropical or Asiatic and temperate or European Temperate types form roots both under temperate and tropical climates but set seeds under temperate conditions at 5-6 0C for 40-60 days before flowering to break the dormancy. Asiatic types are high yielding and produce seed under tropical condition They are poor in carotene content and other attributes. Very little work has been done to develop improved varieties.
Climate
Carrot is a cool-season crop though some of the tropical type tolerates quite high temperatures. The color development and growth of roots are affected by temperature.
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Soil
Carrot can be grown on all types of soils. It thrives best on a deep lose loamy soil. A long smooth, slender roots  desired for fresh market can successfully  be grown on deep well drained light soils. Carrots  grown on heavy  soils  are more rough and coarse than those grown on light sandy soils. A soil PH of 6.5 is ideal.
Land Preparation
To get a good crop, the land should be thoroughly  prepared by  deep ploughing and harrowing to get a fine tilth. A well-pulverised and smooth soil surface is  required before planting
Sowing
The seed is  sown on shallow ridges  30-45 cm apart. The crop should be sown in July- August or December-January. Staggered sowing at 10-15 days  interval ensures  a continuous  harvest. Shallow sowing about 1.5 cm deep gives  good germination. In general germination is  slow and it takes  10-20 days  for seedlings  to appear. To hasten the germination moisture in the field may  be ensured. The optimum seed rate is  5-6 kg/ha
Manuring
Application of 20-25 tons  farmyard manure, 50kg N, 40kg P and 45 kg K/ha is  optimum. In the absence of organic  manure, application of 80kg N, 60kg P and 60 kg K gives good yield. Apply half of the N and full close of P and K before sowing. Rest of N should be top dressed 45-50 days after sowing.
Interculture
Thinning   should   be   done   for   proper   development.   The   seedlings   are   thinned   to   a distance  of  4-5  cm.  Removal  of  weeds  at  early  stages  is  necessary  for  proper  growth  of plants  The  soil  should  be  hoed  time  to  time  to  allow  proper  aeration.  To  control  weeds spray  stomp  @  3.5  liters  /ha  immediately  after  sowing  when  there  is  enough  moisture. During  weeding  and  hoeing,  the  crown  of  the  roots  is  often  exposed  to  light  This  causes greening  and  lowers  the  quality  of  roots.  Earthing  at  root  formation  stage  is  quite  useful to increase yield and quality.
Irrigation
After sowing, keep the ridges  moist till the germination is  completed. Irrigate at 8-10 days  intervals  before the leaves  start wilting A Light irrigation should be given 3-6 days before harvesting.
Harvesting and yield
Carrot is harvested when the roots attain 2.5-4 cm diameter at upper end. Delay in
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harvesting spoils the quality for consumption. The yield varies from 15-25 tons or 150-
250   q/ha.   Freshly   harvested   carrot   cannot   be   stored   for   more   than   3-4   days   under ordinary conditions.
Insect-Pests
Leaf hopper Empoasca punjabensis and cutworm Agrotis  ipsilon. Apply  monocrotophos or dimethoate to control the first insect pest i.e. Leaf hopper. Soil drenching may  be done with chloropyriphos (0.1%) as and when cutworm observed
V. Onion
Scientific name: Allium Cepa
Local name: Shinkurt
Introduction
Onion  is  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  vegetables  grown  on  many  parts  of  the country having favorable climate and soil with adequate rainfall or irrigation
Varieties
There are not many  onion varieties  developed in this  country. There are two types, the local and imported variety. In general onion varieties  else where are grouped broadly  in
to  two  common  onion  and  multiplier  onion.  The  common  onion  is  further  grouped  into  3
subgroups  based on the color of the skin—red, yellow and white. There is  a need to have more varieties  of onion on the basis  of yield, soil and location specificity  like other onion growing regions of the world.
Climate
Onion is  a cool season crop. However, it can be grown under a wide range of climatic conditions. It grows  well under mild climate without extreme heat or cold or excessive rainfall. In area where average rainfall exceeds  750 mm —1000 mm in the wet season, it can be successfully  grown during dry  season. The ideal temperature requirement of onion crop is  12.80 to 210c  before bulbing and 15 50 —  250c  for bulb development. Very low temperature in early  stages  favors  bolting whereas  sudden rise in temperature favors early maturity resulting in small-sized bulbs.
Soils
Onion can be grown on all types  of soil. However, deep friable loam and alluvial soils are best for its  successful production. Good drainage, weed free and presence of more organic  matter in soils  favor good production of crop. It cannot be grown in alkaline and low lying marshy lands. The optimum pH is 5.8 to 6.5.
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Common onion can be grown by  raising seedlings  in a nursery  and transplanting these in field, planting bulbs directly in the field, broadcast or drilling seeds directly in the field and planting sets for production of onion in wet season.
Transplanting
This  is  most  commonly  practised  for  irrigated  crop.  It  gives  high  yield  of  large  sized bulbs. Seedlings are first raised in nursery.
Nursery raising
A nursery bed of 3m x 0.6m size may be raised up to 15-25 cm with a distance of 70cm between the beds  to facilitate inter-cultural operations. Generally  sandy  loam soils  are preferred for nursery beds. The edge and top of the bed should be quite firm to avoid pit formation during rain or at the time of irrigation. The top surface up to 2-3cm should be enriched with fine, sieved and decomposed farm yard manure or compost after sowing.
Seeds  are  sown  in  lines  4-6  cm  apart  Sowing  should  not  be  done  more  than  2-3cm deep.  After  sowing  beds  should  be  mulched  with  dry  grass  or  straw  or  any  other  such material  to  maintain  and  preserve  the  required  soil  moisture.  As  and  when  there  is  lack of  moisture  in  the  bed,  it  should  be  watered  by  sprinkling  can.  After  germination,  dry grass  or  mulching  material  should  be  removed  and  nursery  should  be  protected  from heavy rain, heat or direct sun
About 10-15 kg seed is  required to raise seedlings  for planting one hectare. The seedlings are ready for transplanting 7-8 weeks after sowing or after attaining a height of 20-25cm. Over-aged seedlings  result in bolting, taking longer time to start growth and under-aged seedling do not establish well after transplanting.
Planting by bulbs
This  is  practised to meet the demand of green onion far salad. Bulbs  are dibbled at 15cm on the side of 45 cm wide ridges or in beds. This can also be done in furrows. For planting one hectare 750 kg medium sized bulbs  are required. The secondary  bulbs developing from mother bulbs have market for green onion.
Direct Sowing
Onion can also be sown by direct seeding. The soil is thoroughly pulverized and made free of clods. Varieties capable of having big sized bulbs are grown in rows 30cm apart. Seedlings 6-8 weeks old may be thinned. A light irrigation is given immediately after sowing. Interculture and irrigation is repeated after every 10 days.
Planting by Sets
Sets are small-sized onion produced by seedlings to mature in the nursery beds as such
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instead of transplanting them. Those are used to get an early  crop to get more prices. For planting one hectare 5-8 kg seed is  adequate to raise enough number of sets  in 200m2 area Nursery  is  prepared as  mentioned above. The seedlings  are allowed to remain in the nursery  till their leaves  fall and they  form small bulbs  (sets) due to less spacing. Later dig out 1.5-2.0 cm sized healthy  sets  for planting. The sets  are planted 10cm apart in rows  on both sides  of ridges  spaced at 35-45 cm spacing. A light irrigation is given immediately after planting the sets.
In   multiplier   onion,   bulbs   are   first   separated   and   then  bigger-sized   bulbs   are  used  far planting.
Manuring
Onion needs  a heavy  dose of fertilizer for good yield. But the fertilizer requirements depend on soil type and type of crop. Farmyard or dung manure at the rate of 20-25 tons/ha may  be incorporated in soil one month before transplanting. The crop requires 150 kg N, 50 Kg P and 50 kg K/ha. Full amount of P and K and half dose of N is  to be added just before transplanting. The remaining quantity  may  be given 20-25 days  after transplanting in case of sowing by  sets  and multiplier onions. It is  applied at the rate of half of the remaining N in case of seedling-transplanted onion at 30 and 45 days  after transplanting respectively.
Interculture
The crop should be kept weed free at the initial stage of plant growth. Chemical weed control along with hand weeding is  recommended often after 10 days  of transplanting. Baseline @ one liter per ha or stomp @ 3.5 liter/ha immediately  after transplanting are quite effective to control weeds.
Irrigation
The water requirement in general depends  upon plant, its  growth stage, soil type and its climatic  conditions. Onion is  a shallow rooted crop with roots  generally  contained within 8 cm of soil surface. Water requirement of onion, therefore, is  less  in the beginning. Water is  a critical requirement at the time of bulb formation. Frequent light irrigation at weekly  intervals  promote proper bulb development and good yield. Details  have been given in crop water requirement chapter of Irrigation and drainage report.
Harvesting
Onion is  ready  for harvesting in 2-3 months  after transplanting for dry  and green onions respectively. The optimum time for harvesting bulbs  for sale or for storage is  when leaves  start falling. The crop can be harvested a week  after the falling of 50% leaves. Multiplier onions are harvested when 50-70% leaves have fallen.
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Yield
Common  onion  varieties  yield  up  to  250-300  q/ha,  small-sized  pickling  type  variety  160-200 q/ha and multiplier onions 150-180 q/ha
Post-harvest management
Onion bulbs  are thoroughly  cured before being placed in storage. The purpose of curing is  to remove excess  moisture from the outer skin and neck  of onion to reduce losses  due to diseases. The time for curing largely  depends  upon the prevailing weather condition. The fully  cured onion shows  the light neck  and the dried scale rustle. After curing, the onion should be graded for local market and export; then filled in jute bags  for transportation. They should be packed in 14-15 kg cane baskets for export purpose.
Insect-pests
Thrips   (Thrips   tabaci),   mite   (Aceria   tulipae),   onion   fly   (Delia   antiqua),   cutworm   (Agrotis ispilon)
VI) Pepper
Scientific name: Capsicum annuum
Local name: Berbere
Capsicum   annuum   is   a   domesticated   species   of   the   plant   genus   Capsicum   native   to Mexico.
Description
Capsicum annuum is  a popular species  native to South America. It is  cultivated worldwide. Despite being a single species, the capsicum annum has  many  forms, with a variety  of names, even in the same language In American English it is  commonly  known as  the chili pepper, although not all varieties  would be recognized by  most speakers  under this  name. In British English, the sweet varieties  are called peppers  and the hot varieties  chillies, whereas in Australian English the name capsicum is  commonly  used for bell peppers  exclusively  and chilli is  often used to encompass  the hotter varieties. Its  forms  are varied, from large to small, sweet to sour, very hot to bland
The plant is  a perennial, but usually  grown as  an herbaceous  annual, The plant reaches 0.5-1.5 m (20-60 in). Single white flowers  bear the fruit which is  green when unripe, changing principally  to red, although some varieties  may  ripen to brown or purple While the species can tolerate most climates, they are especially productive in warm and dry climates.
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While the species can tolerate most climates, they are especially productive in warm and dry climates.
Due  to  this  climate  tolerance,  and  the  variety  of  flavors  available,  this  New  World  plant spread across the world, possibly faster than any other crop.
Use
Food
The species is a source of popular sweet peppers and hot chili fruit, and numerous varieties are cultivated around the world. Despite being a single species, Capsicum annuum has many  cultivars, with a variety  of names. In American English it is  commonly  known as  the chili pepper or bell pepper.
In British English, the sweet varieties  are called peppers  and the hot varieties  chillies whereas  in Australian and Indian English the name capsicum is  commonly  used for bell peppers exclusively and chilli is often used to encompass the hotter varieties.
Capsicum cultivars
The  hotness  of  the  fruit  in  this  list  is  indicated  in  the  Scoville  scale,  which  ranges  from  no heat at zero to pure capsaicin at 16,000.000.
The four major species are;
•    Capsicum annuum, which includes bell peppers, cayenne, paprika, and jalapenos
•    Capsicum chinense, which includes habaneros
•    Capsicum frutescens, which includes tabasco
•    Capsicum pubescens, which includes rocoto.
Climate:
Optimum temperature is 18-24°c for germination and 18-26°c for growth, rainfall 600-1200 mm, but no rain at flowering and fruiting, strong wind is detrimental.
Soil
Light, deep, well drained with adequate water holding capacity, sensitive to waterlogging Rooting depth: 100 cm
Soil Reaction 6.0 - 7.6 pM, 50% yield decrease at 20% ESP and 100% at 8.5 dS/m of ECe and nearly nil at 1.5 d5/m.
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Citrus
Scientific name: Citrus spp. Local name: Birtukan and others Climate
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Temperature   13-39°c   below   1830m   of   altitude,   rainfall   >800   mm   unless   irrigated,   intolerant to high air humidity, but mandarin tolerate wetter regimes, sensitive to speedy winds.
Soil
Well  drained  light,  roots  extend  to  1.0  -  2.0  m,  sandy-  loam  soils  are  the  best,  even  poor fertility  of  sandy  soils  is  worth  for  citrus,  pH   range  is  5.5-76,  essential  elements  are  needed Salinity/Sodicity   No   reduction   upto   1.7   dS/m   of   ECe,   but   50%   yield   reduction   at   ESP   of 15%  excess  pleads  to  trace  elements  deficiency  and  impairs  N  use  excess  of  Ca  might  lead to Mg-deficiency
Papaya
Scientific name: Carica papaya
Local name: Papaya
Introduction
Papaya is  a popular fruit crop which can be produced well in areas  having warm climate. It is  a native of Central America and is  widely  grown in Latin America and West Indies. It is  a herbaceous  fast growing plant usually  with unbranched stem. The fruit is  rich in vitamin A and also contains  other vitamins  to some extent. Major producing countries are USA, Brazil, Mexico. South Africa, Ivory Cost, India and Peru.
Growth Requirement
i)  Altitude
Papaya grows  well from sea level up to 1200 m.a.s.l. Papaya thrives  well from the humid tropics  to the sub tropics  wherever frost does  not occur: The production fruit of the best quality requires relatively high temperature ranging between 22-28°c.
ii)  Rainfall
Papaya has  a high water demand and when grown under rainfed condition it requires  an annual rainfall ranging from 1000-1500 mm and distributed over the production year. However under unified evenly condition its yield can be maximum. It does well under a
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iii) Soil Condition
For  maximum  production  papaya  prefers  well  drained  medium  textured  fertile  soil  rich  in organic matter and the optimum pH range is 6.0-7.0.
Propagation
Unlike other tropical fruit trees  Papaya is  mostly  propagated by  seed. The difficulty  with common Papaya production is  that the sex  of the seedlings  cannot be identified until they start to produce flowers.
Papaya is  planted in 2m x  2.5m spacing in the field. The normal practice is  to plant 2-3 seedlings  per hill and to thin them out to one female plant when it is  possible to identify the sex  at flowering stage. The proportion of male to female should 1 male plant to 25 female. The seeds  should be selected from healthy  vigorous  and high yielding mother plants. Seeds extracted from ripened fruit should be dried under shed.
Planting
Papaya is  planted in 2.0 x  2.5m spacing in the field. The land should be prepared for planting by  digging a hole 30 cm in diameter and depth. The holes  should be refilled until planting time with the center position marked with a peg.
Common Papaya seed may  be sown directly  in the field. About 6-10 seeds  should be dropped in each hole at a depth of 2-3 cm and marked with a peg. The soil surface above the seeds  should be mulched with dry  grass  which should be removed as  soon as  seeds  germinate. When the seedlings  are about 20cm high, the number should be reduced to 3 plants per hole.
Another method of establishing Papaya seedling's  is  to sow seeds  in nursery  beds  and transplanting the seedlings  to plastic  pots  when the seedlings  are 3-5 cm. high or seeds can be sown directly in the pots.
The potted seedlings should be planted out in the field when they are 10-15 cm high.
Fertilizer Application
Application of farm yard Manure (FYM) at the time of planting as  basal dressing gives good result. In many  parts  of the world good results  have been obtained from the use of Organic  manures  and nitrogenous  fertilizers. Papaya planted in nutrient deficient soils  in Ethiopia should receive abut 500 gm UREA and 200gm DAP per tree per annum.
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Plant Protection i) Weed control
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Cultivation of the soil should be confined to shallow hoeing to control weeds. The crop will benefit if the surface of the soil is mulched with dry grass and weeding costs will be reduced.
ii)  Disease control
Papaya fruits  must be very  carefully  handled at all stages  because of their extreme sensitivity  to bursting and the quick  decay  of the harvested fruit due to colletotrichum gloeosporioides  which develop from wound sites. The danger of infection is  decreased by hot water treatment (49°c for 20 minutes).
Irrigation
For  domestic  production,  papaya  may  be  grown  without  irrigation  where  the  annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm.
For commercial production irrigating the field is  necessary. Irrigation interval depends mainly  on soil structure and temperature. The moisture content of the soil should be assessed before applying irrigation water as  over irrigating the field can be injurious  to the plant
Harvesting
For local sale and for export, the fruits  are harvested when their tips  turn yellow. At this stage the fruit is  still hard and easy  to transport. They  can be stored up to 3 weeks  at 10-15°c. Fruits  which are picked when green do not develop their full aroma. On the other hand fruits  picked when fully  ripe are extremely  sensitive to bursting and can only be stored for a few days.
Yield
Papaya trees  come into production at 9 - 11 months. The trees  remain in prime condition for 2-3 years. After this  harvesting is  made more difficult by  the annually increasing height of the trees  as  well as  rapid decline in yield. Under good management, the yield of the fruits can be 25-30 tons/ha.
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Mango
Scientific name: Mangifera Indies
Local name: Mango
Introduction
Mango is  the most important tropical fruit after Banana, but plays  a minor role in world trade because it needs  very  careful handling due to the sensitivity  of the fruit to bruising. The center of origin of Mango is  South —  East Asia and was  brought to Africa in the first millennium. At the moment, Mango is  grown in most warm tropical countries  and far into the sub-tropics. The cultivars  differ in fruit form, fruit size, texture, taste and climatic requirements.
Growth Requirements
i)  Altitude
Mango grows  from sea level up to an elevation of about 1220 m.a.s.l. In Ethiopia. Mango is  grown up to an elevation of 1800 m. a. s. I. The trees  seldom bears  fruit at higher altitudes. The lower and mid-altitude regions  of Southern Ethiopia have good potential for Mango Production.
ii) Rainfall
An annual rainfall of 890 - 1160mm well or evenly  distributed during the season is considered sufficient for the successful production of Mango. Under irrigated condition, water can be applied as and when needed.
iii)  Soil Condition
Mango trees  can grow well in a variety  of soils. In general, deep, fertile and well drained soils  with a pH range between 5.5—7.5 is  considered to be more ideal for Mango Production.
Propagation
Cultivars  with polyembryonic  seeds  can be propagated generally  similar to citrus. However, as  with other monoembryonic  cultivars  it can be propagated by  grafting, through a variety of methods or buddings on seedling root stock.
Planting
Mango is  planted on selected site after clearing the land of all wild growth, weeds  etc The seedlings  are planted generally  during the beginning of the rainy  season (June/on words). However proper drainage is measuring for growth So far as the soil is
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concerned, the adequate drainage and good soil depth is  necessary  for a good soil depth is  necessary  for free root development. Pits  0.5mx0.5mx0.5m are dug during the dry  period and are filled with a mixture of well decomposed farm yard manure (FYM) and top soil.
Mango trees  will grow to a very  large size and hence they  have to be spaced wide enough to avoid the problem of overcrowding. In a condition where the soil is very fertile a wider spacing ie. 12 meters x 14 meters are used whereas on poor soils 9 meters x 9 meters are used.
The optimum  spacing recommended in general  is  7m  x  7m  and  control  the  size of the tree by regular prunning as necessary.
Mango  planting  can  be  accomplished  during  July  -  September.  Grafted  seedlings  are ready to be transplanted after 4-6 months after grafting.
Fertilizer Application
There is no information available on fertilizer application under Ethiopian condition
However, in other countries application of nitrogenous fertilizers are recommended after production in order to stimulate vegetative growth for the next season. Fertilizer
application may be done after the proper soil testing.
Weed Control
As  weeds  compete  with  Mango  trees  for  water  and  nutrients  and  also harbour  diseases insects and rodents the field must be kept clean as much as possible.
Harvesting
Fruit bearing may start four years after planting in the case of grafted trees but seedlings may  take longer to come to production. A plantation of full-grown mango trees  produce 10-25 tons/ha/year.
Mangoes  are usually  harvested when the colour of the skin changes  from green to yellow. Some varieties  first show this  change near the stylet end and other over the entire fruit
Fruits which are to be transported to a long distance should be harvested slightly earlier. The ripening temperatures are usually between 21-24°c.
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Scientific name: Musa paradisa Local name: Muz
Introduction
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Banana is  a herbaceous  perennial plant with an underground rhizome from whose spiouts  the new fruit-bearing shoots. The sprouts  (Suckers) are also used for propagation. Banana is  believed to be one of the oldest fruits  which properly  originated in East Asia. It has  the largest production area in the world next to grape vine. Banana is widely distributed and grown in different countries throughout the world.
Growth Requirements
i)  Altitude
Banana  is  a  tropical  humid  region  crop  which  may  be  grown  upto  an  elevation  of  1540
mask  However, as  altitude increases  the yield performance becomes  lower and lower on account of low temprature. Economically  viable commercial productions  are achieved in areas  with altitudes  ranging from sea level up to 770 masl. where the tropical climate is experienced.
The optimum temperature is 27°c. Leaves are damaged if they are exposed to very high temperatures. In cooler climate, the duration is extended, sucker production is affected
and bunches are smaller.
ii) Rainfall
For a successful production Banana requires  an annual rainfall of 2000mm evenly distributed during the year. However under irrigation resource, the banana growth is luxuriant with high production.
iii) Soil Condition
Banana performs  well when it is  grown on deep, fertile and well drained soil rich in organic  matter. The soil way  be free from harmful salts  as  if grows  well in neutral soil in reaction.
Propagation
Unless   it   is   for   breeding   purpose,   banana   is   usually   propagated   vegetatively.   In   this connection the following methods are used.
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i) Peepers
Peepers   are   taken   from   peendostems   having   young   suckers   coming   out   of   them.   This method is not extensively used.
ii)  Sword suckers
These   are   suckers   coming   out   from   bud   eyes   on   the   corm.   Suckers   are   taken   and planted when they are about 75 cm high.
Sword suckers  have well developed base and a narrow sword shaped leaf blades Sword suckers  are extensively  utilized in large scale production in Ethiopia. Sword suckers  are vigorous, faster and come to production earlier, and hence the use of sword suckers is recommended in Ethiopia.
iii)    Maiden   suckers:  These   are   big   suckers   with   broad   leaves   taken   prior   to   flowering. The age before uprooting from the mother plant may reach 5-8 months.
iv)    Bits  of  large  corms:  Rhizomes  are  taken  and  splited  at  least  with  two  bud  eyes  in each   split   The   rhizome   is   planted   putting   the   bud   eyes   in   a   down   ward   position   and covered   with   soil   upto   a   depth   of   20-25   cm.   This   condition   encourages   the   growth   of many   suckers   for   transplanting   and   this   practice   is   well   adopted   by   Enset   growing regions of Ethiopia.
v)      Water    suckers:    These    are    small    suckers    with    broad    leaves    and    found    mostly surrounding   old   corms.   They   are   not   normally   produced   in   a   healthy   banana.   They   are produced if the plantation is too old
Varieties
i)    Dwarf   cavandish:   This   variety   is   short   and   high   yielding   and   also   early   maturing. However, it is highly susceptible to burrowing nematodes and cigar end rot diseases.
ii)    Poyo:  Poyo  is  the  leading  Banana  varieties  as  far  as  production  is  concerned.  The fruit   is   resistant   to   transport   damage   and   this   variety   is   reported   to   be   comparatively resistant to burrowing nematodes in the Awash valley farms.
iii)   Gaint  cavandish:  This  is  a  very  tall  variety  growing  to  a  height  of  2.5  to  3.0  meters. It has good tolerance to burrowing nematodes.
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Planting
For high yield, the land should be deeply ploughed and harrowed to a fine tilth. Planting holes 45 cm x 45 cm are dug and filled with well decomposed organic matter. The spacing for tall varieties is 2.5 x 2.5m while for dwarf Cavendish 2m x 2.5m while for dwarf Cavendish 2m x 2.5m is enough. The sucker is planted in pits after pre-irrigation. The best planting time in Ethiopia is during the rainy season starting from June. This will promote the survival percentage in the field.
Wind breaks
Banana is very susceptible to wind damage. Therefore, planting wind breaks around the plantation block  is  recommended For this  purpose the tall banana variety  known as Kenya which is well adapted to warm and cool regions of Ethiopia is an excellent wind Breake for commercial farms.
Plant Protection
i) Weed Control
Weed suppresses growth and reduce yield by competing with the crop for water and nutrients. Therefore, the field should be free of weeds as much as possible. Shallow cultivation of young plantation is advised to control weeds. In mature plantation weed growth is suppressed either by shade effect of the Banana plant or by the much of plant debries on the soil surface.
ii)  Insect  control:  Insects  such  as  Banana  root  borer  and  nematodes  cause  heavy damage  on  Banana  plant.  To  control  nematodes  hot  water  treatment  of  the  planting material (56°C for 5 minutes) is recommended. Both nematodes and Banana borer can be controlled with pesticides.
iii)    Disease   Control:   Disease   of   much   economic   importance   on   Banana   include Banana  wilt  (Panama  disease)  caused  by  Fusarium,  leaf  spot  diseases  casued  by mycosphaerella  musicola,  and  Myccosphaerella  fijiensis,  bacterial  diseases  caused  by pseudomonas   solanacearum   and   virus   diseases   transmitted   by   Aphids   pentalonia nigronexvosa
To control banana wilt, use resistant varieties such as Giant Cavendish, and others. To control leaf spotes and bacterial disease, use healthy, disinfected planting material, field sanitation, distraction of infected plants  and regular spraying with fungicides  mostly (copper compounds)-check the disease.
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Fertilizer Application
Heavy  application of organic  manures  or commercial fertilizers  are considered to produce high yield and to extend the economic  life of the plantations. The recommendation in this  regard is  to apply  375gm DAP. 375gm Urea and 200gm potash per plant per year.
Irrigation
Banana   is   a   water   loving   plant.   Irrigation   frequency   is   governed   by   different   factors   such as topography, soil, climate, economic factors etc.
Irrigation is  compulsory  during the dry  months  of the year. In hot low lands  of the rift valley  of Ethiopia application of irrigation water every  8-10 days  is  advised severe water stress limits the yield and quality of fruits.
Harvesting
Banana plant flowers  in about 6-9 months  and the fruit will be mature and ready  for harvest in 9-18 month. The variation in this  regard is  due to variation in altitude, climate and management factors. It is  good to harvest banana when the fruits  are green-ripe. The banches  are cut off and brought to the packing shed with as  little mechanical damage as  possible. The Yield under a good management practices  could be around 30 tons/ha
7.16 Grasses and Legumes
Livestock    occupies    a    pivotal    position    in    Ethiopian    economy    especially    in    Wolkayite Irrigaton   Project   command   and   nearby   areas.   As   the   irrigation   development   takes   place stall   feeding   would   become   a   common   practice   This   type   of   agriculture   consists   of grasses,   legumes   and   forbs   and   in   many   situations   the   leaves,   buds   and   stem   tops   of shrubs   and   woody   vegetation   It   has   been   estimated   that   there   are   about   620   and   650 genera     and     10,000     and     18,000     species     of     grasses     (Poaceae)     and     legumes (Leguminoseae)   respectively   in   the   world.   Of   these,   only   a   few,   say.   40   grasses   and legumes   are   used   to   establish   a   sown   pasture.   It   has   been   globally   observed   that   the livestock    prefer    indigenous    forage    species.    Grasses    and    legumes    have    been    briefly discussed below:
Grasses
Grasses are considered suitable as forage plants Io. grazing or
or mowing or hay making.
1)1658 a,e Wlde sP,Ma because 01 range of adaptability (to humid
-------- 1 tropics, arid area
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and alpine peaks), tillering habit to withstand grazing and cutting, continuous  vegetative growth (unless  interrupted by  drought/cold), rapid ground coverage (spread by  rhizomes and stolons), undamaged by  cutting or grazing (arising tissues  from leaf-base) and farm sod (root system binds  soil particles  and to bring leached nutrients  to soil surface). Selection of grass  species  for a pasture depends  on productivity, palatability, adaptability, nutritive value, soil and climatic conditions.
Establishment of Nursery
Prepare the nursery  bed carefully. Clean it from all rank  growth including weeds  by pulling out and burning down. Common bed size is  6 x  6 m and raised/flat depending on local conditions, yet raised beds  should be preferred Plough the bed area thoroughly. Give basal dose of 30 kg farm yard manure/compost, 250 grams  of urea, 500 grams  of single super phosphate and 50 grams  of agri grade of BHC per bed (6x6 m). Irrigate the bed for 4-6 days  so that weeds  come up. These weeds  should be removed. Mix  2 g Bavistin with sun dried seeds. Mix  the dried seed with sand and place them 5-6 mm deep in row spaced 10 cm apart, cover with a thin layer of soil and mulch the seeded beds  with straw or wet gunny  bags  or any  other locally  available material for a period of 4-6 days  continuously  for germination Water twice a day  in the morning and evening. Shade the delicate seedlings  wherever day  temperature is  very  high. Remove the shade 30 days  after sowing but continue watering every  alternate day. Do weeding and hoeing as required to obtain healthy seedlings.
Germination of de-husked seeds  has  been observed to vary  from 94 to 98% as compared to husked seeds  which is  34 to 42%. Well stored seeds  show better germination than those freshly  collected ones. About 40-50 grams  of grass  seeds  are used per bed. Such 12 beds  are required to raise the seedlings  for one hectare of land. Use 10 kg N/ha through calcium ammonium nitrate Grass  seedlings  will be ready  for transplanting after 4-6 weeks  when they  attain 15-25 cm height. Seedlings/rooted slips are to be transplanted in the well prepared field. Land preparation is  done by  ploughing twice/thrice. Apply  about 10 t/ha of well decomposed farm yard manure or compost per hectare and 20-25 kg/ha of 10% BHC before last ploughing. Water the bed well before pulling out the seedlings  so that roots  are not damaged. Plant two seedlings  per hill at the advocated optimum time at 50 x  30 cm spacing between rows  and plants respectively. Press  the soil around the seedlings  gently  to remove the air. Weeding and hoeing is  necessary  initially  for one year since the grass  is  unable to compete with other forbs. It is  also essential to remove dried seedlings  and clumps  and gap filling should be done immediately  to maintain the optimum plant population per unit area. A brief account of the production technology and production practices of some of the important
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grasses already prevalent in the command area or those to be introduced is presented below.
Marvel grass
Scientific name: Dicanthium annulatum (Forsk) Stapf
Common name: Marvel grass
It is an erect tufted, fine stemmed, perennial grass and 1.2 m tall. Culms are purplish red or bluish in colour, distinct rings  of whitish hairs  at each node. Leaves  are green to bluish green, 23-45 cm long. Inflorescence is a compound raceme, made of a cluster (2- 8) of purplish false spikes, arising nearly from the terminal tip of the culms. Each false spike is  a raceme of paired spikelets, one sessile and the other pedicelled. Most distinguishing character of its spikelets is the absence of pits on the glums
Climate
It grows well in the areas of 350 to 2000 mm rainfall of arid and semi-arid regions.
Soils
It can grow on a wide range of soils  but moist, well drained, medium black  or red alluvial soils  are preferred. It can tolerate a fair degree of drought as  well as  salinity  but does  not thrive on acidic soils
Cultural practices
In well levelled land the sowing is  to be done in lines  using 4-6 kg seed/ha. One or two interculturing operations, depending on weed infestations  are essential during first year for high tonnage.
Fertilizer application
At   first,   10   t/ha   of   FYM   is   given   This   is   followed   by   basal   application   of   20   kg   N/ha
(preferably   100   kg   calcium   ammonium   nitrate)   and   20   kg
P O /ha
2    5            (i.e.   125   kg   SSP).
Afterwards  20 kg N/ha is  required after one month crop through top dressing. However in subsequent years  20 kg N + 20 kg P2O5 per hectare needs  to be top dressed as  a single dose at the onset of rainy season (Meher season).
Forage yield
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forage. Dry matter yield ranges from 2.8 to 4.5 t/ha in single cut. while 300 t/ha green fodder is recorded in 3 cuts. It can give 3 times more forage under irrigation.
Nutritive value
Its crude protein content varies from 5 to 7.
Utilization
Though it has low C.P. the species is considered as one of the best grass for forage and it is  utilized as  hay  as  well as  for grazing purpose. This  is  also good for soil conservation.
Compatibility
Siratro or stylos are the appropriate legumes and may be maintained in 2:1 ratio i.e., two rows of grass and one row of legume. For this, the legume should be sown first in prepared land at a distance of 1.5 m and grass seedlings may be transplanted after the germination of species.
Sewan grass
Scientific name: Lasiurus sindicus Henr.
Common name: Sewan grass (H)
It is an erect, tufted and branched perennial grass and attains a height of about 1.2 m. The stem is stout, and smooth. Leaves are linear. 20-45 cm long with setaceous tip. Inflorescence is 10 cm long, white, densely villous and 3 spikelets at each node. Two spikelets are sessile and one is pedicelled. It is a drought resistant and xeric in habit.
Distribution: It is distributed in Arabia, Mali, Niger. Ethiopia, Egypt and Pakistan.
Climate: The dry arid climate suits to it with an annual rainfall from 125-250 mm.
Soils: It occurs on light brown sandy alluvial soils with a pH 8.5
Cultural practices: In a well prepared soil it is sown either through broadcast or in line at 50 cm distance with a seed rate of 5-7 kg/ha and 1.5 cm sowing depth. It is also established up to 6.3 t/ha and it can further be increased up to 6.8 t/ha with same
nitrogen and 16 kg P O /ha (1 q SSP). Depending upon the moisture status of
25
the site 2-
3 cuttings may generally be taken under rainfed conditions.
Nutritive value: The grass is most nutritious and contains over 9.6 per cent C.P. at
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preflowering stage (July) which comes down to 5.2 per cent in September on dry weight
basis, but the application of N fertilizer increases its C.P. content. Under different
harvesting schedule the C.P. increased from 5.2 to 6.9-7.5 and 9.6 per cent according to
60 days, 30 days, 20 days and 10 days intervals, respectively.
Utilization   The   grass   being   nutritious   is   highly   acceptable   and   palatable   at   all   stages   of its growth for grazing animals. This is also used for hay.
Blue/Giant panic or Sudan grass
Scientific name: Panicum antidotale Retz.
Common name: Sudan grass
Distribution
It is  an erect deep rooted, thin stemed, tufted perennial grass  with smooth and solid culms. Leaves  are 45 cm long. Inflorescence is  panicoid panicle, terminal, loose and pyramidal. The whole plant gives  a bluish appearance. It is  profuse seeder and seeds mature and shed easily in acropital manner. Seed count 1,445,000 per kg.
Climate
The   grass   is   highly   adapted   and   grows   well   in   dry   areas   and   low   hills.   The   rainfall ranging from 100 to 1000 mm is quite favourable for its growth.
Soils
All soils from light sandy to heavy clay as well as saline soils are quite suitable.
Cultural practices
Like other grasses, its pasture can be established easily by line sowing of seeds at 50
cm apart on well prepared land at the onset of rains. The seed rate is 6-7 kg/ha. Under
irrigated conditions roots slip of old tussocks may be planted in furrows at 50 x 50 cm
apart. One or two weeding are enough for enhancing yield. Monthly irrigation is required
for irrigated pastures.
Fertilizer application
It  responds  well  to  manuring  and  10-15  Vha  of  FYM  along  with  30  kg  P2O5    as  basal dose and 20 kg N/ha after each cutting is recommended for optimum forage production.
Management schedule
Under lainfed conditions  first cut of the grass  can be taken in four months  after seed sowing and subsequent cutting after 2 months, thus  4-6 cuttings  in a year could be harvested, while under irrigation, fortnightly cutting is possible.
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Forage Yield
Under rainfed it gives  20.0 t/ha green foratge in 4-6 cuttings  while under irrigated conditions  and proper manuring the green forage production is  40.0-60.0 t/ha in 10-12 cuttings.
Seed yield
Seed yield is 100-160 kg/ha under rainfed and 250-600 kg/ha under irrigated conditions.
Nutritive value
The C.P. is quite high (7.3%) with low P (0.09%) and Ca (0.39%).
Utilization
Generally  it  is  recommended  that  the  grass  should  be  cut  and  fed  for  forage  but  it  can also be used as pastures. It is very fast in regrowth.
Chrysopogon
Scientific name: Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng) Choiv
Common name: Chrysopogon
Description
It is  highly  variable, tufted, perennial and 1.8 m tall grass. Culms  are slender and glabrous  Leaves  are 25-30 cm long. Upper leaves  are shot (7.5 to 10 cm). Panicles  are 3-13 cm long with several parts  of flexyous  branches, with groups  of 3 spikelets  at their apexes. Out of these 3 spikeles, one is  sessile, bisexual, awned and other two are awnless and pedicelled.
Distribution
It is found in Asia and East Africa. It is found up to 1830 m altitude in the gravely land.
Climate
It is found more in semi-arid regions with 250 to 850 mm rainfall.
Soils
It thrives well on shallow and gravelly/stony soils of medium nature.
Cultural practices
Its  habitat being stony  or gravelly  with shallow soils, ploughing of any  sort is  not advisable. Spot sowing on sloppy  lands  and broadcasting of seeds  in fairly  plain areas, as  well as  transplanting of rooted slips  during drizzly  days  of rain give best establishment of pasture.
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Fertilizer application
About 60 kg N/ha has  been found the most economical dose for higher forage
production   and   for   getting   maximum   seed,   40   kg above nitrogen dose.
Forage yield
P Os/ha
2
is   beneficial   in   addition   to
In  first  year,  it  gives  only  one  cut,  but  in  subsequent  years  even  3  cuts  are  possible  and the dry forage yield is 4.2 t/ha. Fertilized pasture produces about 10.0 t/ha.
Seed yield
The seed yield is up to 100 kg/ha.
Nutritive value
It contains  about 4.6 to 5.1% C.P during the growth period. Cutting frequency  (10 days interval) and use of N fertilizer (60 kg N/ha) increased the C.P. from 5.4 to 12.6%. However, the C.P. decreased with the age of plant.
Utilization
If it is  cut before flowering the grass  makes  good green fodder or may  be grazed directly from 2nd year onwards  up to 6th year. However, the grass  is  quite suitable for hay. It is  a good soil binder also
Bermuda/Behama/Devil/Lawn grass
Scientific name: Cynodon dactylon L. Pers
Common name: Bermuda/Behama/Devil/Lawn grass
It is  a profusely  much branched, leafy  perennial stoloniferous  with a large number of runners. Each stolon when cut is  capable of becoming a separate plant, hence easiest and earliest in establishment. Culms  are highly  variable in length. Leaves  are short and soft. Spikes  are 2-8 in number and 2-5 cm long, digitally  arranged on the tip of erect peduncles. Spikelets  are one flowered and awnless  Fruit is  caryopsis. Seed count is 4,489,000/kg.
Distribution
Bermuda is  native to India. It was  intrdocued from Behama Island in other countries  like United States, and therefore, it is  also known as  Behama grass. It is  found in almost all the tropical and subtropical countries of the world from sea level to 2,130 m elevation.
Climate
It   grows   well   in   semi-arid   conditions   between   300   and   2000   mm   rainfall   but   does   not survive in low rainfall areas.
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Soils
This  grass  thrives  best on heavier silt and clayey  soils  not subjected to waterlogging or flooding. Sandy  soil also does  not suit to this  grass  It is  resistant to a gret extent to drought and tolerant to salinity and alkalinity.
Cultural practices
After proper land preparation by  2-3 ploughings, the best establishment of this  grass  can be achieved through planting of cut pieces  of stolons  with 2-3 rooting nodes  (runners) during raing season at 30-50 cm distance. After planting the field needs  to be pressed by  a light roller or feet. Establishment through seeds  is  not very  successful; because the seeds  are very  minute and their germination is  very  slow, moreover by  the time small seedlings  emerge from seeds  they  are smothered by  other weed species. However, as an irrigated crop it can be established any  time. In sandy  soils  the rooted slips  are to be planted 10 to 13 cm deep in rows, taking care to leave their tips above the ground.
Fertilizer application
This  grass  gives  good  response  to  N-fertilizer  and  to  increase  the  forage  production  120
kg N/ha may be given.
Forage yield
Generally  grass  is  ready  for first cut in 3-4 months  after planting and for subsequent cuttings  after every  two months  interval and thus  4-5 cuttings  may  be taken every  year. The average green forage yield ranges  from 15.0-16.0 t/ha (4.0-5.0 t/ha dry  matter) under rainfed conditions. However, under irrigated conditions  with 120 kg N/ha in 2-3 cuttings  30.0-35.0 t/ha green fodder (9-10 t/ha dry  matter) can be harvested To ensure best results  of grazing; pastures  should be augmented by  growing a legume like Catpogonium mucunoides.
Nutritive value
It  contains  11.1%  CP  in  young  stage  and  about  7.0%  at  maturity  and  least  crude  fiber (18.6 to 28.2%).
Utilization
Being most nutritive, the grass  is  readily  eaten by  all types  of livestock. It is  used as green fodder or may  be converted into excellent hay  or grazed in situ. In addition to this, it is  extensively  used for checking soil erosion, gully  plugging on check  dams embankments of rivers, canals and other sloppy stabilization programmes.
Bird wood grass
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Perennial forming culms  from bulbous  base 0.2 to 0.8 m tall, leaf blade 2 to 20 cm long and 1.8 to 6.9 mm wide, inflorescence compact, spike 2 to 20 cm long, 0.4 to 10 cm wide. The root system is generally less developed than C. ciiiaris. Seed count
3,50,000/kg.
Distribution
It  occurs  throughout  hotter  parts  of  Africa,  Arabia  and  India.  It  is  also  found  in  Australia and South America.
Climate
And    and    semi-arid    conditions    are    favourable    with    125    to    1250    mm    of    rainfall.    It withstands drought and grows very well under irrigation.
Soils
It grows well on well drained sandy-loam soils with pH ranging from 7 to 7.5.
Cultural  practices:  Land  is  to  be  well  ploughed  after  removal  of  all  rank  vegetation.  The seeds are sown in line at a row spacing of 50 cm using 10 kg seeds/ha.
Fertilizer application
At the time of land preparation 10 tonnes  of FYM is  thoroughly  mixed in soil along with 30 kg N + 30 kg P O /ha. Afterwards  30 kg N/ha is  given as  top dressing at the age of
25
one month crop. In subsequent years prescribed dose is repeated at the onset of rains.
Forage yield
The  dry  forage  yield  of  species  varied  from  3.9  to  7.9  t/ha  in  unfertilized  and  fertilized  (90
kg N/ha) plot respectively under rainfed conditions.
Nutritive value: In this species 7.8% CP was found in first cut
Utilization:  It  is  highly  palatable  grass  for  cattle  and  used  as  hay  also.  It  can  be  grazed heavily.
Guinea grass
Scientific name: Panicum maximum Jacq.
Common name: Guinea grass
It  is  a  tall  erect,  densely  tufted,  perennial  tussocky  grass  having  large  number  of  tillers with short and stout rhizomes. The culms are 1.8 to 2.7 m tall, nodes densely hairy, leaf
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sheath pubescent. The leaf blade is  60 cm long and 2.5 to 3.8 cm wide and light green. Inflorescence is  an open panicle, 50 cm long and 10 to 30 cm wide much divided with stiff branches in whorls. Seed count 1,750,000 to 2,200,000 per kg.
Origin and distribution
It is a native tropical Africa and has spread to many warm countries.
Fertilizer application
It responds well to manuring and 10-15 t FYM along with 30 kg P2O5 as basal dose and
20 kg N/ha after each cutting is recommended for optimum forage production.
Management schedule
Under rainfed conditions  first cut of the grass  can be taken in four months  after seeding sowing and subsequent cutting after 2 months, thus  4-6 cuttings  in a year could be harvested, while under irrigation, fortnightly cutting is possible.
Forage yield
Under rainfed conditions  it gives  20.0 t/ha green forge in 4-6 cuttings  while under irrigated conditions  and proper manuring the green forage production is  50.0-60.0 t/ha in 10-12 cuttings.
Seed yield
Seed yield is 100-160 kg/ha under rainfed and 250-500 kg/ha under irrigated conditions.
Nutritive value
The CP is quite high (7.3%) with low P (0.09%) and Ca (0.39%).
Utilization
Generally  it  is  recommended  that  the  grass  should  be  cut  and  fed  for  forage  but  it  can also be used as pasturage. It is very fast in regrowth.
Vetiver grass
Scientific name: Vetiveria zizanoides (L.) Nash
Common name: Vetiver grass
It is  an erect perennial, densely  tufted, awnless  grass. It has  no rhizome or stolons. The vetiver grass  has  deep and intensive spongy  acromatic  roots, which form a mat in sub surface strata of the habitat. The culms  are stout, smooth and attain up to 2.0 m height. Basal diameter is  about 6 to 15 cm with tillers  ranging from 6 to 30. Leaves  are stiff, 30 to 75 cm long, 8 mm wide and green in colour. Inflorescence is conical panicle, 15-40
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cm  long,  glabrous  and  often  reddish  brown  or  purple  in  colour.  Spikelets  are  narrow, acute  appressed  and  awnless.  One  spikelet  is  sessile,  hernaogndute  with  short  sharp spines  and  the  other  spikelet  Is  pedicelled  and  staminate.  Its  seed  producing  ability  is poo.  L  well  as  seed  germination  percentage  is  also  very  low  (10  to  15%)  but  dehusked seeds  give  about  50  per  cent  germlantion  It  is  a  'shy  seeder  and  is  consrdered  sterile outside its natural habitat.
Distribution
The  grass  is  native  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  Asia  and  distributed  in  India,  Burma,  Sri Lanka and South-west Asia to tropical Africa as well as Brazil.
Climate
It is  a plant of semi-arid climate and is  found growing in the areas  having annual rainfall from 500-5000 mm. It can withstand extreme drought and ill drained (waterlogged) situations.
Soils
It thrives well in sandy loam to clayey soils with a pH range of 4 to 7.5. It may grow even on neutral to slightly alkaline soils.
Cultural practices
On account of poor seed producing ability  and low seed germination the Veliver grass  is mainly  propagated vegetatively  by  root divisions  or slips. Thus, for Veliver grass, no intensive land preparation is  needed. Rooted slips  of Veliver grass  are transplanted during rainy  season in even singly  ploughed field at a distance of 10-15 cm from plant to plant. The grass  tussocks  should be dug and 15-20 cm top foliage and 10 cm roots  from below the base should be cut which will improve the chances  of survival on planting by reducing the transpiration level and thereby  preventing them from drying out. After these the tussocks  should be diverted into the pieces  of 2-3 tillers. Although Vetiver grass  can be planted from single tiller when planting material is  scare. These slips  should be planted at the beginning of wet season to ensure that they  get full benefit of the rains. Holes  are prepared at 10-15 cm or at required distance than these slips  are pushed into these holes taking care not to bend the roots upwards and then firm slips in soil.
Fertilizer application
Application of diammonium phosphate field simply dibble DAP into 'he plan, " 7
r
il.
'*>• "Hering and do this rn the
the planting furrow is done before planting the slips 
Management practices
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Once the plants are established, they need annual trimming to a height of about 30-50
cm to encourage tillering and prevent shading of the food crops.
Utilization
The grass is not considered as a valuable fodder but it could be utilized/grazed by cattle in young stage. The leaves  are mush relished by  animals. In drought conditions  this grass is utilized for fodder purposes. However, after flowering it becomes coarse, fibrous and unpalatable. Moreover, the presence of Vetiver oil in the plant makes  it somewhat distasteful to grazing animals and rodents.
It provides a sloping terrace, which slows the rate of run off, ponds water temporarily 
which in turn settles out most of the sediments. Therefore, this grass may be very useful
for soil conservation purposes. Besides the usefulness of its roots as Khus-khus tatties,
the spikes of the plants are used for making brushes. Further, the whole plant can be
utilized for thatching purposes as well as for paper pulp
Legumes
The legumes  constitute an important component of animal fodder both for stall feeding and foraging or browsing. They  contain high content of proteins  and other essential nutrients  necessary  for a balanced feeding of all types  of livestocks  Legumes  coupled with grasses in pastures and rangelands lune up the value of fodder. That is the reason that ley farming is strongly advocated. Legumes have 650 genera and 18,000 species in the world and a number of them are used to appreciable extent in the establishment of sown pastures. A few of them have been briefly discussed below.
Centro
Scientific name: Centrosema pubescens Benth.
Common name: Centro
Centro is a perennial vine of trailing habit and in pure stands forms a dense cover of 0.4-
0.5 m high in 4-8 months of sowing. Stem is dark green and remains succulent for 18 months.  Leaflets  are  2.5  cm  long,  slightly  hairy  on  lower  surface  and  oval  in  shape, flowers  are  showy,  bright  or  pale  lilac  in  colour.  These  are  borne  in  axillary  racemes. Pods are straight or slightly twisted dark brown and about 13 cm long which contain up to 20 brownish-black mottled seeds. The seed count is 40,000/kg
Distribution
It a native legume of tropical South America but found in most of the tropical countries of the world such as South-East Asia, Indonesia, Africa and Pacific Islands
Climate
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It is found in hot humid climate where the annual rainfall exceeds more than 1525 mm. Soils: It thrives well in alluvial to medium fertile soils and is moderately tolerant to poor drainage.
Cultural practices: One deep ploughing followed by cross harrowings and planking are enough to prepare a good seed bed. Centro is sown in lines after first heavy rains in July. For pure stand the seed rate is 4-5 kg/ha but for mixed pasture the seed rate varies 
from  1.5  to  2.5  kg/ha  The  seeds  are  hard  and  require  hot  water  treatment  for  30
minutes. After this seed inoculation should be carried out for sowing. These are sown at 2.5 to 5.0 cm depth. It takes about four months for establishment, but once established it keeps on growing and needs little attention.
Fertilizer  application:  Along  with  normal  fertilizer,  additional  dose  of  phosphorus  is beneficial as it responds well to super phosphate and trace elements.
Management schedule. In first year only one cutting is taken while in subsequent years 2-3 cuttings are obtained depending upon the rainfall and its distribution.
Forage yield: It ranges from 15 to 20 t/ha (green)
Seed yield: It ranges fromlOO to 150 kg/ha.
Nutritive value. The CP content of the species varies from 12 to 15% in winter and reaches up to 23% in summer. It has high mineral contents.
Utilization: It is mainly used as cover crop in plantations and utilized as fodder crop. Older plants for nitrogen effectively, increase soil nitrogen levels and the crude protein of associated grasses. Being deep rooted it is drought and flood tolerant.
Compatibility: It is  successfully  grown in mixture with grasses  like Panicum, Pennisetum, Digitaria, Brachiaria, Setaria etc. Centro/guinea grass  pastures  have maintained a good balance over a period 20-25 years.
Green leaf desmodium
Scientific name: Desmodium intortum (mill)
Common name: Green leaf desmodium
it is a large, trailing and climbing perennial, roots at nodes and has deep tap root, long, pubscent stems, branch freely and are often reddish brown to purple flecking on the upper surface Leaflets are 2-7 cm long and 1.5-5.5 cm broad with a length width ratio of 1.4 to 1 and rounded Inflorescence is fairly compact with deep lilac to pink flowers born
parrs. The pod is curved and contains 8-12 seeds. The pod adheres to animals and to clothing The seed count 755,000/kg.
Distribution. It is a native of Centrsl ahh Qnnth a
ui central and South America and widely distributed
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Climate:  It  is  best  suited  to  sub-tropical  coastal  areas  with  an  annual  rainfall  of  900  to 1275 mm and requires a long warm growing season
Soils: It grows  on a wide range of soils  from light to clay  loams  with neutral to moderately  acidic  in reaction and is  well adapted to poorly  drain or water logged conditions. It has no tolerance to salinity
Cultural practices: Because of its  small seed size, it requires  well prepared field and can be established by  drilling or broadcasting using 2.3 kg seeds/ha at 1 cm depth. It can be established even by  cuttings, although the establishment is  only  30 to 40% but when these cuttings are rooted in banana fiber baskets under light shade, the results are good. These cuttings are transplanted at 1 x 1 m spacing.
Fertilizer  application:  It  usually  requires  adequate  levels  of  phosphorus  (40-50  kg/ha), sulphur (15-20 kg/ha), potash (20-25 kg/ha) and Molybdenum for growth.
Management   schedule:   In   first   year   the   pasture   should   be   grazed   moderately   thus leaving a large number of axillary buds for ensuring rapid regrowth.
Forage  yield:  Green  forage  yield is around 19 t/ha while average dry mater yield ranges from 5.8 to 12.5 t/ha depending upon the stage of the crop.
Seed yield: 80 to 100 kg/ha
Nutritive value: It contains 13.1% CP. 0.34% P and 1.44% Ca.
Utilization In addition to fodder value it builds  up a good surface layer of organic  matter which adds  to the moisture holding capacity  and fertility  of sandy  soils. It contributes large quantity of N to soil too.
Compatibility: It competes  strongly  with weeds  and associates  well with a number of grasses  including Setaria, green panic, molasses, grasses. Among legumes  it grows well with sirato and glycine
Glycine
Scientific name: Neonotonia wightii (Grah. ex Wight & Arn.) Lackey Syn. Glycine wightii (Grah. ex Wight & Am) Verde, and G. Javanica L.
Common name: Glycine
It is  trailing perennial vine. It has  deep root system and trailing stem produces  the roots at nodes  as  soon as  it comes  in contact with soil. Stem is  slender, hairy  and well branches. Leaves  are pinnately  trifoliate with 5-10 cm long and 3-6 cm wide leaflet and short hairs  on both sides. The flowers  are creamy  white. The pods  are hairy, straight or slightly curved, 1-4 cm long with 3-8 seeds. Average seed count 155,000/kg.
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It is native to Kenya and other African countries and spread over Ethiopia and tropical
Asia.
Climate
It requires an annual rainfall of 760 to 1525 mm.
Soils
It  prefers  fertile,  heavy  black  soils  with  good  drainage  It  does  not  tolerate  water  logging and high acidity conditions. It tolerates soil pH up to 6.5.
Cultural practices
The glycine seeds  should be sown in well prepared fields  by  broadcast during rainy season or in lines  at 1-2 cm depth and with 4-6 kg/ha seed rate In case of line sowing the distance of line to line should be 50 cm to 1 m.
Fertilizer application
In  first  year  40  to  50  kg  P2O5,  20  to  25  kg  potash  and  15-20  kg  N/ha  are  applied  while from second year only 40 kg P Os/ha is sufficient.
2
Forage yield
The  forage  yield  depends  on  soil  type  and  climatic  condition.  It  produces  50  t  green forage in one hectare while dry matter yield varies from 8 to 10 t/ha.
Seed yield
In  rainfed  condition,  the  seed  yield  is  330  kg/ha  while  only  110  kg/ha,  seed  yield  was found after one cut. Under irrigated conditions it gave 500-750 kg/ha.
Nutritive value
The  average  CP  content  ranges  from  16  to  20.4%  in  whole  plant,  while  it  was  26.5  per cent in leaf.
Utilization
It tolerates lenient grazing in first year and provides good feed to livestock. Compatibility
Rhodes, green panic, guinea and molasses grass are suitable companion grasses. Tropical Lucerne/Brazilian Lucerne/Fine stem stylo/Stylo/Schofield stylo Scientific name: Stylosanthes guanensis (Aubl.) Sw Syn. S. gracilis H.B. & K
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Common name: Lucerne
. . . ..
It is herbaceous perennial 0.6 to 1.8 m tall Cv. Schofield is an erect and becomes more prostrate under grazing while Cv. Oxley  (fine stem stylo) is  semi-prostrate with strong tap root system and has  well-developed crown, fine stem and smaller leaflets  with buds both below and above ground level. In earlier cultivar stem is  hairy  and becomes  woody at base with age. Leaves  are trifoliate. Leaflets  are narrow, deep green with few hairs (oxley), elliptic  and sticky  (Schofield), 15 to 55 mm long and 3 to 13 mm wide. Flowers are small, terminal and yellow. Pods  are flattened, single-seeded with small and coiled beak. Seeds  are kidney-shaped yellowish-brown and 1.75 mm long. There are 264,000 seeds/kg.
Distribution
It is a native of Brazil, introduces in West Indies, Africa, India and Pacific Islands.
Climate
It is  suited to a warm humid climate with a temperture range of 15 to 29°C and withstands  up to 42°C. It prefers  an area, receiving a total annual rainfall in excess  of 1525 mm. However, the Cultivar Oxley  is  suited to lower rainfall (625 to 875 mm) conditions.
Soils
It  grows  well  on  a  wide  range  of  soils  from  coarse  sand  to  sandy  loams  but  not  so  well on heavy clays. It is not tolerant to salinity.
Cultural practices
For a better establishment the field should be well prepared and made free from weeds. At the commencement of rains  inoculated seeds  are drilled at 1 to 1.5 cm depth or broadcasted @  3.5 to 5.0 kg/ha. Stylo can be established even on less/lightly  prepared fields  by  broadcasting the seeds. After sowing, the seeds  are covered by  dragging a twig over the areas.
It may  be established in natural grasslands, even by  planting the cuttings  at a distance of 1 to 2 m during the rainy  days. At each spot 3-5 cm cutting having at least 3 nodes, should be buried inside the moist soil. In natural grasslands  over seeding is  quite successful particularly on sandy soils in areas of adequate rainfall.
Fertilizer application
Stylo is  efficient in extracting phosphorus  as  well as  calcium from soils  and is  often not fertilized but it responds  well to super phosphate. At the time of its  establishment about 5 to 8 t/ha FYM should be mixed thoroughly in the soil along with 20 kg N + 30 to 40 kg
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I- tinn of 30 kg P C>5/ha is sufficient. Lack of
2
PzOs/ha. From second Year app '“J phosphorus causes yellowing of the lea p death of young plants.
. {he seedlings; small leaves and eventual
Management schedule
In the first year of its  establrshment it should be cut after 4 months from sowing but from
second  yea.  onwards,  for  higher  production  it  may  be  cut  2-3  times  at  the  height  of  10
cm  The  cattle  prefergrazing  the  stylo  sward  in  late  autumn  and  early  w,her  when  it  ,s drying  off  and  this  is  the  time  when  it  is  a  valuable  feed.  The  grazmg  should  be  avoided during  the  establishment  year,  bul  it  is  grazed,  it  should  be  grazed  lightly  after  6-8  weeks from  establishment  to  promote  tillering.  Rotational  grazing  (1  week  on  and  4-8  weeks off)  is  best  for  its  long  persistency.  In  late  stage  it  becomes  woody  and  not  preferred  by animals.
Forage yield
Its  green  forage  yield  varies  from  15  to  41  t/ha  in  different  soil  types  and  climatic conditions, while the dry matter yield ranges from 4.1 to 7.0 t/ha.
Seed yield
The seed yield recorded ranged from 70 to 200 kg/ha.
Nutritive value
The CP ranges from 12.1 to 18.1% from whole plant (7.9% for stem and 13.6% for leaf). The crude fiber is from 21.7 to 37.7%.
Utilization
It   is   used   for   hay,   silage   and   grazing   purposes.
Compatibility
Stylo combines  well with guineagrass, speargrass, Rhodes  and Buffel grass, Molasses rnamSS'lTar'tPara 9raSS'  11 alS0 persisted with Kikuyu grass  If pasture is  short, it is compatible wrth other forage legumes viz puero, centro and siratro.
7.17 IMPROVEMENT OF GRASSLANDS
The existing grasslands in the project command
high    productivity,    good    quahtv    and    i    4      !    d     Catment     can     be      improved    for    their
assisted and intensive management Th3 and water conservation, bush clea
adoptin9 ec°l09'cal succession, d °ne Providing protection, soil
management. In project command reSeedin9’ fertilization, cutting, and grazing community  grazing land and other va Catchment'  the most dominating grass  in ________ __ __________ Waste and uncultivated land is Kikuyu grass,
Wat e r v\jq r k § q pc ~______ _________
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Pennisetum  clandestinum,  which  is  not  very  nutritive  but  low  in  productivity.  Besides Kikuyu, there are other grass species growing widely They require good management.
7.18.1 Protection from Grazing
Protection from biotic  interferences  brings  remarkable recovery  of vegetation. Though there are many  methods  of protection but in project command and catchment, the most cost effective method of protection is  live - hedge fencing to protect the large area. The suitable species  like Lantana Camara, Agave sislana, Jatropha and Opuntia can be used. The concept of social fencing in a participatory  management is  also found most effective and of low cost.
7.18.2.Bush Cleaning
Heavy  infestation of unpalatable bushes  in grazing lands  not only  adversely  affects  the availability  of open space for growing grasses  but also the forage production. These can be manually  removed Sometimes, use of herbicides  on the cut stumps  will be able to kill them to stop coppicing.
7.18.3 Reseeding
For improvement of deteriorated grassland, it will be important to replace low yielding annual grasses  by  reseeding with high yielding perennial grasses  and legumes, which are adoptable to be prevailing conditions  of the command and catchment. The grasses and legumes  may  be Panicum maximum, Dichanthium annulatum, cenchrus  ciliaris, Stylosanthes  hamata, and Macroptilium atropurpureum. These have self-seeding habit with good persistency.
7.18.4Fertilizer Application
Though it is  not possible to apply  fertilizers  in grassland by  individual farmers  but based on participatory  mode, if about 40 Kg N and 20 Kg P2 P2 05 could be applied, the yield of forage will increase by  100% along with quality  improvement, particularly  the crude protein in grasses. The addition of appropriate proportion of legume would also have similar effect.
7.18.5Grazing Management
The greatest single factor that causes  deterioriation of grassland is  over-grazing During course of grazing some grasses  are preferred whereas, others  are avoided by  livestock. On account of this  selective grazing, desirable species  tend to get depleted in grasslands  faster than undesirable species. Most of the perennial grasses, utilizing the reserve food material stored in the lowest part of stems, crown portion or under ground parts, produce new shoots after cutting or grazing Due to overgrazing, the regeneration
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of these grasses and legumes are poor or negligible due to continuous drain of food reserve. This reveals the need for some period of gap or rest from cutting or grazing for regrowth of the grasses and legumes. It is, therefore, sessential to follow or design grazing systems namely continuous, deferred, rotational or deferred rotational with the help of the village community. The continuous grazing system animals are made to move freely in the entire area. It affects the soil health due to water runoff and soil erosion. Deferred system involves the compartmentalization of grassland and keeping one of the compartments  unutilized until seed setting. In rotational grazing all compartments are grazed in rotation. The deferred rotational grazing is a combination of 2 and generally considered the best system from all points of view.
7.18.6 Silvopastoral Management
Considering the continuous pressure on cultivable lands and deterioration set in on the grazing land, it is imperative to look for alternative land - use systems that integrate the concern for productivity, conservation of resources and environment and profitability. Agro-forestry technologies namely silvopasture, hortipasture etc. hold promise not only for  bio-remediation  of  degraded  habitats  but  also  forage  production  to  meet  the demands  of  livestock  and  environmental  security  in  the  project  command  and catchment.
Wood perennials having fodder and fuel and timber value should be introduced in WICA systematically and managed scientifically. This will help in optimizing land productivity, conserving species, soils and nutrients and producing forage, timber and fire wood on sustainable basis. The tree selection should be based on its easy regeneration capacity, coppicing ability, fast growth, nitrogen - fixing ability, fodder value, high nutritive value with less toxic substances and high fuel value. The additional forage availability through such system is  likely  to reduce the grazing pressure and thus  have important and favourable environmental implications. The system allows a good growth of grasses and legumes. Some of trees are Acacia spp., Albizia spp, Managofera indica, Leucaena leucocephala, etc.
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8. POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY AND STORAGE
8.1. INTRODUCTION
Agriculture comprises the sole source of producing food materials like cereals, pulses, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, eggs etc. A host of physical and chemical factors greatly affect the food materials after production and before consumption. Microbes and parasites also adversely influence through spoilage or causes diseases on consumption. The existing systems of harvesting, threshing and storage in WIP command area and the Woreda as a whole is too traditional and as a result crop losses are immense. Crops produce is severely spoiled at the time of harvesting and threshing The foremost problem being shortage of labour force, archaic harvesting and threshing implements. Crops produce are kept in locally prepared silo (Gotera) with storing capacity of 10-30 quintals In the area, there are no improved types of storage facilities In such structures, the major crop losses result from weevils, rodents and fungus.
The losses are both quantitative and qualitative. These losses can be greatly minimized through processing, preservation and scientific  storage practices. These practices embody multi-dimensional perspective because food security is physical, chemical, economic, environmental and social issue. Post-harvest technology  entails  multi disciplinary approach to provide food security. It comprises various facets of processing after harvesting including rural-level agro-processing. Rural agro-processing is, in fact, based on experience through ages plus science as known to the rural masses to reduce post-harvest losses.
8.2. POST- HARVEST LOSSES
There is non-availability of suitable processing and preservation technologies coupled with inadequate facilities for handling, transportation and storage causes losses. The estimates evince that approximately 12-15% or even more of food grains (cereals, pulses and oilseeds), 20-30% of horticultural produce (fruits and vegetables) and 15- 29% of animal and fishery production are lost annually. These losses can be minimized by adopting appropriate processing, preservation and storage technologies of food and other farm products. The technology helps a great deal in conservation, value addition, income, and employment generation to benefit the farmers, producers and processors. Value addition is very important and critical due to socio-economic and industrial factors as it makes the production highly lucrative on one hand, and on the other generates interest among large section of rural population in agricultural, animal husbandry and horticultural activities.
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8.3.  POST- HARVEST OPERATIONS AND VALUE ADDITION
The operations  viz., cutting, threshing, cleaning and grading (separation) drying/dehydration, storage, extraction, milling, fortification, packaging, transportation and handling of biomass  from harvesting to consumption constitute the components  of post-harvest operations. Post-harvest management also leads  to establishment/creation of agro-processing industries  at the rural thresholds  to produce value added products assuring greater financial returns  and generation of employment opportunities  at rural level as  well. This  is  expected to possess  a great potential to revive rural economy  and guarantee to reduce poverty, hunger and better living for the under-privileged rural poor.
Post-harvest operations  to be carried out vary  from one to other crop on account of varied physico-chemical nature of the products. To illustrate, the set of operations  vary from production of rice from paddy  (unhusked grains), split pulses  and pulse flour from pulse grains  and extraction of oil from oilseeds. In nutshell, the operations  are unique for each crop as  well as  vary  from one to the other commodity. The operations  besides being crop specific  are also location specific. These are different for adoption at the farm, village and organized industrial levels. Equipment needs  are also different (Table 8.1).
The unit operations  will be different for poultry  products, fish and others. The value addition to food itself can be of different types  viz., isolation of constituents  that provide avenues  for broad-basing food uses  (essential oils, vitamins, minerals  etc.). The processing for transformation into products  with precisely  specified and precise utilization, health-oriented formulations  with multiple ingredients  to promote over-all well being, augment nutritional quality  through enrichment with essential nutrients  found otherwise deficient.
8.4. SUSTENANCE OF PROCESSING
A   new   adventure   calls   for   financial   commitments   and  creation  of   resources  locally   to meet  the  committed  and  casual  expenses.  Self-help  groups  can  be  constituted  at  local level to meet the expenses on food processing or value addition.
8.4.1. Self-Help Group (SHG)
There  may  be  three  types  of  SHGs  viz.,  women,  men  and  mixed  (women  plus  men). The minimum and maximum membership may be 10 and 20, respectively.
oA,
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Table  8.1  Unit  operations  for  food,  fruits,  vegetables  and  animal  products  for  processing  and preservation
Food Crops
Fruits and Vegetables
Animal Products
(meat and milk)
Cleaning
Grading
Curing
Shelling
Decortications Parboiling
Dehusking
Polishing
Size reduction
Expelling or extraction Mixing by
Blending
Fortification
Packaging quality control
Storage Transportation Marketing
Washing Cleaning Grading Packaging dehydration bottling & canning refrigeration Pickling transportation Storage
product or residue utilization
-
-
-
-
slaughtering
dressing
cutting
packaging
refrigerated storage
cooking or curing
smoking
handling
transportation
marketing
abattoir management and waste management
tanning of skin and hides collection
processing and utilization of bye-products (horns, hooves, bone, blood)
milk and milk product processing
-
by products or residue utilization
Each member would have to contribute predetermined amount each month and the finances  would be managed by  the chosen management committee members. The products  to be processed for value addition should be locally  available raw material. The success  of SHGs  would depend on the help to be of given by  the government institutions in following respects:
(i)          Matching  finances  should  be  provided  through  local  bank  or  any  other  official financial  agency.  The  members  contribution  should  be  put  with  this  institution  which,  in turn,  would  authorize  the  SHG  to  draw  money.  The  institution  should  provide  a  matching amount either free of interest or only on nominal rate of interest.
(ii)            Government     should     create     basic     infrastructure     to     facilitate     post-harvest management and value addition.
(iii)         Government   should   necessarily   give   buy-back   and   marketing   on   remunerative price   to   begin   with.   Later   on,   the   farmers   or   SHG   members   might   take   up   the responsibility    by    themselves,    but    easy    market-accessibility    and    all    weather    road connectivity would constitute the kingpin of success.
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8.5. POST- HARVEST TECHNOLOGY
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A brief account of crop-wise post-harvest technology has been presented below:
8.5.1. Fingermillet and Sorghum
In  Wolkayite  area  rainfall  is  erratically  distributed  both  temporally  and  spatially.  The inhabitants   are   mostly   subsistence   farmers   encountered   with   the   constraints   like   poor soils   (shallow   and   rocky),   land   degradation,   mounting   demographic   pressure   on   the marginal  lands,  faulty  land  tenure  system,  inaccessibility  to  sources  of  agricultural  inputs and  markets  for  their  produce,  infrequent  visits  by  extension  agents,  limited  options  for food  production  and  low  cash  incomes  for  food  purchasers.  Proper  dehulling  of  these crop   grains   by   machine   would   benefit   by   relieving   woman   and   child   labour   from drudgery  of  hand-hulling,  removal  unpalatable  tannin  from  sorghum  to  make  them  more acceptable   and   nutritious   and   generate   sustainable   urban   demand.   Basic   abrasive technology  has  been  designed,  tested  and  modified  for  rugged  rural  conditions  and  are being   introduced   in   many   Sub-Saharan   countries   (Schmidt,   1992).   Ethiopia   can   also take  advantage  of  this  technique.  However,  traditional  technology  can  also  be  fine  tuned to  make  it  more  effective  and  scientific  (Mukuru.  1992).  These  two  millets  are  hand harvested,   dried   and   stored   in   traditional   storage   structures   Small   quantities   are regularly   hand   threshed,   cleaned,   winnowed   and   at   times   pounded   to   remove   tight glumes.  Besides  various  consumable  products,  making  of  flour  is  very  common.  In  case of   sorghum,   germinated   grain   contains   appreciable   amount   of   cyanogenic   glucoside which  on  hydrolysis  yields  HCN  (Hydrocyanic  acid)  and  is  potentially  very  poisonous. Removal  of  shoots  and  roots  lower  HCN  content  by  more  than  90%  (Dada  and  Dendy, 1987).   Economic   Commission   for   Africa   (ECA)   favoured   composite   flour   (Drummond and   Wibraham.   1957).   Therefore,   it   would   be   imperative   that   the   government   must implement  composite  flour  programmes  and  small  grain  utilization  as  part  of  the  national food security strategies.
Grains  of  these  crops  are  used  in  a  number  of  ways  by  the  consumers  in  rural  and urban areas. Value addition can be accomplished as indicated below:
-    Grains are/can be roasted
-    Grains are/can be used in malting Composite flour can be prepared
iXnTbZ1*      T      COmb'"a,,on          °'      ’’heat leavened bread or other
and      non-wheaf      flours      to      make *
prepared from mixtures of flours of cereal materials are usabfe as food and can ensu e'f'°d upto 30% sorghum or fingermillet can Hp L
“ Wt’°"V'e"9°"-Uwhmea' e'lS01  °"    ' T
used either through preparation of flours
W 'th pr°p6r pr6p3
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-      However,  it  is  necessary  to  lay  down/formulate  quality  standards  for  the  grain  and also  for  the  composite  flours  in  necessary  details.  Composite  flour  technology  is available  now  in  developed  countries  wherefrom  it  can  be  borrowed  and  suitably modified to suit the local condition if so needed.
-    Non-wheat bread, cake and sausages are being prepared in some countries through
milling of sorghum, millets and maize. These products can be prepared in Ethiopia
as well to use the grains produced in the command as well as other areas.
Similarly, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages can be manufactured.
It may be remembered that sorghum grain is deficient in lysine and tryptophan amino acids  and hence needs  addition through external addition to prepare nutritionally balanced products.
-    Malts and brews can also be produced from sorghum and fingermillet
-    Sorghum is used in industrial production of particle boards, paper, adhesive,
detergents, plastics and sugars.
-    Sweet sorghum is used for industrial production of alcohol.
-    Sorghum plants green as well as dry and fingermillet stalks (straw) make good
fodder. Both are good silage crops.
-    Sorghum grain makes a good livestock and poultry feed.
-    Fingermillet grains are highly nutritious and sustains hard work. It also makes an
ideal food for diabetic patients and expectant mothers.
-    Fingermillet malt is comparable with standard processed drinks like Boumvita, Boost, Complan, etc.
8.5.2. Maize
Maize  is  used  for  food,  feed,  and  for  manufacture  of  starch,  corn  sugar,  dextrin  syrup, oil,  industrial  alcohol  and  alcolholic  beverages.  Milling  is  the  most  important  operation  in the  processing  of  maize.  Maize  is  milled  either  by  dry  or  wet  process.  In  both  the processes,  the  germ  is  separated  from  grains  to  extract  and  recover  germ  oil.  which  is  a valuable  product.  In  dry  milling,  the  maximum  amount  of  grit  with  minimum  amount  of flour  is  obtained  The  yield  of  product  in  dry  milling  is  40%  grits,  20%  coarse  meal  10% fine  meal,  5%  flour  and  14%  germ.  Wet  milling  of  maize  is  done  to  obtain  starch  oil cattle  feed  and  products  of  starch  hydrolysis  (liquid  and  solid  glucose  and  syrup)  The by-   product   of   wet-milling   have   a   number   of   uses   like   nutrient   for   micro-organisms maize  oil  for  edible  purpose  (cooking  oil),  protein  concentrate,  maize  bran  and  oil  cake for animal feed. Porridge and corn flakes are prepared from grits.
8.5.3. Rice or Paddy
In nee or paddy upto 5-10% losses are due to shattering of grains at the time of
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harvesting. There are losses at the threshing floor due to threshing, cleaning, drying, storage and processing operations. After harvest the biomass  is  heaped before threshing causing a loss due to birds, rodents and weather hazards. Thus, the total losses may amount to about 15%. Out of these losses at least 60% can be avoided by using simple and improved post-harvest equipments namely cleaners, graders, driers, metal bins and improved milling equipments. Before consumption milling is essential for both raw and parboiled rice. There are two types  of milling home pounding and mechanized rice mills The major by products of rice milling are husk and bran.
8.5.4 Wheat
Wheat is consumed mostly in the form of flour, obtained by milling of grains. A small part is also used as breakfast food namely wheat flakes, puffed wheat and shredded wheat. Wheat crop suffers  severe harvest and post harvest losses  if appropriate technology is not adopted, particularly during harvesting. Storage life of wheat product is rather low. There are stone burr grinders to give 90 to 95% extraction in the form of whole meal floor. In modern milling process, the wheat grains are cleaned to remove various types of impurities before milling. The reduced endosperm is used as flour whereas the germ, bran and residual endosperm obtained as by-product are used as animal feed. In milling of wheat in roller mills, the grinding is carried out in 4-5 stages based on the gradual reduction process to have different fineness of products having low, medium and high gluten content.
Protein-displacement milling is also practised which provides means of obtaining various fractions from given wheat markedly different in protein content, suitable for different uses.  This  process  consists  of  fine  grinding  of  wheat  and  air  classification  of  flour particles to yield fractions with different protein contents.
8.5.5. Pulses
Processing of pulses is of primary importance in improving their nutritive value. The losses in pulses go up to 20% including field level losses. Milling of pulses involves removal of outer husk followed by splitting of grain into two equal halves. Pre-milling treatments affect the per cent recovery of processed pulse. Common type of equipment used in pulse milling is Disc-Sheller, Cylinder-Concave Dehusker, Rubber-Roller Shelter and Hullers.
8.5.6. Oilseeds
The tosses include 5-15% in harvesting 2-5% i„ th esWng. 2.3% seed c|eanjng and to- ,
Lrt C a9e „ ma'°r P°St harvesl °P“a"°"
curing, cleaning and gradinq ore-treatmank. t ...
“ops include drying or
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packaging and utilization of by-products  There are two processes  for oil recovery, seed crushing and solvent extraction. Extraction or expelling of oil is  done by  using mechanical expellers. Oil seed cake is  the major by  product of oilseed processing industry  and fed to animals. It has high amount of proteins and 1.0 to 1.5% oil. Solvent extraction method is more efficient. Filtration and refining of crude oil is also a basic unit of oil mills.
8.5.7. Milk and Milk Products
Main milk  products  are butter, cheese, dried milk  product and fermented milk  products. Spoilage of milk  at collection points and during handling at users' level is  very common Milk  processing operation consists  of clarification, separation, mapsurization and homogenization It requires  adequate refrigerated handling and storage facilities. The farmers  of project area can be helped by  providing milk  collection centers  at convenient distances. Farmwomen can also be trained in production of milk  products  at household level to increase the income and employment.
8.5.8 Meat and Meat Products
Various  methods  are used for ageing and preservation of meat. Tenderizing the meat is another important operation Beef is  usually  the only  kind of meat that is  commercially aged. Tenderizing is  done by  using mechanical method, enzyme and salts. The curing of meat has  various  objectives  namely  bringing about modification of meat, which affects preservation flavor, color and tenderness  due to added curing agents. Wrapping of meat in papaya leaves before cooking also makes it tender.
8.5.9. Poultry and Egg
Poultry is marketed in ready-to-cook form. Dressed chicken is graded before it is 
marketed. Egg production is very good cottage industry. The factors constitute egg
quality includes size and shape of egg, and condition of shell, albumen, yolk and germ
spot. They are graded on basis of size and quality and stored at -10c for 6 months 
provided the relative humidity is kept at 80%.
8.5.10 Honey
Honey is an enjoyable food on account of its flavour, taste and nutritive value. It has the capacity  to retain water and hence, the cakes  and candies  made with honey  remain moist for a longer period than those made with other sweetening agents. After extraction of honey  from hives, it is  strained through muslin - cloth or sieve and then allowed to ripen, during which air bubbles  escape. For shelf stability, further processing is  required to minimize fermentation occurring due to high moisture and presence of yeast and to prevent granulation.
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Honey  granulates  during cool weather when glucose separates  out in crystalline form. It is  a natural process  and granulated honey  can be returned to liquid form by  careful indirect heating in hot-water bath. Pressure filtration is  also practised. Bee-keeping in artificial hives  offers  an immense potential for providing employment for rural folks. It requires  very  low capital investment. The equipment required are bee-hive, honey extractors, uncapping knives, smokers, feeders and queen excluder.
8.6. STORAGE
Perishability  is  responsible for high post-harvest losses  and marketing cost, market glut, price fluctuation and other similar problems  in marketing of fruits  and vegetables, meat, fish etc. Storage is  an interim and a repeated phase in the complex  logistics  of transporting agricultural products  from producers  to processors  and from processors  to consumers. Besides  agricultural products  like food grains  need to be stored from one harvesting to next, thus  demanding additional carry  over as  safeguard against a following crop of low yield or poor quality  against speculation in price or market demand or against shortage and famines.
The storage facilities  in project command and catchment are very  primitive in nature, hence attract considerable losses. In general the losses  during storage operation alone account for 6-7% of production in food grains  and as  high as  20-30% in fruits  and vegetables. The value of investment and efforts  needed to produce this  much lost food material stands  very  high and require measures  to reduce the same. The storage losses  are both qualitative and quantitative, affecting nutritive value of products. Insects, rodents, spillage and fungal rot are the main causes  in food grain losses. Use of insecticides  and pesticide may  reduce the losses  but the chemicals  may  enter in the food chain causing human health problem.
The commonly  used structures  at the farmers  households  in Project Command and Catchment are made of mud and straw which are neither airtight nor insect proof resulting in 3-30% losses  Hence, it has  been proposed that metal bins  made up of galvanized iron (Gl) mild steel sheets, concrete bins  or silos  should be popularized at domestic  - level for grain storage. They  have the advantage of being air tight, durable and fire-proof and also practically  maintenance free. Most of the crops  like paddy, wheat, barley, pulses etc. can be stored in such closed structures.
The perishable products  like onion, potato, fruits  and vegetables  are harvested at very high moisture content of 60-88% (wet basis), which limit their shelf life. At rural level potato can be stored in a pit-storage method where, potato is heaped in a pit to a height of about one meter and covered with a thick  layer of straw or grass. If temperature is high, water is sprinkled on the cover of the heap. This can be stored with a loss of about
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Onion is  another important perishable crop creating problem of storage at the farmers level. Several types  of local storage structures  used for onion have serious  problems, which lead to 50-80% losses. However, split-bamboo storage structures, ventilated bamboo structures, natural air - ventilated structures  and forced-air ventilation type onion-storage structures  can be developed at the farmers  level. For temporary  storage of several other vegetables  and fruits, a low-cost zero-energy  cool chamber can be made popular.
8.7. CONCLUSION
The machines  and equipment are one of the important inputs  for production and processing. Mechanization increases  efficiency, enhances  value of products, achieves timeliness  of operation and reduces  drudgery. Mechanization may  take place predominantly  in those operations  where traditional practices  fail to deliver desired level of productivity. Thus, for post-harvest operations, equipment for cleaning and grading, rice and pulse milling and oil extraction should be popularized, if do not exist so far in Kebeles and villages.
Agro-industry  is  said to be an enterprise that processes  agricultural raw material. The degree of processing may  vary  from cleaning to grading to milling, cooking, mixing and chemical alteration that creates  a textured food of biological origin. Warehousing, chilling plant and cold storages  are also included in agro-industries, since they  enhance storability  and economic  value. The agro-industries  may  be sub-grouped as  agro processing (rice-mills, pulse-mills, oil mills, fruit canning, dairy  product processing, cotton-ginning, sugar mills  etc), agro-input manufacturing units  and agro-service centers to undertake repairs  and servicing of farm machinery  and equipments. The details  of the required agro-processing units  in project command can be worked out separately  by a post harvest specialist.
8.8. POSTHARVEST MANAGEMENT
8.8.1 Postharvest Management of Fruits and Vegetables
Postharvest losses  in fruits  and vegetables  are very  high (20-40%). About 1015% fresh fruits  and vegetables  shrivel and stale, lowering their market value and consumer acceptability. Minimizing these losses  can increase their supply  without bringing additional land under cultivation. It will also help keep pollution under control. Improper handling and storage cause physical damages  due to tissue breakdown. Mechanical losses  include bruising, cracking, cuts, microbial spoilage by  fungi and bacteria whereas physiological losses include changes in respiration, transpiration, pigments,
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organic  acids  and flavour. About 36% of vegetables  decay  due to soft-rot bacteria, whereas  30% of fruits  decay  due to Penicillium species. The losses  can be minimized by proper pre- and postharvest treatments
8.9. PRE-HARVEST FACTORS
8.9.1. Selection of varieties
Varieties   with   higher   yield,   better   keeping   quality,   slower   ripening   and   longer   shelf-life under ambient condition and better processing quality should be developed and
commercially grown.
8.9.2. Cultural operations
Cultural operations help prolong shelf-life of fruits and vegetables. Pruning or thinning
increase the fruit size and decrease TSS and acidity. The postharvest quality of citrus 
fruits increases significantly when Trifoliate orange, tangelo or Cleopatra are used as 
rootstock. Quality of fruits is improved by the application of K, Mg and Zn, while higher N
and P deteriorate the quality. Excessive irrigation before harvesting decreases the shelf
life and sensory quality, while insufficient irrigation enhances the maturity of the crop.
For  root  crops,  preparation  of  the  soil  to  a  fine  tilth  of  porous  nature  is  necessary  to avoid  root  forking.  Irregular  irrigation  causes  cracking  of  carrot  and  radish  and  splitting  of outer  scales  of  onions.  In  onion  and  garlic,  irrigation  should  be  stopped  3  weeks  before harvesting   to   ensure   better   keeping   quality.   Heavy   application   of   nitrogenous   fertilizers causes   faster   tissue   deterioration,   while   essential   supply   of   K   improves   keeping   quality of     vegetables     Molybdenum     deficiency     in     cabbage     causes     heart-rot,     manganese deficiency  in  peas  leads  to  marsh  spots  and  excessive  irrigation  and  fertilization  cause hollow-heart in potato.
8.9.3. Preharvest treatments
Postharvest   shelf-life   of   fruits   and   vegetables   is   improved   by   preharvest   application   of chemicals.   Three   sprays   of   Topsin-M   (0.1%)   or   Bavistin   (0.1%)   at   15   days   interval before    harvesting    can    control    anthracnose    and   stem-end   rot   in   mango.   Preharvest application    of    maleic    hydrazide    reduces    sprouting    of    onions    and    potatoes    during storage.    Postharvest    diseases    of    tomato    and    onion    can    be    controlled    by    three preharvest  sprays  of  0.2%  Dilolatan  at  10  days  interval.  Similarly  preharvest  application of   growth   promoters   such   as   N-benzyladenine   (10-20   ppm)   prolongs   shelf-life   of   leafy vegetables.
8.9.4. Maturity
e postharvest quality and storage life of fruits are controlled by maturity. If fruits are
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harvested at a proper stage of maturity, their quality  is  excellent. Vegetables  are harvested as  and when they  attain maximum size and yet are tender. Over maturity  in root crops  causes  sponginess  and pithiness. Their harvesting should not be delayed. Delay  in harvesting of onion and garlic  improves  their storage quality. The maturity indices of fruits and vegetables are given in Table 8.2.
Table 8. 2 Maturity indices of some fruits and vegtables
Maturity index
Peel colour
Pulp colour
Size
Shape
Drying of plant parts 
Surface characteristics
Ease of separation from plant Ease of snapping
Specific gravity
TSS
Acidity
Sweet index
Juice content
Heat units
Days from full bloom Days from fruit set
8.9.5. Harvesting
Commodit'es
Citrus, papaya, tomato (breaker stage), mango Tomato and mango
Cucumber and citrus
Banana (fullness of fingers. disappearance of angularity) and mango (fullness of cheeks) Onion, garlic, banana, potato and ginger
Tomato and mango
Mango
Okra and peas
Mango, potato and guava
Brix. Sweet orange, 12° Brix and papaya 11.5° Brix
Citrus (mandarin 0.4%, sweet orange 03%). mango Banana
Cirtus (35-50%)
Peas and mango
Mango and citrus
Banana (90 days) and mango (110-125 days)
Harvesting should be done during cooler part of the day  preferably  in the morning. The produce should be shifted to shade as  early  as  possible. Harvesting during hot periods raises  field heat of the produce, causing wilting and shriveling. Immediately  after rains creates  most favourable conditions  for multiplication of micro-organisms. Citrus  fruits become susceptible to damage if harvested during rains  as  their rind becomes  turgid and prone to easy  bruising, sunscald and oleocellosis  (injury  to the epidermal oil cells). Avoid bruises  or injuries  during harvesting. Latex  out of stem in mango should not be allowed to fall on fruits  as  it creates  a black  spot. Injury  to peel may  become an entry point for microorganisms, causing rotting.
Many  fruits  and vegetables  are harvested unripe for their safe handling, transportation and marketing but they  must be matured when harvested so that they  can ripen later on normally and develop good physical appearance and eating quality.
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8.10 POSTHARVEST FACTORS 8.10.1. Curing
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Curing  is  conducted  immediately  after  harvesting.  It  strengthens  the  skin.  The  process  is reduced   at   relatively   higher   temperature   and   humidity,   involving   suberization   of   outer tissues   followed   by   the   development   of   wound   periderm   which   acts   as   an   effective barrier  against  infection  and  water  loss.  Potato,  sweet  potato,  onion  and  garlic  are  cured prior  to  storage  or  marketing.  In  sweet  potato,  this  condition  is  most  rapid  at  33oC  and relative  humidity  of  95%.  Potato  tubers  are  held  at  18oC  for  2  days  and  then  at  7-1  OoC for   10-12   days   at   90%   relative   humidity.   Curing   also   reduces   the   moisture   content especially  in  onion  and  garlic.  Drying  of  superficial  leaves  of  onion  bulbs  protects  them from  microbial  infection  in  storage.  Maximum  safe  temperature  for  onion  curing  at  field  is 37.80C  for  3-5  days.  Artificial  curing  of  onion  in  crates  at  40oC  for  16  hours  reduces  rot losses in storage.
8.10.2. Degreening
Degreening  is  the  process  of  decomposing  green  pigments  in  fruits  usually  by  applying ethylene   or   other   similar   metabolic   inducers   to   give   a   fruit   its   characteristic   colour   as preferred  by  consumers.  It  is  applicable  to  banana,  mango,  citrus  and  tomato.  The  time required   to   degreen   a   fruit   depends   upon   the   degree   of   natural   colour   break   and maturity.   The   higher   the   green   colour   and   more   mature   a   fruit   is,   the   less   time   is required  to  reduce  the  chlorophyll  to  desired  level.  Degreening  is  carried  out  in  special treating   rooms   with   controlled   temperature   and   humidity   in   which   low   concentration   of ethylene    (20    ppm)    is    applied.    The    best    degreeing    temperature    is    27oC.    Higher temperature   delay   degreening.   The   relative   humidity   should   be   85-90%.   Low   humidity though checks decay, causes excessive shrinkage, shriveling and peel breakdown.
In another method, fruits  in containers  are sealed by  2 sheets  of plastic  film and water. The PVC (0.2 mm thick) can also be used. The ethylene is  introduced from a can of 4.2 litres  capacity  in the film which can cover 1.2 tonnes  of fruits  (20 kg x  60 containers), the ethylene concentration becomes  nearly  1000 ppm resulting in satisfactory  colouring. After 15 hrs, the film is  removed enforcing the fruit to air. Degreening takes  3 days. Ethylene accelerates  decomposition of chlorophyll without significantly  affecting the synthesis of carotenoid pigments.
8.10.3 Pre-cooling
Precooling is a means of removing the field heat. It slows down the respiration of the produce, minimizes susceptibility to attack of microorganisms, reduces water loss and eases the load on cooling system of storage or transport Peas and okra which
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deteriorate fast, need prompt cooling. Sometimes  stages  of ripening and level of field heat of produce also determine the need for precooling. For example, unless  tomatoes are above 26.7oC and ripening is to be delayed, there is no need for precooling.
In air cooling, cool air can be obtained from cold storage Temperature should not be less  than -1oC to avoid freezing. Where night temperatures  are low, doors  of the store rooms can be opened for cooling in the night.
In water cooling (hydrocoolig), field heat is  removed qu’ckly. It is  used for leafy vegetables  to retain their texture and freshness. Ice can be added to bring down the temperature. However, temperature should be controlled to avoid chilling injury  in cold sensitive fruits  and vegetables. Hydrocooling at 12-15oC with 500 ppm Bavistin increases shelf-life of mango.
8.10.4 Washing and drying
Most of the fruits  and vegetables  are washed after harvesting to improve their appearance, prevent wilting and remove primary  inoculum load of microorganisms. Washing improves  shelf-life of bananas  by  delaying their ripening. After washing, excess of water should be removed which would otherwise encourage microbial spoilage. Root and tuber crops are often washed to remove the soil adhering to them.
8.10.5 Sorting and grading
Immature,  disease  and  badly  bruised  fruits  and  vegetables  are  sorted  out.  Grades  are based on size, weight, colour and shape. Grading is done manually or mechanically.
8.10.6 Disinfestation
Papaya, mango and other fruits  are susceptible to fruit fly  attacks. Disinfestation is  done either by  vapour heat treatment at 43oC with air saturated with water vapour for 6-8 hours; by  ethylene dibromide fumigation (18-22 g of EDB/cubic  water for 2^ hrs. Residues  of inorganic  bromide must not exceed 10 mg/g) or by  cold treatment (exposure of fruits to near freezing temperature for a specified period).
8 .10.7 Postharvest treatments
Postharvest application of Bavistin (0.1%) and Topsin (0.1%) controls storage disease in mango. A complete inhibition of sprouting of cool chamber (evaporatively cooled) stored potatoes for 4 months and 5 months is achieved by spraying them with an aqueous emulsion CIPC @ 50 mg and 100 mg/kg of tubers respectively, before completion of dormancy period.
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8.10.8 Waxing
Fruits and vegetables have a natural waxy layer on me ,
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Inver on their outer surface which is partly
rruns dnu veye a
MHtinlin.K laver of wax applied artificially with
,
removed by washing. An extra discontinuous layer oi w* hh
x
sufficient thickness  and consistency  to prevent anaerobic  condition With n the hurts provides  necessary  protection against decay  organisms. Wax,ng is  espectatly  tmportant if tiny injuries and scratches on their surface are present.
If   refrigerated   storage   facilities   are   not   available,   protective   skin   coating   with   wax increases the storage life of fresh fruits and vegetables at ambient temperatures.
There are 2 types  of wax  emulsion - wax  "W" and “O”. The wax  composition W does not impart any  gloss  to fruits  and vegetables  and hence where gloss  is  required for improving marketability  of the produce, composition wax  "O" is  recommended. Both these emulsions contain 12% total solids.
The application of wax  emulsion to freshly  harvested healthy  produce protects  them against excessive moisture loss, higher rate of respiration, heat build-up or thermal decomposition. Texture and quality  of the fresh produce is  maintained as  near the fresh conditions as possible for a long time
The wax emulsion without fungicide does not protect fruits and vegetables against microbial spoilage. Therefore, suitable fungicides are added to the wax emulsion Storage life of some fruits and vegetables with and without wax emulsion treatment is presented in Table 8.3.
8.10.9. Control of ripening process
Ripening   in   fruits   and   vegetables   can   be   retarded   by   using temperature, ethylene absorbants, skin coating of waxol. growth
proper     packing,     low retardants and using
fungicides  for controlling their spoilage. Combination of waxol treatment and hot-water
treatment results  in fruits  with uniform ripening, and extending storage life of mangoes.
Use of Cycocel (500 mg/litre). Alar (500 mg/litre), GA (250 mg/litre) and menadione
bisulphate (500 mg/litre) significantly  retards  ripening. Ripening in banana is  achieved
by  GA treatment Use of purafil (alkaline potassium permanganate on a silicate carrier)
baoTXrt ";
e C0 (
Tle': absorp,l°" °f
in banana held in sealed polythene
ec o ma eic ydrazide on the ripening process varies with different fruits.
8.10.10.  Ripening of fruits taste and smell sensati^l'fmar^thT 
° r9an 'nt° 3 visually attractive
of   senescence   with   life   of   a   fruit   and   is   C°mpetion    of    deve|opment   and   commencement achieved by the application of ethyleneS n°rrnally an Irreversible event. Ripening can be
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Accurate  quantity  of  ethylene  should  be  used  in  the  ripening  room  at  regular  intervals  A concentration of CO2 above 1% delays ripening. Hence thorough ventilation is essential.
8.10.11. Pre-packaging in plastic films
Pre-packaging increases  the shelf-life by  creating modified atmosphere with an increase in concentration of CO2 in the package. The packaging material used should provide reasonable access  to oxygen. For this, breathing films  like polystyrene and cellulose acetate are used. But tougher LDPE films  which have high 02 and C02 transmission rates are more durable.
Table 8. 3 Storage life of some fruits and vegetables with and without wax treatment at ambient temperature
Commodity
Condition of
commodity
Type of wax
emulsion and
concentration
Storage life (days)
Qty of wax
emulsion at
12% concen
tration re
quired for one
tonne com
modity (litre)
Treated
Untreated
FRUITS
Banana
Green
W/6
13
7
3.0
Unripe
W/8
19
11
Anab-e-Shahi
Mature
0/4
12
6
Bangalore Blue
Mature
W/4
14
5
Guava
Unripe
W/6
6
4
5.7
Green
Mature
0/12
10
5
Yellow
Mature
0/9
9
4
5.7
Mango
Green
W/6
18
11
unripe
W/6
7
3.6
Mandarin
oranges
Mature
W/4
20
11
3.6
Mandarin
oranges
Mature
0/6
___
20
11
I Tight-skinned orange
Mature
0/9
_____
30
17
5.4
Tight-skinned orange
Mature
0/6
24
17
Papaya
Greening
PW/6
4
2
VEGETABLES
Potato
Mature,
transplanted
W/12
80
40
Tomato
Green, firm
0/9
14
7
5.0
Tomato
Pink, firm
0/9
12
4
Brmjal
W/12
8
5
Carrot
Mature toped
W/12
9
6
Capsicum
Green, firm
W/12
9
4
Cucumber
L.______________
Mature
W/12
7
4
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The pouches must have perforation to transmit oxygen and carbon dioxide rapidly enough for the respiration of fresh produce. The pouch used reduces bruising, facilitates inspection, reduces moisture loss (weight loss) and prevents dehydration.
In pre-packaging, leaves, stalk, stem etc. are trimmed, washed, cleaned, and weighed quantities are put in pouches. Ethylene absorbants may be added to the package.
8.10.12.          Packaging
A wide range of packages — gunny (hessian) bags, woven, bamboo, reed and grass stem baskets, palmyra mats, wooden cases, earthen pots, corrugated fibre board cartons, and rigid plastic crates are used. More than one type with different sizes and shapes of packaging is used for individual commodity either due to availability of the particular packing material in local market or due to nature and cost of the material to be packed. Certain commodities which can withstand rigours of journey such as potato, onion, carrots, radish etc. are packed in gunny bags. Mango, banana, pineapple, etc. are harvested in unripe condition and loaded as such (without packing) in trucks and trains, which, however, is not desirable.
Wheat and paddy straw, banana leaves, dry grass etc which are easily available locally are mostly used. Use of moulded pulp tray, honey comb partition, cell pack etc. have replaced the use of cushioning material in costly commodities and for export purposes. Wooden boxed are used for packing mango, citrus, guava and important varieties of tomato and capsicum.
8.10.13. Pelletization
Loading and unloading are done manually in developing countries. Due to low unit load, there is a tendency to throw, drop or mishandle the package, damaging the commodity. This loss can be considerably reduced by using pellet system. However, this requires the standardization of box dimensions. For each commodity it should be worked out. Once this is accomplished, mechanical loading and unloading become very easy with the fork-lift system.
8.10.14. Transportation
For selecting the mode of transport, the distance to reach the destination as well as p ®ns abil’^ 0< the commodity  should be considered. For highly  perishables  ones, there
before packing to remove the field hest perishable commodities.
For local market, the produce is brnnnh* h., , •  .
before
temperatUre r,se durin9 ,ransit- The commodity should be employed
z
SPOfl Sh°Uld be prefe"ed fOr
9
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and trucks used in the field should have good suspension and low tyre pressure to avoid excessive jolting of produce. They  should be driven slowly. Lining of trailor with straw or leaves can also help prevent damage.
8.10.15.  Storage
The production patterns, dietary  habits  and economic  considerations  warrant long period storage is  mostly  for short periods  and in many  cases  for a few days  or weeks  only  To store fruits  and vegetables, low temperature and high humidity  (90-95%) are required except in onion and garlic  which require lower relative relative humidity  (70%). Different structures  which are used for storage of mostly  potatoes  and onion can be used for other commodities also.
8.10.15.1 Storage in Cool Dry Rooms
It is mostly used for storage of seed potatoes kept on the floor or on bamboo racks with proper ventilation. The store is  built of unbaked bricks. It has  a thatched root covered with tiles. Windows  are provided on the side walls  of the store which are kept open during night and closed during the day.
8.10.15.2 Storage in Pits
The pit is dug under the shade of a tree or a roof 75-90 cm wide and 45 cm deep. It is soaked with water and allowed to dry  for 5 days. The bottom and sides  of the pit are covered with 'neem'  (margosa) leaves  or disinfected leaves/straw The selected potatoes  are heaped up in the pit to a height of about one m and covered with a thick layer of straw or grass. At about 30-60 cm distance from the pit, a ditch is dug and filled with water occasionally. The condition of the tubers  is  examined by  opening the pit from the top. The rotted tubers are removed.
8.10.15.3 Onion Storage
Structures  are made of bamboo and thatched roof with grass  which is  covered on top with jute cloth The size of 3.0 m x  1.2 m x  1.2 m has  the capacity  to store 40 quintals. The bottom net is fixed at about 15-20 cm height from the ground level to have aeration.
Roof is  made of either thatch, asbestos, sheet or tiles/tin sheet. There is, however, no bottom ventilation but flooring is  done with the help of soil, stone particles  and sand and it is  raised from ground level. Before loading onion, sticks  are spread on the floor. The size of the structure varies  from area-to-area. Normally  width is  kept as  1.5 m and height is about 1.5 m, the length may vary from 13.5 to 30 cm. Its capacity is 200-450 quintals.
8.10.15.4  Cool Stores
Perishables  can  be  effectively  stored  over  different  periods  under  low  temperatures  and high humidity conditions as obtained in commercial cool stores. The storage of potatoes
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During storage, chilling injury occurs in some commodities and hence these should be kept at optimum temperature of their storage. Physiological disorders  and major postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables also deteriorate their quality.
8.10.15.5 Zero Energy Cool Chambers
The zero energy cool chambers based on evaporative cooling system are saturated with water. In summer, when outside temperature is high, temperature inside is kept low due to evaporation of water.
8.10.14.6 Forced Evaporation Cool Stores
These stores are cooled with industrial desert coolers which force the cool and humidified air through the heap of potatoes
8.10.15.7 Two-Tier Onion Storage Structure
Its capacity is 40 quintals with the size or structure being 4.8 m x 1.5 m x 1.2 m. The side walls are made of bamboo or locally available suitable material with adequate support of wooden planks. The lower base is also made of bamboo splits with adequate structural support. It is raised from the ground level by about 20 cm for proper ventilation from the bottom. The second base is at a height of about 75 cm from the bottom base. The second tier facilitates better aeration, reducing the losses. The total losses in this structure are about 36.6% over a period of 4 months.
8.10.15.8        Bottom Ventilated Onion Storage Godown
Its capacity is 450 quintals having size of 15.8 m x 4.8 m x 2.4 m. Ventilation is provided for free circulation from all sides including bottom ventilation. Below the floor, there is air gap of 60 cm for this purpose. The columns of the structure are made of brick masonry which support the roof made of tiles on timber trusses, purlins and rafters. There are 2 onion racks in each structure of 15 m x 1.5 m size with a passage of 1.8 m between them for loading/unloading of onions. The onion racks are of wooden battons.
8.10.15.9 Irradiation
Application of irradiation for suppressing sprouting and hence extension of shelf-life is possible. Sprouting of onion can be checked by gamma irradiation at a dose of 0.06-0.1 KGY. In potato, gamma irradiation at 0.5 KGY can inhibit sprouting completely. It also inhibits  the  light  induced  synthesis  of  chlorophyll  and  toxic  alkaloid  solanin.  The irradiated  potatoes  can  be  stored  successfully  for  6  months  at  15oC  with  0%  loss. Irradiation  in  banana,  mango  and  papaya  improves  shelf-life  due  to  delay in rate  of ripening and senescence.
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9.  AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 9.1. INTRODUCTION
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Scientific  research is  a continuous  process. It opens  flood-gates  of progress  and prosperity  of a country  and a community  which has  been denied the benefits  due either to controllable or uncontrollable factors. A holistic  research approach constitutes  basic and essential ingredients  of technological advancement of a country. No purposeful organization built for agricultural technology  for demonstration and extension to the target group of people shall be successful unless  adequately  supported by  both basic and applied research or else it would be a house built on sand. Science and technology constitute the driving force for a balanced agricultural growth and development.
This  fact has  been amply  demonstrated by  the countries  all over the world. An example has  been set by  India where the process  of green Revolution was  triggered by  the evolution and extensive adoption of High Yielding Varieties  of wheat and rice. The revolution was  brought about by  synergistic  congruence of technological, political and socio-economic  forces  in 1968. The Green Revolution technologies  played a leading role in augmentation of food grain availability. It lowered and stabilized the food prices, ehanced farm incomes  and generated sources  of additional income and employment in non-farm economy  and enterprises. It immensely  helped India to win the war over hunger and malnutrition particularly  in rural areas  among underprivileged section of the society  Above all, it transformed the country  from a begging bowl to self-sufficiency  and an exporting nation to join the elites  on the world food scenario. This  is  achievable by any country charged with will-power and resources in terms of men and money.
9.2. STATUS OF AGRI-RESEAROH IN ETHIOPIA
Needless to restate that agriculture is the most important enterprise, providing
employment for more than 85% of the country's population and accounting for more
than 40% of the GDP and 90% of export earnings. In spite of the high agricultural
potential it is endowed with, Ethiopia has been faced with food deficits over the last
several decades. Keeping this problem in view, the Institute of Agricultural Research
now known as Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research or EIAR) was established in
1966. Initially, the research activities encompassed agriculture livestock and forestry. Subsequently, its scope was broad based by initiating the national and coordinated
research programmes and projects. The main objectives of the institute are to:
-     Generate,  develop  and  adapt  agricultural  technologies  that  focus  on  the  needs  of  the overall agricultural development and its beneficiaries
-      Coordinate  the  research  activities  of  the  agricultural  research  centers,  the  institutes of   higher   learning   and   other   related   establishments   which   undertake   agricultural research on contractual basis.
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Build  up  a  research  capacity  and  establish  a  system  that  will  make  agricultural research efficient, effective and based on development needs.
Popularize agricultural research-result based improved technologies.
Formulation of policy on agricultural research for development and
Formulation of policy on agricultural research for development and
Networking and partnerships with outside organizations.
The research programmes of the institute are covered under the Directorates of Crops, Animal sciences, Soils and Water Management and Dry Land Agriculture. There are a total of 56 research centers  and sites, of varying manpower and other capacities, located across  various  agro-ecological zones  (AEZs) in the country. The research centres belong to the following categories:
-    Federal Research Centers and Sub-centers, all of them under the control and
-    supervision of EIAR,
Regional Research centers and sub-centers, all under the Regional and Agricultural Bureaus.
-    Higher Learning Institutions, Research Centers and Trial Sites, under the universities and colleges.
EIAR works in very close cooperation with all the stakeholders including the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ministry  of Water Resources  Development, Regional Bureaus of Agriculture. Higher Learning Institutions, farmers and the NGOs.
The mandate of EAIR has been reviewed and renewed by the Federal Government of Ethiopia in 2005. Five major functions of the institute are as follows.
1. To provide improved agricultural technologies either generated locally or 1.        Introduced from out side.
2.        Popularization of improved technologies.
3.
Coordination of research.
4.
Policy on agricultural research for development.
5.
Net working and partnerships with outside organizations.
EIAR, as  an apex  body, strives  to provide strong leadership in coordinating research within the Ethiopian Agricultural Research system (EARS), by  taking a leading role influencing agricultural policy development.
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9.2.1. Achievements of EIAR and EARS
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The most important achievement of the EARS is  the establishment of the culture of research and its  human resources. There are more than 1,300 researchers  with graduate degrees  in the system. Initially, EIAR was  founded in 1966 with its  research centers  at Holleta (for highland crops  and dairy) and Werer (fiber crops). At present, EARS covers most of the major agro-ecologies spread all over the country.
According to Ehiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), EARS has  released 342 crop varieties, 49 technologies  for livestock  management, 45 for natural resources management, 9 for agricultural engineering (farm implements) and 5 for forestry  during 1970-2003. Further, it has been reported that the Rate of Return (RR) on investment on agricultural R & D for Ethiopia is the highest among 41 countries surveyed in Africa, Asia and Latin America (Thirtle et al, 2003).
Abate  et  al.  (2004)  and  Gebrekidan  et  al.  (2004)  highlighted  the  following  achievements of EIAR:
-    The institute introduced 'Acala” type cotton in early 1970 to sustain its production in Awash Valley.
Introduced White Gold' variety of white haricot bean which comprises a major export commodity for the country
-    Identified coffee berry disease resistant lines from forest coffee and averted the
major coffee crisis in eastern Africa in early 1970.
Introduced, tested and released varieties of malt barley in the Arsi highlands in early 1970.
-    Developed and implemented IPM programs to control scale insects to help the citrus industry.
In 1980, introduced BBM (Broad Bed Maker) technology to reclaim the vertisols in Ethiopian highlands to take good crops.
-    Developed maize hybrids in early 1990s for commercial cultivation
-    Implemented IPM in wheat belt in Arsi-Bele highlands and saved wheat industry from collapsing.
9.3 STATUS OF NATIONAL AND REGIONAL STATE AGRI-RESEARCH
Abbadi Girmay  has  presented an overview of the Tigray  Agricultural Research Institute (TARI), while dealing with Agro-ecology  based research approach for accelerated agricultural development in Tigray.
The fact is. as  emphasized in this  report time and again that crop cultivation and livestock  rearing play  a dominant role in subsistence farming being practised in the National Reg.onal state of Tigray. More than 90% of the total population is dependent on
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the age old plough-based crop culture. Besides  unchanged continuance of this  type of farming, limited mechanization in western lowlands, the climate, terrain and population have severely  restricted the fullest use of land and vegetative cover. In nut shell, the agri-potential and resource base have been continuously  exploited without matching conservation practices for its sustainable use. The following major research approaches
have been identified for the TARI:
- Enhance participatory technology development
Multidisciplinary and inter-institutional integration
Agro-ecology based development
Farming systems and socio-ecomomic and socio-cultural set up considerations.
Enhance indigenous Knowledge base.
Coordination and net working
Client and proplem-oriented research
Diversification of agricultural production system.
TARI has  identified the following targets  for agri-development of the region. These include subsistence farming, urban agriculture, agro-industries, rainfed agriculture, irrigated agriculture, mechanization and indigenous  genetic  resources. It has  been planned to achieve the above targets  with the help of the regional research centers located outside of agro-ecological conditions of the WICA.
9.3.1.  Research Achievements
TARI's main research achievements are briefly presented as follows:
1         Introduction of high value economic tree species of olive and rose oil plant.
2.         Impact of area closure on vegetation and environmental rehabilitation,.
3.         Impact of soil water conservation (SWC) measures.
4.           Adaptability   of   exotic   and   indigenous   tree   species   to   dry   land   conditions   of Tigray
5    Better    survival    of    tree    species    through    'Belg'    season    planting    coupled    with SWC.
6.         Extent of soil loss due to different land uses
7.         Drip irrigation and resource management.
8 Impact of Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) Structures.
9.        Soil fertility management
Optimizing   yield   and   minimizing   drought   risk   through   in   situ   RWH   through Tied-Ridging in sorghum field in drought prone areas of Tigray.
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protection  of  various  tree  species  including  adaptability  of  both  exotic  and  indigenous tree species, status of biodiversity, environmental rehabilitation, biomass estimation etc.
In brief, the institute has done a highly commendable research work for the benefit of the farmers  of the Tigray  National Region and the on-going research would further improve the agriculture productivity. Many  of the research results  would have an immediate applicability  in the WIP command area However, it would be highly  desirable and appropriate to initiate research programs  on irrigated agriculture with improved cropping system in WIP command area for enhancing the productivity.
9.4. AGRI-RESEARCH STRATEGY
The agri-research, so far has  been concentrating on rainfed/dryland agriculture with commodity  approach. But, now in view of the proposal to introduce the irrigation and irrigated production system in WIP command and catchment area, there appears  an urgent and inescapable need to consider afresh the establishment of a new Agricultural Research Center inside the command area. It is  needless  to restate that the area is  at present thinly populated and has very low cropping intensity.
There should now be more emphasis  on farming systems  research since the livestock constitute an integral part of the socio-economic  structure of the area. The proposed research center may  be established by  earmarking approximately  500 hectares  of land on the pattern of a nearby  research center but with an adequate provision for research on animal science and apiculture It would be imperative to have a very  well planned division of Agricultural Engineering to develop farm implements  and tools  to ease agri operations  on vertisols. The implements  should essentially  be within the financial capability  of the small land holders. Further, it is  proposed to have the following disciplines with clearly defined mandate and priorities of research and extension:
-    Agronomy
Soil Science including soil and water conservation
-    Genetics and Plant Breeding
-    Seed Production and Technology
-     Horticulture including Olericulture and Floriculture
-    Agricultural Engineering
-    Animal Sciences;- Animal Husbandry, Bee Keeping and Poultry and Fisheries
-     Irrigation and Drainage
-     Plant Protection Entomology, Pathology and Nematology
-     Food Science and Processing
-    Agricultural Extension
The departments of Agronomy and Plant Protection must place emphasis on IPNM and
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-        The   proposed   disciplines   must   jointly   address   the   following   four   interrelated areas    of    research    to    achieve    higher    productivity    and    sustainability    directed towards   alleviation   of   hunger   and   poverty.   Execution   of   these   proposals   would, by  far,  go  a  long  way  to  achieve  the  objectives  of  the  Millennium  Development Goals of Federal Government of Ethiopia.
-      Augmentation  of  crop  productivity  and  production  to  bridge  or  at  least  to  minimize the   current   yield   gaps.   An   appropriate   action   would   safeguard   the   yield   gains, minimise   post-harvest   losses,   enhance  the  value  addition,   push  up  and  promote productivity,    eco-technologies    rooted    in    the    principals    of    ecology,    economics, equity, employment and ambient environment (both physical and social).
-       Profitable   and   maximum   possible   utilization   of   gene   revolution   (biotechnology), realization   of   benefits   of   information   and   communication   technological   advances (Revolution),   promotion   of   technical   know-how   based   farming   systems,   precision and    conservation    farming,    crop    intensification    and    diversification,    and    value addition.
-        Protection   and   improvement   of   natural   resources,   that   is,   land,   water   and biodiversity,    addressing    environmental    concerns(issues),    management    of    climate change and natural disasters.
-        Seeking    congruence    of    productivity,    profitability,    sustainability    and    equity, addressing    gender    issues    and    problems    of    the    poor,    underprivileged    and neglected (excluded) and management of liberalized trade in the globalized world
by addressing issues related to global competitiveness in the context of WTO.
10.COST OF CULTIVATION, RETURNS AND PROJECTED CROP PRODUCTION
10.1.INTRODUCTION
The cost of cultivation of five important crops  those included in the existing cropping systems  under rain-fed production system has  been considered in contrast with cost of cultivation of crops  under the post project period The rates  of various  inputs  and output and their prevailing prices  have been collected from the various  relevant sources  as  indicated below. The main sources  of information were Central Statistical Agency, the Federal Democratic  Republic  of Ethiopia, Ministry  of Agriculture and Rural Development and relevant Woreda offices  during reconnaissance visit of the command area. The other sources  were the farmers  of the project command Kebeles. discussion with the various relevant experts  posted at the regional agricultural resarch centers  in the Tigray  region and above all the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Rsearch, Addis  Ababa The yields  and returns obtainable from the on-going ramfed crops cultivation have also been assessed.
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10.2 CROP PRODUCTION IN NORTH WEST TIGRAY
The food grain production under rainfed conditions during Meher season (main crop growing season) during 2007-2008 was  2,548 thousand quintals  from an area of 195 thousand hectares Area and production during this season for Ethiopia and National Region of Tigray was  161,167 and 11,789 thousand quintals  from 10,955 and 878 thousand hectares, respectively (CSA, 2008). Production of vegetable, root and fruit crops in N.W Tigray was only 56,8 and 4 thousand quaintals respectively (Table 10.1). These levels of production are grossly inadequate for the people of the area. The net result of these production levels is widespread poverty and hunger as observable in the command area as well. Keeping this problem in view, the FDRE in collaboration with the government of the National Tigray Region has decided to initiate and implement the Wolkayite Irrigation Project to alleviate poverty  and hunger from this  area. It is  rightly  and earnestly  expected that the implementation of the proposed project under either of the two options of cropping patterns (option-l and option-ll) would undoubtedly bring about the revolutionary positive change for the well being of the people of the WIP area. This  expectation is  well supported and
substantiated by easily attainable projections presented below.
Table 10.1 Area and Production (in'OOO) of different crop groups during the meher season. 2007-08
Ethiopia
Tigray Region
North West Tigray
Crops 
Groups
Area (ha)
Production Quintals
Area (ha)
Production Quintals
Area (ha)
Production
Quintals
Grains
10.955
161.167
878
11.789
195
2.548
Cereals
88,730
137.170
710
10.026
167
2.337
Pulses
1.518
17.827
80
1,019
8
77
Oilseeds
I 707
6.169
884
745
20
134
Vegetables
119
4.720
3
152
1
56
Root crops
184
15.309
2
197
01
8
Fruits
63
4.621
0.7
14
0.09
4
Sugarcane
21
7.817
-
11.789
-
Source: CSA (2008)
10.3. RAINFED PRODUCTION SYSTEM
The cost of cultivation, gross  and net returns  for the currently  ongoing rain-fed production system have been presented in Annexure-V(a)-(d). It has  been observed from the estimated cost of cultivation that the benefit cost ratio in case of sorghum, finger-millet, sesame and maize were 0.83, 1.64, 1.76 and 0.74 respectively. This  level of profit by  no standard could be classified as  satisfactory. It’s  because the estimated income from these crops is grossly inadequate to meet the daily needs other than food. The net return per ha of cropped area for sorghum, finger-millet, maize and sesame and their total production are given in Table 10.2. The present levels of net return from crops are very low and grossly inadequate to meet the needs of the households.
10.4 IRRIGATED PRODUCTION SYSTEM
An attempt has been made to project the yields of the crops included under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns in the various proposed cropping systems. The yield projections 
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are based on the yields  obtained from the various  research centres’. MoA & RD sources  and CSA (2007 and 2008) publications. The ultimate yield and net return per ha for the cropping area of sorghum, finger-millet, tef, wheat, barley, rice, maize sesame, noug/niger. soybean, fababean, chickpea, lentil, cowpea, cotton, sugarcane, vegetable (potato), fruit (citrus) fodder (alfalfa) and their total production are given in Table 10.3 and Table 10.4 for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns  respectively. The respective details  of the same have been worked out for each crop for periods  of five years  and above and are shown in Annexure- Vl(a) and Annexure-VI(b).
The   estimated   man-days   and   machinery   hours   required   for   different   farm   activities   are proposed  based  on  the  information  obtained  from  project  stakeholders,  past  experience  and literature.  Moreover,  the  practical  field  experience  and  results  of  research  has  been  referred to  reasonably  estimate   input  requirements   of  each  crops.   The  details  for  the  total  crop budget  i.e,  quantity  of  inputs  required  to  grow  the  proposed  crops,  costs  associated  with inputs,  machineries,  labour  and  others  were  worked  out  and  carefully  prepared  for  each  of the  planned  crops  to  estimate  the  overall  crop  yield  projection  for  periods  of  five  years  and above.  The  cost  of  cultivation,  net  benefit  and  benefit  cost  ratio  of  proposed  crops  under post  project condition are shown in Table 10.5.  The yields are based on the use of improved package  of  production  practices  For  instance  the  net  returns  from  irrigated  sorghum,  finger millet,  wheat,  and  sesame  as  per  projection  are  Birr  14,700,  11,735,  10,795,  and  14,100 respectively.  The  respective  values  for  benefit  cost  ratio  were  3.19:1,  2.89:1,  2.51:1,  and 3.80  1  respectively.  Both  the  net  returns  and  benefit-cost  ratios  appear  very  encouraging and  would  definitely  bring  prosperity  in  the  command  area  during  the  post-irrigation  period under both options of cropping patterns.
Table 10. 2 Net Returns and Total production of existing crops in the command area
Crop
Area-ha
Yield-Qtl/ha
Total Produce -Qtl
Net returns/ha
Total Net Return
Sorghum
1,341
11
14,751
2,048
2,746.368
Finger-millet
546
16
8,736
3,978
2.171,988
Maize
325
16
5,200
2,044
664,300
Sesame
2,733
5
13.665
3,617
9.885.261
Total
4,945
42,352
15,467,917
Table 10. 3 Expected Production of Various Crops in the Command Area under Post-projoct Condition (Option-l)
Crop
Sorghum
Teff Wheal
Area
(ha)
Yield
(q/ha)
Total
produce (q)
3.765 46
Total Net Return (in Birr)
Fingermillet
50.00
2.703 90
189.273.00
55.646.262.00
40.00
1.351 95
108.156.00
20 00
31 730 266 50
540 78
27.039 00
45 00
.
17 203 563 75
Barley Rice Maize Sesame Noug/Niaer
811 17
2 163 12
2 974 29
8.922 87
2 163 12
24.335 10
40 00
50 00
75 00
15 00
15 00
.
5 837 720 10
32 446 80
108.156 00
223.071 75
133.843 05
32.446 80
Net returns /ha
(in Birr)
14.700.00
11 735 00
12 725 00
10,795 00
8.055 00
14.419 00
19.350 00
14.100-00
10.290 00
.
6.533.974.35
31.190.027 28
57.552.511.50
125.812.467.00
22 258.504 80
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Crop
Area
(ha)
Yield
(q/ha)
Total
produce (q)
Net returns /ha (in Birr)
Total Net
Return (in Birr)
Soyabean
1,622.34
30.00
48.670 20
13.825.00
22.428.850.50
Fababean
540 78
15 00
3.111.70
5.695.00
3.079.742.10
Chickpea
1.351.95
30 00
40.558.50
10.010 00
13,533.019.50
Lentil
811 17
20.00
16 223.40
6.695 00
5.430.783 15
Cowpea
1.081.56
20.00
21.631.20
2,925 00
3.153.563 00
Cotton
1,351.95
30.00
40,558.50
16.325 00
22.070.583 75
Sugarcane
5,407.80
1,500 00
8.111.700.00
71,715.00
387.820.377.00
Vegetable (potato)
4,055.85
400.00
1.622.340 00
38 965 00
158.036.195.25
Fruit (citrus)
2,163.12
400.00
865,248 00
111.125 00
240.376.710 00
Fodder (alfalfa)
2,163.12
400.00
865.248.00
5.258 00
11.373 684 96
Total
45,966.30
12,519,057.00
1.221.078,806.49
Table 10. 4 Expected Production of Various Crops in the Command Area under Post-project Condition (Option-ll)
Crop
Area
(ha)
Yield
(q/ha)
Total
produce (q)
Net returns /ha (in Birr)
Total Net
Return (in Birr)
Sorghum
4.05585
50.00
202.792.50
14.700 00
59.620.995.00
Fingermillet
2.703.90
40.00
108.156.00
11.735.00
31.730.266.50
Teff
1.622.34
20.00
32.446.80
12,725.00
20.644.276.50
Wheat
811.17
45.00
36.502.65
10.795.00
8.756.580.15
Barley
811.17
40.00
32.446.80
8.055.00
6.533.974.35
Rice
2.433.51
50.00
121.675.50
14.419.00
35.088.780.69
Maize
4.055.85
75.00
304.188 75
19,350.00
78.480.697.50
Sesame
9,734.04
15.00
146,010.60
14.100 00
137.249.964 00
Noug/Niger
2,703.90
15.00
40.558.50
10.290.00
27.823.131 00
Soyabean
2,163.12
30.00
64.893.60
13.825.00
29 905.134 00
Fababean
1,351.95
15.00
20,279.25
5.695 00
7.699.355 25
Chickpea
1,351.95
30.00
40.558.50
10.010 00
13.533.019 50
Lentil
811.17
20.00
16.223.40
6,695 00
5.430.783 15
Cowpea
1.081.56
20.00
21.631.20
2.925 00
Cotion
3.163.563 00
1,351.95
30.00
40.558.50
16.325 00
Vegetable (potato)
4,596.63
22.070.533 75
400 00
1.838.652.00
38.965 00
Fruit (citrus)
2,163.12
400 00
179.107.697.95
I865.248 00
111.125 00
Fodder (alfalfa)
240.376 710 00
2.163.12
400.00
865.248 00
5 258 00
Total
45.966.30
11.373 654.96
4.798.070 55
918.559.137 25
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Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Table 10. 5 Crop budget for the proposed crops under post project condition
Sorghum
Finger-millet
Tef
Wheat
Barley
Rice
Maize
S.N
Particulars
Unit
Quantity
Unit
price (In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price (In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price
(in Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price (in Bin)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price (In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price (In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price
(In
Birr)
Total
1
Variable costs
4,675.00
4,040.00
7,840.00
4,270.00
4,270.00
7,086.00
4,476.00
1.1
Human labour
md
150
15
2,250.00
80
15
1,200.00
300
15
4,500.00
100
15
1,500.00
100
Hiring of tractors
15
1,500.00
150
15
2.250.00
100
15
1,500.00
1.2
hours
-
LS
2
300
600
LS
3
300
900
3
300
900
5
300
1.500.00
3
300
900
1.3
Pair of oxen
days
4
30
120
4
20
80
8
30
240
6
30
180
6
30
180
4
30
120
6
30
180
1.4
Seed
kfl
10
8
80
7.5
8
60
30
30
900
20
45
90
20
4.5
90
110
4.1
451
20
4.5
90
1.6
Fertilizers and manures
(•)
DAP
K0
100
8.5
850
100
8.5
850
100
8.5
850
100
8.5
850
100
8.5
850
150
8.5
1.275.00
80
8.5
680
(b)
Urea
Murate of Potash
*9
50
7.5
375
50
7.5
375
100
7.5
750
100
7.5
750
100
7.5
750
200
7.5
1.500.00
150
7.5
1,125.00
()
c
kg
-
-
-
-
-
-
(d)
Manures
Jsg
1000
0.3
300
1000
0.3
300
1000
0.3
300
-
1.6
Tools and equipment
hrs
2
300
600
2
287.5
575
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.7
Miscellaneous
-
-
300
-
-
LS’
2
Fixed cost
26
26
236
26
26
35
26
2.1
Land rent
birr
-
-
25
-
-
25
-
-
35
-
-
25
-
-
25
-
-
35
25
2.2
Contingent
expenditure
bin
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
200
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
LS’
-
-
LS’
Total cost (In birr)
*
4,600.00
: ...
4,086.00
6,676.00
4,286.00
7,131.00
4,600.00
3
Return
3.1
Yield of main
product
qt
-
■
18,100.00
40
365
14,600
20
800
16.000.00
45
292
13,140.00
40
260
10,400 00
50
410
20.500.00
75
292
21,900 00
3.2
Yield of by-product
qt
-
-
1.200.00
80
15
1.200.00
120
40
4,800.00
65
30
1.950.00
65
30
1.950.00
70
15
1,050.00
65
30
1 950.00
Gross return (In birr)
18,300.00
15,800.00
20.800.00
16,080.00
12,360.00
21,560.00
23,850.00
Net return (in birr)
14,700.00
11,736.00
12,726.00
10,786.00
8,066.00
14,419.00
19,360.00
Benefit Cost Ratio
14,700.00/4,600.00 « 3.10:1
11,736.00/4,066.00 ■ 2.88:1
12,726.00/6.676.00 ■ 1.84:1
10,786.00/4.286.00 - 2.61:1
8,066.00/4,286.00 = 1.88:1
14,418.00/7,131,00 ■ 2.02:1
16,360.00/4.600.00 ■ 4.30:1
LS* = Least Significant
Sesame
Noug/Niger
Soybean
Faba-bean
Chickpea
Lentil
Cowpea
S.N
Particulars
Unit
Quantity
Unit
price (in Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price (In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price
(in
Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price
(In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price (in Bln)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price (In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit
price
(In Birr)
Total
1
Variable costs
3,676.00
3,676.00
4.740.00 ”1
3,870.00
3,870.00
3,870.00
1,575.00 IS
200
15
3.000.00 LS
100 2
15
son
6,360.00
1.1
Human labour
md
105
15
1,575.00
105
15
1.500.00
100
15
1500.00
100
15
1.500.00
200
15
3.000.00
1.2
1.3
Hiring of tractors Pair of oxen
days
20
30
600
20
30
600
4
30
120
4
30
120
170
40
4
30
600
120
2
4
300
30
100
40
4.25
5
600
120
Seed                                  kg
5
20
100
5
20
2
4
300
30
600
120
1.4
1.6
200
40
5
200
40
5
200
40
45
180
Fertilizers and manur   es
850
100
85
8.5
850
(b)
DAP
Urea
kg kg
50
50
8.5
7.5
425
375
100
8.5
850
100
50
7.5
375
100
8.5
650
(c)
Murate of Potash
kg
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
—:
-
-
-
(d)
Manures
kfl
-
-
-
“
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
1.6
1.7
Tools and equipment Miscellaneous
hrs
2
ouu
rho
600
600
600
600
—--------------
600
2
Fixed cost
36
36
236
236
420
236
236
2.1
2.2
Land rent Contingent expenditure
35
birr
-
-
-
-
-
-
200
200
-
-
35 385
-
-
35
200
35
200
Total cost (in birr)
3,710.00
3,710.00
4,871.00
4,106.00
4,280.00
4,106.00
6,685.00
3
Return
3.1
Yield of main product
qt
15
1054
15,810.00
15
800
12,000.00
30
600
18,000 00
15
600
9,000.00
30
450
13,500.00
20
500
10,000.00
20
3855
7.71000
3.2
Yield of by-product
qt
50
40
2.000 00
50
40
2.000.00
40
20
800 _____
40
20
800
40
40
20
800
Gros    return (In birr)
17.810.00
14,000.00
18,800.00
20
800
40
20
800
9,800.00
14,300.00
10,800.00
8,610.00
Net return (In birr)
14,100.00
10,200.00
13,826.00
6,696.00
10,010.00
8,696.00
2,926.00
Benefit Cost Ratio 
14.100.00/3,710.00 -      1.80:1
10,280.00/3.710.00 ■ 2.77:1
13,826.00/4,976.00 ■ 2.78:1
”•686.00/4,106.00 = 1.39:1
10,010.00/4.290.00 • 2.33:1
6,896.00/4,106.00 - 1.83:1
2,996.00/6.686.00 - 0.64:1
LS* = Least SignificantFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayrte Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Table 10.5 continued...
S.N
Particulars
Unit
Cotton
Sugarcane
Vegetable (potato)
Fruit (citrus)
Fodder (alfalfa)
Quantity
Unit price
(in Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit price
(In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit price
(In Birr)
Total
Quantity
Unit price
(In Bln)
Total
Quantity
Unit price
(In Birr)
Total
1
Vanable costs
8,240.00
22,100.00
8,000.00
9,200.00
2.707.50
1.1
Human labour
md
300
15
4,500.00
600
15
9,000.00
120
15
1.800.00
150
15
2.250 00
50
15
750
1.2
Hiring of tractors
hours
2
300
900
15
300
4,500.00
-
-
LS
-
-
LS
-
-
LS
1.3
Pair of oxen
days
4
30
120
40
30
1,200.00
15
30
450
30
30
900
4
30
120
1.4
Seed
kg
16
20
320
2500
1
2,500.00
2500
1.5
3,750 00
2500
1.5
3,750 00
3
400
1.200.00
1.6
Fertilizers and manures
(a)
DAP
kg
100
8.5
850
200
8.5
1,700.00
100
8.5
850
100
8.5
850
75
8.5
837.5
(b)
Urea
kg
100
7.5
750
300
7.5
2.250.00
200
7.5
1,500 00
100
7.5
750
-
-
(C)
Murate of Potash
kg
-
-
-
•
-
•
-
•
-
(d)
Manures
kg
-
-
2000
0.3
600
*
-
■
-
-
-
-
1.6
Tools and equipment *»
hrs .
1
i
-
-
r
•
•
-
-
•
•
-
1.7
Miscellaneous
800
1,050 00
850
700
2
Fixed cost
436
4386
36
36
36
2.1
Land rent
birr
-
-
35
-
-
35
35
-
-
35
•
•
35
2.2
Contingent expenditure
bin
-
-
400
-
-
4350
-
*
•
-
-
-
Total ct >st (in birr)
8,876.00
27,186.00
0,036.00
8,236.00
2.742JO
3
Return
3.1
Yield of main product
qt
30
800
24,000.00
1500
65
400
120
48,000.00
400
300.9
120,360 00
400
20
8.000 00
3.2
Yield of by-product
qt
-
-
1000
140
10
*
■
■
*
-
-
-
Gross r etum (in birr)
26,000.00
97,500 00
1,400 00
80,800.00
48,000.00
120,360.00
8,000.00
Net return (in birr)
Benefit Cost Ratio
r
16,326.00
71,716.00
38,866.00
111.126.00
5.268.00
16,326.00/8,676.00 - 1.83:1
71,716.00/27,186.00 -2.64:1
38,066.00/0,036.00 - 4.31:1
111,126.00/8,236.00 ■ 12.03:
6,268.00/2.742.80 - 1.82:1FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
10.5 PRESENT STATUS
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
The growth of agriculture in Ethiopia so far has  been heavily  reliant on agricultural land extension with only limited intensification through irrigation. According to Awulachew (2006) the production growth, which is at an average annual value of 0.61% chiefly comes from the cultivated land growth of 0.47% and productivity growth of 0.14% (Table 10.6).
Table 10. 6 Average crop yield growth for the period from 1980-2001.
Crop type
Grow component
Cereals
Pluses
Oilseeds
Average Annual growth
0.74
0.60
0 48
Growth Due to land Expansion
0.57
0.45
0.38
Growth Due to yield Increase
0.17
0.15
0.10
Source: Seleshi B. Awulachew (2006).
It seems  that the policy  makers  and planners  have taken a lesson from this  trend to undertake the WIP. The main objective of this irrigation project is to enhance the crop yield per unit area per unit time and inputs. In brief, it is an effort to push up growth of productivity through intensification The achievement of this  noble objective receives  enough support from the estimates of the projected yields as shown in the following section.
10.5.1 Yield projection and output estimation
Yield projection
The yield projection of the project has  been proposed based on the availability  of the unexploited resources  that could go in the production of improved crop varieties  and the adoption of improved agricultural practices to alleviate poverty and ascertain food security in the area. In this regard, some supporting opportunities/conditions of the command area are briefly described below.
1)  The low-lying command area is virgin and has been under vegetation cover: as a result soil degradation is low and the fertility status is in good condition.
2)  The command area is endowed with a good supply of moisture from Dukuko and
Zarima rivers and other small seasonal streams.
3)  In the area the introduction of improved crop production packages i.e., improved
variety seeds, fertilizers and agronomic practices will be made by the technical team of research and development experts working in the vicinity of the project command Moreover, there will be a concerted technical support from research and offices of rural development during project implementation period.
4)  Farmers have got long years of experience and skill.
5)  Agro-ecological suitability
It is assumed that crops yield will increase for the coming five consecutive years beginning from the project implementation period. At the beginning of the period, under both options of cropping patterns (option-l and option-ll), small holders as well as large scale farming will not
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Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility  & Detail Design ProjectAgronomy  & Agriculture Planning attain the maximum projected crop yields  in the first 1-2 year rounds, although there is  a gradual yield increment on yearly  basis. The trend in yield increment reveals  that there is  an increase in yield with increasing rate followed by  a decreasing rate tendency  until it attains  a constant or optimum level of production. The increase in yield will assume a constant increment beyond the five developmental periods  unless  there is  technology  breakthrough in-respect of crop varieties  and irrigated field management practices  by  the country's national and regional research institutes.
The  allotment  of  the  obtainable  yield/ha  (Table  10.7),  and  the  total  cultivable  command  area as  shown  on  Table  10  8  and  Table  10.9  on  annual  basis,  under  both  options  of  cropping patterns,   is   determined   based   on   the   personal   experience   of   the   study   team   and   the assumption  for  the  gradual  build-up  of  awareness  and  motivation  of  farmers  to  take  part  in the   full   scale   project   implementation   schedule   Moreover,   less   familiarization   to   the   agro ecology  of  the  area  and  the  insufficient  supply  of  inputs  at  the  beginning  will  contribute minimal  amount  of  harvestable  crop  yields.  In  view  of  this,  crops  under  cultivation  will  show gradual   but   geometrical   growth   of   production   in   the   following   five   consecutive   years. Incremental  values  in  respect  of  the  cultivable  area  (in  hectare)  are  calculated  as  10%,  20% 40%.  80%  and  100%  of  the  total  area  assigned  for  the  individual  crops  by  assuming  that there  will  be  a  gradual  extension  of  the  unexploited  land  resource  as  shown  on  Table  10.16 and Table 10.17 under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns respectively.
Output estimation
The area and production of different crop groups  during the meher season in 2007-08 was 
195  thousand  ha  and  2,548  thousand  quintals  respectively  for  the  whole  West  Tigray  zone (Table  10.1).  Under  the  existing  farm  practice,  where  the  available  farm  resources  are  not exploited  to  the  required  level,  the  total  yield  per  unit  area  is  declining  and  not  sufficient  to satisfy   the   consumption   need   of   the   area.   The   existing   crops   yield/hectare   and   total production  is  given  on  table  10.8  and  10.10  for  option-l  and  10  9  and  10.11  for  option-ll respectively.  It  is  assumed  that  the  entire  CCA  would  come  under  rain-fed  cultivation  even without project Thus, the actual area presently cultivated is much less.
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oa.„
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design ProjectAgronomy & Agriculture Planning Table 10. 7 Proposed yield (qt/ha) projections under irrigated farming (Option-I & Optional)
.
Yield under
Crops
rain-fed
farming
Year-1
________
Year-2
Yield under irrigated farmjng_
Year-4
Year-3
__________
Year-5
_________
Year- >5
Sorghum
11
25
30
35
40
45
50
Finger-millet
16
18
20
25
30
35
40
Teff
r11
12
14
16
18
20
20
Iwheat
13
20
25
30
35
45
45
Barley
14
20
25
30
35
40
40
Rice
NA
15
20
30
40
45
50
Maize
16
30
45
60
65
75
75
Sesame
5
8
8
10
10
12
15
Noug/Niger
5
8
8
10
10
12
15
Soyabean
NA
10
15
20
25
30
30
Fababean
13
13
13
15
15
15
15
Chickpea
12
15
18
22
25
30
30
Lentil
9
12
12
15
18
20
20
Cowpea
NA
12
12
15
18
20
20
Cotton
14
16
18
20
25
30
30
Sugarcane
NA
500
800
1.000
1.300
1,500
1500
Vegetable
NA
125
175
250
350
400
400
Fruit
NA
100
175
200
300
340
400
Fodder
NA
125
175
250
350
400
400
Table 10. 8 Existing and proposed post irrigation yield/ha for different crops in Wolkayite command area (Option-I)
Crop
Sorghum
Fingermill
__ Rainy Season
CCA(ha) " Ex'ist‘ing
Proposed
Yield
CCA(ha)
ha
3.785.46
2.703.90
811 17
4.326 24
1.351.95
540,78 540 78
Yield’
Dry Season
Existing
Yield’
_____ Rainy & Dry Season
Proposed
Yield
CCA(ha) "
Existing
Proposed
Yield
q/ha _
Total CCA
ha
3,785.46
Teff
1.351 95
11
Wheal
540 78
13
1.351.95 2.974.29 £596,63
811.17
1.081.56
1.351.95
011.17
1.081.56
i
Noug/Niger Soyat>ean
Fababejn Chickpea Lentil
Cowpea
Cotton
1.351.95
2,974.29 8.922.87_ 2,163.12
1,622.34
540.78
j.351 95
811.17
1,081.56
Sugarcane
Vegetable
Fruit
2.703.90
1081.56
Fodder
Total
1081.56
400**
400"
1,351.95
5407.80
4,055.85
2.163.12
18,927.30
2.163.12 45,966.30
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Table 10. 9 Existing and proposed post irrigation yield/ha for different crops in Wolkayite command area (Option-ll)
Rainy season
Dry season
Crop
CCA(ha)
Existing Yield' (q/ha)
Proposed Yield (q/ha)
CCA(ha)
Existing Yield' (q/ha)
Proposed Yield (q/ha)
Total CCA
(ha)
Sorghum
4.055 85
11
50
-
-
4.055.85
Finaer-millel
2.703.90
16
40
-
-
2.703.90
Teff
1.622 34
11
20
-
-
1.622.34
Wheat
811.17
13
45
-
-
811.17
Barley
811.17
14
40
-
-
811.17
Rice
811.17
NA
50
1.622.34
NA
50
2.433.51
Maize
-
-
-
4.055.85
16
75
4.055.85
Sesame
7.570.92
5
15
2.163.12
5
15
9.734.04
Noug/Niger
1.351.95
5
15
1.351.95
5
15
2,703.90
Soyabean
811.17
-
30
1.351.95
NA
30
2.163.12
Fababean
1,351 95
13
15
-
-
-
1.351.95
Chickpea
-
-
-
1.351.95
12
30
1,351.95
Lentil
-
-
-
811.17
9
20
811.17
Cowpea
-
-
-
1.081.56
NA
20
1.081.56
Cotton
1.351.95
14
30
-
-
-
1.351.95
Vegetable
1.622.34
NA
400
1.351.95
NA
400"
4,596.63
Fruit
1.081.56
NA                       400
1.081.56
NA
400-
2.163.12
Fodder
1.081.56
NA                       400
1.081.56
NA
400—
2,163.12
Total
27.039 00
I-
18.927.30
-
-
45,966.30
NA = Not available
’From Wolkayite Woreda Office of Agriculture and CSA, 2008 report.
* Average yield over potato, tomato, onion, cabbage, green pepper and other vegetables.
•* Average yield over papaya. Mango, Banana. Lemon and other fruits. **’ Proposed production of legumes and non legumes fodder crops
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Table 10. 10 Crop yields and total production under existing farm practice in Wolkayite Command area (Option-I)
Rainy Season
Dry Season
Rainy & Dry Season
Crop
CCA(ha)
ha
Existing |      Yield’
q/ha
Production
(quintal)
CCA(ha)
Existing
Yield’
q/ha
Production
(quintal)
CCA
(ha)
3.785 46
Existing
Yield’
q/ha
Production
(quintal)
Sorghum
11
41,640 06
Total
Production
(quintal)
Fingermillet
2.703.90
16
43.262 40
41 640 06
Teff
1.351.95
11
14,871 45
43 262.40
Wheat
540.78
13
7.030 14
,
14 871 45
Bar lev
811.17
14
11 356 38
.. 7.030.14
Rice
811 17
NA
-
1.351.95
NA
11.356.38
Maize
-
-
-
2 974 29
I6
47 588 64
Sesame
4,326 24
5
21,631 20
4,596 63
5
47.588.64
22.983.15
44 614.35
Nough/Niger
1.351.95
5
6.759 75
811.17
5
4 055.85
NA
10,815.60
Soybean
540.78
-
-
1,081.56
-
Fababean
54078
13
7 030 14
-
-
-
7.030 14
Chickpea
-
1,351.95
12
16,22340
16.223.40
Lentil
-
-
811.17
9
7,30053
7.300.53
Cowpea
-
-
-
1 081.56
NA
-
-
Cotton
1.351.95
14
18,927 30
-
-
•
18.927.30
Sugarcane
-
•
•
-
-
5407.83
NA
-
Vegetable
1,351.95
NA
-
2,703.90
NA
-
-
Fruit
1 081.56
NA
-
1081.56
NA
-
-
Fodder
1,081.56
NA
-
1081 56
NA
-
-
Tloioai ta______________                      l                  _
___  z2i.w1i..xv    631.20
-
__________ _
_____ .---------------------
172.50882
------- ---------------------
18.927.30
-
--------------------
98 151 57    5407.83
270 660.39
^From Wolkayite Woreda Office of Agriculture and CSA, 2008 report.
Note It is assumed that the entire CCA would come under rainfed cultivation.
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Table 10.11 Crop yields and total production under existing farm practice in Wolkayite
Command area (Option-ll)
Rainy Season
Dry Season
Crop
CCA(ha)
Existing Yield’ (q/ha)
Production (q)
CCA(ha)
Existing Yield' (q/ha)
Production (q)
Total
Production (q)
Sorghum
4,055 85
11 00
44,614.35
-
44.614.35
Fingermillet
2.703.90
16 00
43.262 40
-
43.262.40
Telf
1,622.34
11.00
17,845 74
-
17,845.74
Wheat
811.17
13.00
10,545.21
-
10.545.21
Barley
811.17
14.00
11,356.38
-
11,356.38
Rice
811.17
NA
-
1.622 34
NA
-
Maize
-
-
4,055.85
16.00
64.893 60
64,893.60
Sesame
7,570.92
5.00
37,854 60
2,163.12
5.00
10,815.60
48,670.20
Noug/Niger
1.351.95
500
6,759 75
1,351.95
5.00
6.759.75
13,519.50
Soyabean
811.17
-
-
1,351.95
NA
-
Fababean
1.351.95
13 00
17,575.35
-
-
17.575.35
Chickpea
-
-
1.351.95
12.00
16.223.40
16.223.40
Lentil
-
-
811.17
9.00
7,300.53
7.300.53
Cowpea
-
-
1,081 56
NA
-
Cotton
1.351 95
14.00
18.927.30
-
-
18.927.30
Vegetables
1,622 34
NA
-
1.351.95
NA
Fruit
1,081 56
NA
-
1.081 56
NA
Fodder
1.081.56
NA
-
1.081 56
NA
Total
27.039 00
208.741.08
18.927 30
105,992.88
314.733.96
1 From Wolkayite Woreda Office of Agriculture and CSA, 2008 report.
Note: It is assumed that the entire CCA would come under rainfed cultivation.
The expected assumption with regard to project output is  increasing production and ensuring food security  under both options  of cropping patterns. It is  assumed that the project would bring significant increase in production and productivity  of crops  through intensive management per unit time and space. Intensification has  been presumed to boost production and productivity  of the targeted crops  in the range of 15-1,500 qt/ha. Table 10.12 and Table 10.13 reveal the obtainable ultimate high crop yields  respectively  from the proposed irrigated farm practices  in option-l and option-ll cropping patterns. Moreover, greater production benefits  to be obtained from the proposed irrigated farm practice are depicted respectively  on Table 10.14 and Table 10.15 for option-l and option-ll cropping patterns.
The overall WIP achievement in respect of crop yields and production benefits from irrigation is unusually large as against to the low existing yield/ha and total production under the existing farm practice as depicted on Tables 10.8, 10 9, 10.10 & 10.11. Moreover, the year- wise break down for the total proposed cultivated land and crop production under option-l and option-ll cropping patterns is briefly summarized in Table 10.16 and Table 10.17 respectively. This summary has been worked-out based on the assumed annual yield (Table 10.7) to be secured upon the implementation of the project in full swing.
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Table 10.12 The ultimate crop yields and production under the proposed irrigated farm
practice in Wolkayite command area (Option-I)
Rainy season
Prop
osed      Production
Dry season
Rain}
& Dry season
I—
Prop
osed
CCA           Yield     (quintal)            CCA (ha)     Yield
Production
(quintal)
CCA
(ha)
Productio n
(quintal)
Crop                  (ha)            q/ha
q/ha
Prop
osed
Yield
q/ha
Sorghum
3.705 46    50
189,273.00
-
-
Total production (quintal)
108,156.00
27.039.00
24.335.10
189.273.00
Fingermillet
2.703 90
40
108.156.00
-
Teff
1.351.95
20
27.039.00
-
Wheat
540.78
24.335 10
Barley
811.17
i 45
40
32 446 80
-
32.446.80
Rice
811.17
50
40.558 50
1,351.95
50
67.597.50
108.156 00
Maize
2.974 29
75
223.071.75
223.071 75
Sesame
4.326.24
15
64.893.60
4.596.63
15
68.949.45
133.843.05
Noug/Niger
1.351.95
15
20.279 25
811.17
15
12,167 55
32.446 80
Soyabean
540.78
30
16.223.40
1.081.56
30
32.446 80
48.670.20
Fababean
540.78
15
8.111.70
-
-
8.111 70
Chickpea
-
1,351 95
30
40,558.50
40.558.50
Lentil
-
-
811.17
20
16.223.40
16.223 40
Cowpea
-
1.081.56
20
21,631 20
21.631.20
Cotton
1.351.95 '
30
40.558.50
-
-
-
40.558.50
Sugarcane
-
-
-
-
-
-
5.407 80
1.500
8,111.700
8.111,700.00
Vegetable
1,351.95
400
540.780.00
2.703 90
400
1.081.560.00
1.622.340.00
Fruit
1.081.56
400
432.624 00        1081.56
400
432 624 00
865.248.00
Fodder               1.081.56
400
432,624.00        1081.56
400
432.624 00
865.248.00
Total                  21,631.2
-
1,977.902 85     18,927.3
2.429 454 15
5,407.80
8.111.700
12.519.057 0C
Table 10.13 The ultimate crop yields and production under the proposed irrigated farm
practice in Wolkayite command area (Option-ll)
Rainy season
Dry season
Crop
CCA (ha)
Proposed yield (q/ha)
Production
(q)
CCA (ha)
Proposed
yield (q/ha)
Production (q)
Total
production (q)
Sorghum
4,055 85
50.00
202.792.50
202.792 50
Fmaermillel
2.703.90
40.00
108.156.00
-
108.156 00
Teff
1 622.34
20.00
32.446.80
-
Wheal
811.17
45.00
36.502.65
32.446 80
36.502 55
Barley
811.17
40.00
32.446.80
-
32.446.80
Rice
811.17
50.00
40.558.50
1.622.34
50.00
81.117.00
Maize
-
-
-
4.055.85
121.675.50
75.00
Sesame
7,570.92
113.563 80
304.188.75
2 163.12
304 188.75
15.00
Nough/Niqer
20.279 25
32.446 80
1.351.95
,
146.010 60
15.00
Soyabean
15.00
1.351.95       15.00
811.17          30.00
24.335.10
20.279.25
1.351.95
40.558.50
30.00
Fababean
1.351.95
15.00
20.279 25
40.558.50
-
-
64.893 60
Chickpea
•
-
1.351.95
20 279 25
30 00
Lentil
-
40.558 50
-
-
811.17
2000
..
40 558 50
Cowpea
16.223 40
-
1,351 95
1.001 56 1,081.56
-
1.081.56
20.00
16 223 40
Cotton
30.00
-
40.558.50
21.631 20
•
1.622 34
-
-
..
21.631 20
Veaetables
■
648.936.00
2.974.29
-
40.558.50
Fruit
-
432.624 00
1.081.56
1.189.71600
-
1 838 652 00
Fodder
-
432.624 00
1.081 56
-
432.624.00
.
865 248 00
Total
27.039.00
■
2,186,103.15
18.927.30
432.624.00
.
865 248 00
-
2,611.967.40
4.798.070.55
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Table 10. 14 Comparison between pre and post project period production in Wolkayite command area (Option-I)
1 Crop
Total CCA (ha)
Pre-project period
Post-project period
Difference
Production (quintal)
Production
%
Production (quintal)
Production
7.
Production (quintal)
Production
%
Sorghum
3,785 46
41.640,06
15.4
189,273.00
1.5
147,632 94
1.2
Fingermillet
2,703 90
43.262.40
160
108 156.00
0.9
64,893 60
0.5
TeH
1.351 95
14.871.45
55
27 039.00
0.2
12,167 55
0.1
Wheat
540 78
7,030 14
26
24.335 10
0.2
17,304 96
0.1
Barley
811,17
11,356 38
42
32.446.80
0.3
21.090.42
0.2
Rice
2.163 12
-
00
108,156.00
0.9
108,156.00
0.9
Maize
2,974 29
47.588.64
17.6
223,071.75
1.8
175,483.11
1.4
Sesame
8 922 87
44,614 35
164
133,843.05
1.1
89,228.70
0.7
Nouah/Niger
2.163 12
10,815.60
4.0
32.446.80
0.3
21.631.20
0.2
Soyabean
1,622 34
•
00
48.670.20
0.4
48.670.20
0.4
Fababean
540 78
7,030 14
26
8,111.70
0.1
1,081.56
0
Chickpea
1.351 95
16,223.40
60
40 558.50
0.3
24,335.10
0.2
Lentil
811.17
7.300 53
2.7
16,223.40
0.1
8,922.87
0.1
Cowpea
1,081 56
-
00
21,631.20
0.2
21,631.20
0.2
Cotton
1,351 95
18.927.30
70
40.558.50
0.3
21,631 20
02
Sugarcane
5407 80
-
0.0
8.111,700.00
64 8
8,111 700.00
66.2
Vegetable
4.055 85
-
00
1,622.340.00
13.0
1.622,340.00
13.2
Fruit
2.163 12
-
00
865,248.00
6.9
865,248.00
7.1
Fodder
2.163 12
-
0.0
865.248.00
6.9
865,248.00
7.1
Total
45.966.30
270,66039
| 100.0
12,519,057.00
100.0
12,248,396 61
100
Note: It is assumed that the entire CCA would come under rainfed cultivation.
'----- «     '----- F
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Table 10.15 Comparison between pre and post project period production in Wolkayite
command area (Option-ll)
Pre-proiect period
Post-project period
Difference
Crop
Total CCA (ha)
Production (quintal)
Produ-ction %
Production (quintal)
Produ-ction %
Production (quintal)
Produ-ction %
Sorghum
,
2.703 9
4 055 9
44.614 35
14 2
202.792 50
42
158.178 15
3.5
Finger-millet
43.262.40
136
108.156 00
24
64.893 50
1.4
Teff
1.622.3
17.845 74
57
32.446.80
0.7
14,601.06
0.3
Wheat
811.2
10.545 21
34
36.502.65
0.8
25.957 44
05
Barley
811.2
11.356 38
36
32.446 80
0.7
21.090 42
05
Rice
2.433.5
121.675 50
2.5
121.675 50
2.7
Maize
4 055.9
64.893 60
20.6
304.188.75
64
239.295 15
5.3
Sesame
9,734.0
48.670.20
15.5
146.010.60
3.0
97.340 40
2.2
Nough/Niger
2.703.9
13.519.50
40.558.50
0.8
27.039.00
0.6
Soyaoean
2.163.1
64.893.60
1.4
64.893.60
1.4
Fababean
1.352.0
17.575.35
5.6
20.279.25
0.4
2.703 90
0.1
Chicpea
1.352.0
16.223.40
5.2
40.558.50
0.8
24.335.10
0.5
Lentil
811.2
7.300.53
2.3
16.223.40
0.3
8.922.87
0.2
Cowpea
1.081.6
-
-
21,631.20
0.5
21,631 20
0.5
Cotton
1.352.0
18.927.30
6.0
40.558.50
0.8
21.631.20
0.5
Vegetable
4.596.6
-
1.838.652.00
38 3
1.838.652.00
41.0
Fruit
2,163.1
-
865.243.00
18.0
865.248.00
19.3
Fodder
2,163.1
-
865.248 00
18 0
865.248.00
19.3
Total
45.966 3
314.733 96
100.0
4.798.070.55
100.0
4.483.336.59
1000
Note: It is assumed that the entire CCA would come under rain-fed cultivation.
Table 10.16 Proposed outputs of crops under irrigated farming (Option-I)
Project years
Year-1
Crops
Particulars
Year-2
Year-3
Year-4
Year-5
Year->5
Yield (qt/na)
25 00
30.00
35.00
40 00
50.00
50 00
Sorghum
Area (ha)
378 55
757 09
1.514 18
3.028.37
3.785 46
Tolal production (qt)
9.463 65
3.785 46
22.712 76
52.996 44
121 134 72
139.273 00
Yield (qt/ha)
18 00
20.00
189.273 00
25 00
30.00
40 00
Finger-millet
Area ha)
270 39
40 00
540 78
1.081 56
2 163.12
2.703 90
2.703 90
Total production (qt)
4.867 02
10.815.60
27.039 00
64.893 60
Yield (qt/ha)
12 00
108.156 00
14.00
108 156 00
16 00
18.00
Area iha)
135.20
20 00
270.39
20 00
Teff
540.78
1.081 56
1.622 34
1.351 95
3.785 46
1 351 95
8.652 48
Yield (qt/ha)
19.468 08
20 00
27.039.00
25.00
.
27.039 00
30.00
35.00
54.08
45 00
45 00
Wheal
Total production (qt)
Area (ha)
Total production (qt) 1 081.56
108 16
216.31
432 62
2 703 90
540 78
6.489 36
540 78
15.141 84
Yield (qVha)
20 00
25 00
24.335 10
30 00
.
24 335 10
Area (ha)
Area (ha)
35.00
Barley
Total production (qt)
Yield (qt/ha)
81.12
15.00 216.31
162.23
40 00
324.47
40 00
1.622 34
648 94
4.055 85
811.17
9.734 04
311 17
20 00
22.712.76
32 446 80
30 00
32 446 80
40 00
432.62
.
50 00
865.25
50 00
Rice
Tolal production (qt)       3.244.68
Area (ha)                        297 43          1 594 86 Total production (qt)
Yield (qVha)                   8 00                8 00
8.652 48
1.730 50
25.957 44
2.163.12
2 163 12
Yield (qt/ha)
30 00
69.219 84
1 45.00
1 n q 1 cm rwn
60.00
108 156 00
65.00
. 75 00
. ?c nn
Maize
1.189 72
8 922 87
26 763 61
2.379 43
2.974 29
71.382.96
2 Q74 *>0
154 663 08
223.071 75
07 1 7R
10 00
Area (ha)
892 29
1 1 784 57
10.00
15 00
Sesame
3.569 15
1 s on
Total production (qt) Yield (qt/ha) Area (ha)
7 138 30 8 00 216 31
14,276 59
8 00
432 62
7.138 30
35.691 48
10 00
865 25
8 922 67
ft Q7 7 ft?
71.382 96
10 00
1 730 50
.
133.843 05
15 00
2 163 12
133.843 05
15 00
2 163 12
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Project years
Year-1
Year-2
Year-3
Yea r-4
Year-5
Year->5
Crops                   Particulars
Noug/Niger Total production (qt)
1,730.50
3,460.99
8.652.48
17,304.96
32.446.80
32.446.80
Yield (qt/ha)
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
30.00
Area (ha)
162.23
324.47
648 94
1.297.87
1,622.34
Soybean
1.622.34
Total production (qt)
1.622 34
4,867.02
12.978.72
32.446.80
48.670.20
48.670.20
Yield (qt/ha)
13.00
13.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
Area (ha)
54.08
108.16
216.31
432.62
540.78
Fababean
540.78
Total production (qt)
703.01
1.406.03
3.244.68
6.489.36
8.111.70
8,111.70
Yield (qt/ha)
15.00
18.00
22.00
25.00
30.00
30 00
Chickpea
Area (ha)
135.20
270.39
540.78
1.081.56
1.351.95
1.351.95
Total production (qt)
2.027.93
4,867.02
11.897.16
27.039.00
40.558.50
40,558.50
Yield (qt/ha)
12.00
12.00
15.00
18.00
20.00
20 00
Lentil
Area (ha)
81.12
162.23
324.47
648.94
811.17
811.17
Total production (qt)
973.40
1.946 81
4,867.02
11,680 85
16.223 40
16,223.40
Yield (qt/ha)
12.00
12.00
15.00
18.00
20.00
20.00
Cowpea
Area (ha)
108.16
216.31
432.62
865.25
1,081.56
1,081.56
Total production (qt)
1,297.87
2.595.74
6.489.36
15.574 46
21.631.20
21.631.20
Yield (qt/ha)
16.00
18.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
30.00
Cotton
Area (ha)
135.20
270.39
540.78
1.081.56
1.351.95
1.351.95
Total production (qt)
2.163.12
4.867.02
10.815.60
27.039.00
40.558.50
40.558 50
Yield (qt/ha)
500.00
800.00
1.000.00
1.300.00
1.500.00
1.500.00
Sugarcane
Area (ha)
540.78
1,081.56
2.163.12
4,326.24
5.407.80
5.407.80
Total production (qt)
270.390 00
865.248.00
2.163.120.00
5.624.112.00
8.111.700 00
8,111.700.0
Yield (qt/ha)
125.00
175.00
250.00
350.00
400.00
400 00
Vegetables
Area (ha)
405.59
811.17
1.622.34
3.244 68
4.055 85
4,055.85
Total production (qt)
50.698.13
141.954.75
405.585.00
1.135.638.00
1.622.340 00
1.622.340.0
Yield (at/ha)
100 00
175.00
200.00
300.00
400.00
400.00
Fruit
Area (ha)
216.31
432.62
865.25
1.730.50
2.163.12
2.163.12
Total production (qt)
21,631.20
75.709.20
173.049.60
519.148.80
865.248.00
865.248 00
Yield (qt/ha)
125.00
175.00
250.00
350.00
400.00
400.00
Fodder
Area(ha)
216 31
432 62
865.25
1.730.50
2.163 12
2.163.12
Total production (qt)           27.039.00
75.709 20
216.312.00
605.673.60
865.248.00
865.248 00
Yield (qt/ha)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Area (ha/                            4,596.63
9,193.26
18.386.52
36,773.04
45,966.30              45.966.30
Total
Total production (qt)           418,239.25
1,276,403.03
3.254,954 82
8,560,763.71
12,519.057.00       12.519.057.
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Project years
Crops
Particulars
Year-1
Year-2
Year-3
Year-4
Yiplri (nt/hal
25 00
30.00
35.00
40.00
50.00
405 59
811.17
1.622.34
3.244.63
Year-5                   Year->5
50 00
4.055 35
202.792 50           202.7 92 50
4.055 85
Sorghum
Total production (qt)
10.139.63
24.335.10
56.781.90
129.787.20
Yield (ql/ha)
18.00
20 00
25.00
30.00
40.00
40 00
Area (ha)
270.39
540 78
1.081.56
2.163.12
Finger-millet
Total production (qt)
4.867 02
10.815 60
27.039 00
64.893.60
2.703.90                2.703 90 108.156 00
108.156.00
Yield (qt/ha)
12.00
14 00
16 00
18 00
20.00
Area (ha)
162 23
324 47
648 94
1.297.87
1.622.34
Teff
Total production (qt)       1.946.81         4.M2 55
Yield (at/ha) Area (ha)
20.00
81.12
ZD.OU
162 23
10.382.98 "n nn
23.361.70 35 00
32.446 80 45 00
32.446 80 45 00
324 47
648 94
811.17
Wheal
Total production (qt)
1,622 34
4.055 85
9.734 04
22.712.76
36 502 65
Yield (qt/ha)
20.00
25 00
30 00
35 00
40 00
Area (ha)
81.12
162 23
324 47
648 94
311 17
20.00
1.622.34
811.17 36 502 55 40.00 32.446.80
311.17
Barley
Total production (qt)
1 622 34
4 055 85
9.734 04
22.712.76
32.446 80
Yield (qt/ha
15.00
20 00
30.00
40.00
50.00
50 00
Area (ha)
243 35
486 70
973 40
1.946.81
2,433.51
2.433 51
Rice
Total production (qt)
3 650.27
9.734 04
29.202 12
77.872 32
121.675.50
121.675 50
Y'eid (qt/ha)
30 00
45 00
60.00
65 00
75.00
7500
Area (ha)
405 59
811.17
1.622.34
3.244 68
4.055.85
4.055.85
Maize
Total production (qt)
12.167.55
36.502 65
97.340 40
210.904.20
304.188.75
304.188.75
Yield (qt/ha)
8.00
8.00
10.00
10.00
15.00
15.00
Area (ha)
973.40
1.946.81
3 893 62
7.787 23
9.734 04
9.734 04
Sesame
Total production (qt)
7.787.23
15.574 46
38.936.16
77.872 32
146.010 60
146.010 50
Yield (qt/ha)
8.00
8 00
1000
10 00
15.00
1500
Area ha)
270 39
540 78
1.081.56
2.163.12
2.703 90
2.703 90
Noug/Niger
Total production (qt)
2.163 12
4.326 24
10.815.60
21.631 20
40.558.50
40.558 50
Yield iqt/ha)
10.00
15.00
20.00
25 00
30.00
30 00
Area iha)
216 31
432.62
865 25
1.730 SO
2.163.12
2.163.12
Soybean
Total production (qt)
2.163 12
6.489.36
17.304 96
43.262 40
64.893.60
64.893 60
Yield (qt/ha)
13.00
13.00
15 00
15 00
15.00
1500
Area (ha)
135 20
270.39
540 78
1.081 56
1.351 95
1.351 95
Fababean
Total production (qt)
1.757.54
3.515.07
8.111 70
16.223 40
20.279 25
20 279.25
Yie.d (ct/hai
15.00
18.00
22 CO
25 00
30.00
30 00
Area (ha)
135.20
270 39
540 78
1.081 56
1.351 95
1.351 95
Chickpea
Total production (qt)
2.027.93
4.867.02
11.397 16
27.039.00
40.558 50
40.558 50
Yield (qt/ha)
12.00
12 00
15 00
18.00
20 00
20 00
Area (ha)
81.12
162 23
324 47
643 94
311 17
811.17
Lentil
Total production (qt)
973 40
1.946.81
4.667 02
11.680.85
16.223 40
16.223.40
Yield (qt/ha)
12.00
12 00
15 00
18 00
20 00
20.00
Area (ha)
108 16
216 31
432 62
865 25
Cowpea
1.081 56
Total production (qt)
1.297 87
2.595 74
1.081 56
6.459 36
15.574 45
21.631 20
Yield (qt/ha)
16 00
18 00
21.631 2C
20 00
25 00
30.00
Area (ha)
135 20
270 39
30 00
540 78
1.031 56
Cotton
Total production (qt)
2.163 12
4.867 02
1.351 95
1 351 95
10 815 60
27.039 00
Yield (ql/ha)
175.00
40.558 50
250 00
40.558 50
350 00
400 00
Area (ha)
919 33
125 00
459 66
57.457.88
216 31
21.631 20        75 709 20 125 00
216.31             432 62
X
4 596.63
1.338 65
400 00
Vegetables
3.677 30
Total production (qt)
160.882 05
4.596 63
459.663.00
4.596 63
1.287.056 40
Yield (ql/ha)
100 00
175 00
200 00
1.838.652 00
1 838 652 00
300.00
Area (ha)
432 62
400 00
865 25
.. 400 00
1.730 50
Fruit
Total production (qt)
2.163 12
173.049 60
519.143 80
Yield (ql/ha)
175 00
365.243 00
250 00
350 00
.
365 248 00
2 163 12
400 00
865 25
. 400 00
Fodder
Area (ha)
Total production (qt)
Area (ha)
27.039 00
75 709 20
1730 50
216 312 00
2.163 12
2 163 12
Yield (ql/ha)
605 673 60
X
865 243 00
X
355 243 00
X
9.193.26
X
18.386.52
x
36.773.04
45.966 30
Total
Total production (qt)
162.477.35
450.523 82
1.198.476.64
45 966 30
3.204.445 97
4.798.070 55
4.798.070.S5
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Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project___________ Agronomy & Agriculture Planning 10.6 PROJECTED YIELD OF IRRIGATED CROPS
Data given in Table 10.18 and Table 10.19 evince that the introduction of irrigation under both options  of cropping patterns  would bring about spectacular improvement in the production of food grains, vegetable, fruit, fodder and commercial crops  in WIP command area.
Table 10.16 Expected Production and Gains due to Irrigation (Option-l)
Crop categories
Proposed Production (q)
Rainfed
Irrigated
Gain due to
irrigation (q)
Crops total
270,660.39
12,519,057.00
12.248,3^6.61
Cereals
165.749.07
712,477.65
546.728.58
Oilseed
55.429.95
166,289.85
110,859.90
Pulses
30,554.07
135,195.00
104.640.93
Commercial
18.927.30
8,152.258.50
8,133.331.20
Vegetables
0
1.622,340.00
1,622,340.00
Fruit
0
865.248.00
865,248.00
Fodder
0
865,248.00
865.248.00
Table 10.19 Expected Production and Gains due to Irrigation (Option-ll)
Crops categories
Proposed Production (q)
Rainfed
Irrigated
Gain due to
irrigation (q)
Crops total
314,733.96
4,798,070.55
4,483,336.59
Cereals
192,517.68
838,209.00
645,691.32
Oilseeds
62,189.70
186,569.10
124.379.40
Pulses
41,099.28
163,585.95
122.486.67
Commercial
18,927.30
40,558.50
21,631.20
Vegetables
-
1,838.652.00
1,838.652.00
Fruits
-
865,248.00
865.248.00
Fodders
-
865,248.00
865.248.00
Production of cereal, oilseed, pulse, commercial, vegetable, fruit, and fodder crops  under irrigated farm practice are respectively  expected to yield 71.23 , 16.63, 1352, 815 23, 162.23. 86 52 and 86 52 thousand tons  in option-l cropping pattern. Crops  in the same
categorical  groups  would  respectively  register  83  82,  18  66  16.36,  40.56,  183  87,  86.52  and 86.52  thousand  tons  yield  in  option-ll  cropping  pattern.  Value  of  net  return  from  all  crops  in the  command  area  on  full  development  is  expected  to  be  1.22  billion  Birr  in  option-l  and 918.59  million  Birr  in  option-ll  against  pre-project  total  net  return  of  15.47  million  Birr.  Thus the  net  gain  in  value  of  produce  under  post-project  conditions  over  pre  project  condition  is expected  to  be  1.21  billion  Birr  and  903.12  million  Birr  respectively  in  option-l  and  option-ll cropping  patterns  as  against  the  total  project  cost  of  3.318  billion  Birr.  All  the  gains  proposed for  the  area  would  undoubtedly  bring  about  significant  prosperity  to  help  in  the  achievement of the Millennium Development Goals in Ethiopia
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11. RECOMMENDATIONS
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
On the basis  of feasibility  study  conducted in the Wolkayite Irrigation command area for introduction of irrigated production system mainly  on small holdings  for increasing the productivity  and production of food grains, cash and other exportable crops, the following important points  of recommendations  have emerged for consideration in view of existing socio-economic situation of the farmers, soils and climatic conditions:
1.     Currently  large  number  of  crops  is  being  grown  under  rainfed  production  systems  using only   local   varieties   or   land   races   with   poor   genetic   potential   and   low   yields   They   are required   to   be   replaced   by   high   genetic   potential   varieties   and   hybrids   which   may preferably   be   photo   and   thermo-insensitive,   resistant   to   biotic   and   abiotic   stresses,   high yielding, and responsive to irrigation and other inputs.
2.     Majority   of   the   farmers   are   using   their   own   previous   season   produce   as   seed   without ensuring   its   quality   and   potential,   hence,   it   is   strongly   recommended   to   ensure   the supply   of   quality   seed   of   improved   varieties   recommended   for   the   command   area   at reasonable and affordable cost.
3.    To  improve  the  supply  of  seed,  it  is  suggested  to  introduce  the  in  village  seed  production scheme   in   and   around   project   command   area   after   proper   capacity   building   of   the participating     farmers     with     appropriate     buy-back     arrangements     This     scheme     would ensure   the   production   of   adequate   certified   seed   of   suitable   varieties   in   the   area,   at reasonable cost and also help as demonstration unit.
4   The   supply   of   other   inputs   like   fertilizers   and   agro   chemical   are   either   inadequate   or delayed  at  the  kebeles  and  villages.  It  is  therefore,  strongly  recommended  to  ensure  the adequate   and   timely   supply   of   the   above   and   also   encourage   the   farmers   for   need based  use.  If  required,  adequate  and  timely  credit  facilities  should  be  made  available  for such farmers.
5.      Popularization   of   compost   preparation   and   application   methods   through   campaigns   by the   extension   agencies.   Attention   should   be   given   to   the   control   of   crop-enemies   and quality   agrochemicals   need   be   made   available   on   time   and   in   required   quantity   at affordable price.
6.     The   farmers   are   using   only   a   local   plough   and   indigenous   tools   for   field   preparation, harvesting   and   threshing   which   delayed   the   farm   operations   with   poor   quality   of   land preparation   resulting   in   poor   yields.   It   is   therefore,   suggested   to   introduce   bullock   or oxen-operated    (drawn)    farm    implements    and    tools    for    timely    and    satisfactory    farm operations including post-harvest practices.
7 Livestock rearing is an important component of agriculture. It is. therefore strongly recommended to introduce improved breeds with high genetic potential and dual-
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purpose type to meet the requirements  of milk, meat and traction power. The farmers should be convinced not to rear more than 2-3 cattle per household in view of constraints  on feed and fodder resources. The practice of stall-feeding is  also recommended with proper mix of green and dry fodder
8.       With    the    introduction    of    irrigated    production    system,    it    is    strongly    recommended    for introduction    of    the    cropping    systems    at    least    with    alternative    choice    of    crop    rotations having    cropping    intensity    of    up    to    170    percent    initially    for    high    production    and    better employment    generation.    The    rotations    should    be    flexible    to    accommodate    need-based crops for high income with reasonable cost of cultivation.
9.       The    production    technologies    of    important    field    crops,    vegetables,    fodder    and    fruits    for irrigated     production     system     have     been     discussed     keeping     in     view     of     the     current requirement    of    the    country.    Their    water    requirement    has    also    been    worked    out    and indicated.     These     practices     are     recommended     to     be     followed     till     new     production technologies are generated locally and made available to the farmers.
10. The technologies for integrated farming system involving crops, livestock, horticulture,
fishery, forestry, apiculture, etc. should be demonstrated at the farmers fields to make
them more popular for high and sustainable production, high employment generation
with acceptable environment.
11.    Since   the    extension   service   seems   to    be   quite   ineffective    with   a   gap   in   number   of Development   Agents,   it   is   felt   that   the   number   of   well   trained   grass-root   level   staff   needs to    be    increased    for    guiding    the    farmers.    They    should    be    trained    in    proper    technology dissemination activities like on-farm demonstrations of different technologies.
12.    It   is   strongly   recommended   to   organize   frequent   refresher   and   capacity   building   program for    all    level    of    extension    officials    on    irrigated    agriculture    production    technologies    and post-harvest     practices     The     training     for     farmers     and     farm     women     should     also     be organized   with   special   emphasis   on   production   and   post   harvest   skills   of   crop   and   other enterprises     related     to     self-employment     and     village-based     industries     for     increasing     their income     and     employment     keeping     in     view     the     market     demand.     Encouragement     for participatory research and extension activities of village level would be very useful.
13    National    and    Regional    Research    System    covers    entire    spectrum    of    crops,    livestock, natural    resources,    forestry,    etc.    under    rainfed    production    system    but    there    are    gaps    in several      areas      under      irrigated      production      system      awaiting      redressal      and      focused attentions    Some    of    these    areas    are    breeding    for    photo    and    thermo-insensitivity,    crop livestock-fish       horticulture       integrated       production       system,       production       practices       with reference     to     climate     change     and     its     implication,     harnessing     space,     information     and communication      technology,      biotechnology,      organic      recycling      and      value      addition      to biomass,      pre-breeding      and     participatory     breeding     and     scientific     organic     farming     to generate technologies.
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14.   It   is   strongly   recommended   to   set   up   a   new   agricultural   research   cum   demonstration center   under   irrigated   production   system   in   project   command   area   to   conduct   research and    demonstration    on    important    crops,    horticulture,    livestock,    fishery,    forestry,    farm implements,   tools,   post   harvest   processes,   etc.   along   with   integration   of   relevant   areas with crops for sustainable production. Applied research should be given high priority.
15.lt    is    strongly    recommended    to    increase    the    Research-Extension-farmers    linkages    by increased financial support for rapid dissemination and adoption of technologies.
16.   Strong   Public   (Government)   private   sector   partnership   based   on   the   respect   for   each others,  obligations  is  recommended  keeping  in  view  IPR.  breeders’  right  and  other  forms of proprietary control over technologies and products of commercial significance.
17.   It   is   further   recommended   to   establish   a   National   Participatory   Research,   Demonstration and   Training   Centre   to   integrate   available   scientific   Institutions,   extension   program   and grass-root level institutions related to agricultural and livestock development.
18.   Under  Agro  processing,  it  is  recommended  to  make  ready  for  commission  of  sugar  mill well  before  the  sugar  cane  crop  is  ready  for  harvest.  The  means  of  transportation  must be provided in each part of the command area for timely delivery of cane to the mill.
19.  It  is  strongly  felt  that  the  women  may  be  actively  involved  in  all  agricultural  and  livestock production  activities  with  proper  support  of  training.  They  could  be  given  skill  training  for fruit    and    vegetable    preservation    training    after    formation    of    women    based    Self-Help Groups (SHGs).
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Ngigi. S.N 2003. Rainwater Harvesting for improved food security. Promising technologies in the greater Horn of Africa. Greater Horn of Africa Rain water Partnership and the Kenya Rainwater Association. Nairobi. Kenya
Pal,   M.   2002.   Basics   of   agriculture.   Jain   brothers.   16/873.   East   park   road,   New   Delhi   - 110005. India
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
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Pretty,     J.N,A.D.Noble.     D.Bossio,     J.Dixon,     RE.Hine,     F.W.T     Penning     de     Vries     and     J.I.L.
Morison.     2005     Resource     Conserving     Agriculture     increases     yields     in     developing countries.
Reddy, S.R. 1999. Principles of agronomy. Ludhiana: Kalayani publishers, pp. 4-5.
Regassa Namar, Seleshi, B. Awulachew and Douglas, J. Morry. 2006. Review of Agricultural Water Management Technologies  and Practices. In: Proceedings  of Best practices  and technologies  for small scale agricultural water management in Ethiopia, pp. 37-50, March 7-9, 2006.
Regional     agricultural     research     strategic     plan.     2002.     Tigray     Agricultural     Research     Institute Mekele.
Schmidt, O.G 1992. An analysis of progress and achievements in regional dehulling
projects. Utilization of Sorghum and Millets. International Crops Research Institute
for Semi Arid Tropics, Patancheru, Andhra Pradesh-502 324 (India).
Singh, H P 2007. R& D in banana and plantain in India - a pathway  for enhancing yield potential. Indian Horticulture 52 (6):3-8. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Min. of Agri. Krishi Bhawan, Rajendra Prasad Road, New Dethi-110 001, India.
Statistical Report March, 2008 (Megabit, 2000). Stat.Bull.421 CSA, FDRE, Addis Ababa,
May, 2008.
Tekeze River Basin Integrated Development Plan, Master Plan volume III, (NEDECO 1998).
Trivedi. BK (2002). Grasses and Legumes for Tropical Pastures. Published by the Director,
Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi-284 003, India.
Verma. H.K.. Rajesh Kasmja and S.K Uppal. 2008 Ethnoveterinary  medicines: Documentation and Validation Dairy  Planner 4(9):21 -22. Pixie Publication, India (P) Ltd . Karnal (Haryana). India.
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ANNEXURE I VEGETATION TYPE AND RELATIVE HABITAT
Vernacular names
Scientific names
Habitat
Nech atat. Kokoba
Bilebisha. Gufa
Alamate, Yekola wanza
NA
Weyba
Abeliwa
Meker Etan
Kirkira. Hanse
NA
Digudiguna
Maytenus senegalensis
Senna singueana
Piliostigma thonningii
Gardenia lute a
Combre turn molle Terminalia shimperiana Boswellia shimperiana
Anog^issus leiocarpus
Pterocarpus lucens
Lannea fruticosa
(D
0)
nj
>»
o
a:
'6
tn
3
Girar
Abeliwa
Ungoy Aflot
Meki
■ Girar.Girmado
( Girar
Acacia al bid a
Terminalia shimperiana Combretum aculeatum Balanites aegyptiaca
Acacia polyacantha
Acacia seyal
-52
o
c/>
Q.
a>
Q
Shola
NA
Humer
Betre-muse, Marinta
Gofa.Kumera
Dokma
Kurkura
Ader, Arsho-mersha
Weyba
Arziniya. Zana
Ficussur
Adeina microcephala
Tamarindus indica
Diospyros mespiliformis
Mimusops Kummel
Syzygium guineense
Zizyphus mucronata
Dicrostachys cine re a
Terminalia brownii
Stereospermum kunthianum
ro
<u
s
<I
0)
c 
c
(U
jC
o
ANNEXURE II DELINEATED AGRO CLIMATIC ZONES & COVERAGE IN
WOLKAYITE WOREDA, 2008
Agroclimatic
zones
Highland Kebeles
Area (ha)
%age
Remark
Dega/Cool zone
Bil-amba
14231
17.3
Shirela
30851
37.6
Outside   the   project   command
site
Dejena
13518
Outside   the   project   command
site
Debre-mariam
16.5
7650
93
Outside   the   project   command
site
Wof-argef
11953
14.6
Outside   the   project   command
site
Medir-woizero
3882
4.7
Outside   the   project   command
site
Sub-Total
82085
100    32
Outside the project command site
Lowland Kebeles 
Kola/Hot zone    ,
Tsebri / Taitai
ma humer
47359
27.1
17.6
12.9
4.3
9.4
Project Command site
Lailai-maihumer
30755
Mai-geba
22619
Project Command site
Delesa-kokah
7447
Project Command site
Mai-timket
16500
Project Command site
Mai-chea
15496
8.9
Project Command site
Kulita
34572
19 8
Outside Project Command site
Sub-Total
174748
100 68
Outside Project Command site
Total
256833
100
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ANNEXURE III RAINFALL (MM) OF THE FOUR STATIONS AND THE
PROCESSED RAINFALL OF THE COMMAND AREA________________________________
Name of meteorological stations
Shlre-
Endaselassie
Adi-
Command area
Months
Zarima
Humera
Remetse
(processed)
January
5.17
0.1
3.9
0.67
2.45
February
8.50
0.0
1.9
0.0
2.60
March
16.39
0.3
14.9
2.14
8 43
April
40.35
2.9
20.7
11.15
18.79
May
84.96
24 4
35.5
57.10
50.48
June
377.74
86 9
80.8
193.74
184.78
July
445.46
172.5
267.3
348 29
308.40
August
449.89
190.3
241.6
387.85
317.42
September
218 41
97.9
134.7
191.97
160.75
October
63.41
20.8
45.2
53.47
45.72
November
20.39
0.5
17.9
1.47
10.06
December
9.91
0.0
5.4
0.06
3.84
Total
1740.59
596.52
869.87
1247.91
1113.72
Source: Adopted from Wolkayite meteorology and hydrology report. 2008.
ANNEXURE IV (A) PROPOSED CROP VARIETIES DURING THE RAINY AND DRY SEASONS
Sr.
No. Crops
Varieties
Spacing
(cm)
Fertilizer rate
(DAP+Urea)
(kg/ha)
Seed rate
(fcg'M
Yield
(Qt/ha)
1
Sorghum
Meko-1
75x10/15
100+50
5-10 (Row)
24-49
75x10/15
15-20 (BC)
NA
Gobye
75x10/15
100+50
5-10 (Row)
14-27
Abshir
75x10/15
100+50
5-10 (Row)
14-24
Birhan
75x10/15
100+50
5-10 (Row)
NA
Teshale
75x10/15
100+50
5-10 (Row)
25-50
Abuare
75x10/15
100+50
5-10 (Row)
NA
Seredo
75x10/15
100+50
5-10 (Row)
25-45
2
Fingermillet
Tadesse
75x10/15
100+0 (zero)
5-10 (Row)
28-29
15-20 (BC)
Padet
75x10/15
100+0 (zero)
5-10 (Row)
28-29
15-20 (BC)
3
Teff
Dukem
B Casting
100+50
25-30
20-25
Tsedey
B Casting
100+50
25-30
14-19
Geraoo
B Casting
100+50
25-30
12-17
DZ-01-2053
B Casting
100+50
25-30
NA
DZ-01-2054
B Casting
100+50
25-30
NA
4
Wheat (Bread)
Galama
20-25
100+50
175 (BC)
14
125(Row)
Har 1685
20-25
100+50
Same
14
HAR 710
20-25
100+50
Same
14
Tossa
20-25
Shina
100+50
Same
14
20-25
100+50
Tura
Same
14
5
20-25
Barley
100+50
HB-42
Same
14
20-25
Shege
100+50
100-125
20-33
20-25
Misrach
100+50
100-125
26-34
20-25
Shedho
100+50
100-125
23-34
Trit
20-25
100+50
20-25
100-125
NA
—
100+100
—
Estayish
20-25
100-125
NA
100+100
100-125
NA
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Fertilizer rate
Sr.
No. Crops
Varieties
Spacing
(cm)
20-25
(DAP+Urea)
(kg/ha>
Seed rate
(kg/ha)
Yield
(Qt/ha)
Benlu
100+50
100-125
12-24
Desta
20-25
100+50
100-125
13-21
6       Rice
Nerica-3
20-25
100+100
80 (BC)
NA
60 (Row)
Nerica-4
20-25
100+100
Same
NA
7 Maize
BH-540
75x10/15
100+100
25
70
BH-140
75x10/15
100+100
25
60
PBH-3253
75x10/15
100+100
25
50-80
BHQP-542
75x10/15
100+100
25
65
8 Sesame
CI-1525
20
50+30
35 (BC)
8.1
25(Row)
CI-1652
20
50+30
Same
88
Chilalo
20
50+30
Same
9.0
Belay-96
20
50+30
Same
9.0
Berene
20
50+30
Same
9.1
Tole
20
50+30
Same
10.0
9       Niger seed /Noug
Fogera
20
50+30
10 (BC)
0.397
50+30
Esete
12(Row)
20
50+30
Kuyu
Same
20
0.413
50+30
Shambu
Same
20
NA
50+30
Same
0 560
10 Soybean
Awassa-95
40/60x5
Crown ford
100+0 (zero)
40/60x5
60-85
Williams
100+0 (zero)
40/60x5
60-85
Davis
100+0 (zero)
40/60x5
60-85
Koker-240
100+0 (zero)
40/60x5
60-85
Clark-632
100+0 (zero)
40/60x5
60-85
Jalale
100+0 (zero)
40/60x5
60-85
100+0 (zero)
60
17-26
15-25
10-15
15-25
15-25
15-25
15-22
11      Faoabean
NC-58
Kassa
40x5
40x5
100*0  (zero)
Mesay 
Tesfa
100*0  (zero)
40x5
40x5
40x5
40x5
100+0 (zero)
175-200
175-200
175-200
175-200
175-200
175-200
175-200
15-35
15-30
Degaga
100+0 (zero)
Selaie
Wayu
100+0 (zero)
40x5
100+0 (zero)
100+0 (zero)
20-45
15-35
20-45
10-23
12      Chickpea
Marye
40/30x10
Worku
100+0 (zero)
Akaki
40/30x10
40/30x10
40/30x10
40/30x10
100+0 (zero)
120-140
100+0 (zero)
100-120
90-120
100-125
10-23
14-30
19-29
Arerti
Shasho
100+0 (zero)
19- 26
100+0 (zero)
18-47
100-125
20- 42
13      Fieldpea
FPEX-DZ
Mohandefer
20x5
20x5
20x5
20x5
20x5
100+0 (zero)
Hasabe
100+0 (zero)
100+0 (zero)
100-150
100-150
Markos 
Adi
100+0 (zero)
100+0 (zero)
100-150
100-150
1OO.1
10-15
10-15
15-20
15-25
15- 30
14      Lentil
Chalew
Chekol
NA
NA
100*0  (zero)
Gudo
NA
100+0 (zero)
1C0+0 (zero)
50-65
50-65
Adda
14-18
14-18
NA
100+0 (zero)
80-120
80-120
16- 24
156
Asrai
50x15
50x15
100+0 (zero)
,100+0 (zero)
20-40
20-40
NA
NA
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Fertilizer rate
Spacing
Sr.
No. Crops
Yield
(Qt/ha)
Varieties(cm)
(DAP+Urea) (kg/ha)
Seed rate
(kg/ha)
Not  required
30-45
Akala S.J-2
90x20
90x20
Not required
16 Cotton
Deltapine-90
Cucu-rova-
90x20
Not required
1518
Cu-okra
90x20
Not required
Carolinaqueen
90x20
Not required
(Enat)
Arba
Not required
30-45
30-45
30-45
30-45
30-45
30-45
32.5
38.5
52.8
49.5
49.6
35.8
29.9
Bulk-202
90x20
90x20
Not required
17       Vegetables
Adama red
- Onion
Melkam
Red creole
40x20x10
40x20x10
40x20x10
40x20x10
0+92
0+92
0+92
0+92
3.5-4.0
3.5-4.0
3.5-4.0
3.5-4.0
300-350
300-400
270-300
250-300
- Shallot
Huruta
Negele
30x15x10
30x15x10
200+150
200+150
1700
1700
168-250
170-250
- Potato
AL-624
Awash
75x30
75x30
195+165
195+165
18-20
18-20
259
254
Tolcha
Wochecha
75x30
75x30
195+165
195+165
18-20
18-20
Menagesha
Digemegne
Jalenae
75x30
75x30
75x30
195+165
195+165
195+165
18-20
18-20
18-20
331
218
270
467
448
- Tomato
Melkashola
100x30
150+100
0 300-0.400
Melkasalsa
100x30
150+100
0.300-0.400
430
450
Roma-VF
100x30
150+100
0.300-0.400
400
Marglobe
100x30
150+100
0.300-0 400
320
Money maker
100x30
150+100
0.300-0.400
300
Eshet
100x30
150+100
0.300-0.400
394
Metadel
100x30
150+100
0 300-0 400
345
Henz-1350
100x30
150*100
0 300-0 400
350
Fetan
100x30
150+100
C.300-0 400
454
B-Shola
100x30
150+100
0.300-0.400
340     _
-Sweet potato
Kudadae
60x30
25+50
30-40cm cuttings
241
Dubo
60x30
25+50
Same
217
Falaha
60x30
25+50
Same
167
Guntutae
60x30
25+50
Same
354
Damota
60x30
25+50
Same
307
Bareda
60x30
25+50
Same
296
Awassa-83
60x30
25+50
Same
366
Beleia
60x30
25+50
Same
176
Temsgen
60x30
Beletech
25+50
Same
183
60x30
25*50
Same
185
Ordolo
60x30
25+50
Same
174
Koka-12
60x30
25+50
Same
177
Koka-6
60x30
25+50
Same
269
Kulfo
60x30
25+50
Same
270
Tula
60x30
25+50
Same
285
Kero
60x30
25+50
Same
354
NC-0376. B-
18      Sugarcane
52298. NC-
0334, CO-
1800x6
150 (Setts with 2
449. B-41227.
-
1700
CO-421 NC-
buds)
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No. Crops
Spacing
(cm)
Fertilizer rate
(DAP+Urea)
Varieties
0310. NC- 0376, NC- 0310. B- 52298. NC- 0334. CO- 449. B-41227. NC-0310
Seed rate Yield
(kg/ha)(Qt/ha)
The cultivated varieties of sugarcane came from either Sacharvm officinarvm or its hybridization wrth S barberi. S.sinense, S spontanueum, Srobustum or a combination of these Very little attention has so far been paid on the research aspects of sugarcane crop.
19 Fodder (under this, forage grasses, legumes, and fodder trees are considered)
* Grass
Rhodes 
Buffel
Masaba
Bilola
40x0
40x0
6-10
Green panic 
8-13
5
Blue panic 
Sudan grass 
4-5
6
Colombus 
100+150
Elephant grass
40x0
40x0
40x25
100x50
BC
Cuttings
420
400
450
650
490
50-120
480
- Legumes
Alfalfa
Hairy peruvian
40x0
-
6-8
550
Green leaf
desmodium
*
•
50-100
1-3
30-200
Silver leaf
desmodium
■
■
50-100
2-3
20-210
Glycine
-
-
Axillaris
150-250
5-10
-
-
30-80
50-100
Siratro
-
3-5
40x0
-
30-60
Dolicos
6
-
40x10
-
360
Cowpea
-
60x20
18-20
-
450
10-20
NA
- Fodder trees Leucaena
Sesbama
Tree lucerne
Fodder beet
Fruit development package
Cunningham
-
-
-
200x250
200x250
200x250
40x40
4-7                ASH
5-10 5-10
•5
400
-
Citrus
• ” "Suited to the intermediate and low land areas
•      Two parts exist for a citrus plant i e . the scion and root stock These two parts should be compatiOle  tor  a  higher  and  better  yield  The  selection  of  the  scion  wood  and  root  stock should be in consultation with a professional staff
•     Citrus plant requires a periods of 2 years from seedling raising to planting
■ Pits will be ready ahead of 2 months before planting
. Depth and width of the pit varies from 50-70cm
•       The  top  and  sub  soil  dug  out  from  the  pit  will  be  heaped  separately  Thereafter  the  top soil will be mixed with 40-50kg of manure and returned in to the pit and the sub soil will be filled on the top of it The pit should be left for 2 months for decomposition to take place
•       Inter  row  and  intra  row  spacing  is  determined  based  on  the  variety  soil  condition  and system of production
•     For a home stead planting, distance between plants is 5 • 7meter
•      The  application  of  type  and  amount  of  inorganic  fertilizers  to  a  citrus  plant  depends  on  the fertility status and current age of the plant
.   Professional   staff   should   be   consulted   on   the
rale
• For a home stead
type
of   fertilizer,   amount   and   application
environmentally sale
production,
the   use   of   organic   fertilizer   is   advised   It   is   3lso
> |f inorganic fertilizers are planned to be used apply DAP and urea every two months tor
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one solid year. In the second year, two applications  of higher doses  of urea fertilizer in the months  of March and September are given to the crops. The amount of fertilizer to be applied will increase annually until the crops reach to maturity.
• Pruning helps to resist breakage of twigs as a result of strong winds and heavy 
production
Suited to the intermediate and low’ land areas
Reproduced by  seeds  In Ethiopia, dioecious  plants  of papaya are common A single male plant of papaya is  sufficient for 5-25 female plants. The probability  of being productive from a dioecious plant rs only 50%
Seed rate of solo plants  rs  1kg/ha Solo plants  bear male and female sex  organs  on the same plant and are all productive These vaneties  have been on selection by  the research centers of Metkasa.Pawe. Areka and Awassa.
Planted in a pit with 50cm depth.
Distance between plants is 2 - 3meter
Inter  row  and  intra  row  spacing  rs  determined  based  on  the  variety,  soil  condition  and system of production
The top and sub sod dug out from the pit will be heaped separately. Thereafter, the top soxl wS be either mixed with 20kg of manure or 0.5kg of DAP and Urea each and returned tn to the pi and the sub sori wriii be filled on the top of it The pit should be left for 1-2 morohs for ceccmpcsocn to take place.
Seedings  m  a  pdyediytene  bag  wd!  be  transplanted  out  in  the  field  after  attaining  20  cm length
Plarorg should be dene carefufty by a'^odmg damage to the root system
Thn—c-'c  should  be  earned  cut  to  avoed  competition  for  the  available  resource  among  the same set dares
Martzs  arc  compost  should  be  applied  to  the  planted  papaya  variety  in  consultation  with C «\.r ess-cv-a. start m toe area
The  acEiic2bon  cr  inorganic  ferblizers  to  a  papaya  plant  depends  on  the  laboratory  results 
of toe avanao'e rxenero ccrer m the sod and plant system.
Croc curaccr s 2
•ears
Procures 3CCcth«
Mange
S -’tec to toe --r .cw anc a c as 
Aaranc cecro -s 5cm
Inter row spacing 3Cc~.
l-to= row scacrg * zer-
S~i -gs r a pc ysro/ere cac wJ ce transplanted cut tn toe field sfier attaining 10 cm
row spa
;rc  '
-fry
■■a 15s ha arc 609 ha c '
r
nanana
Wiliam.
'PCS
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ANNEXLIRE IV (B) 1 IMPORTANT CROPS AND THEIR PACKAGE OF PRODUCTION
RELEVANT TO WICA
MAJOR PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES^
Sowing Time and Seed Rate (Kg/ha)
Nutrient Requirement
(Kg/ha)
Duration
(days)
CROPS
Soil &
Climate
Yield
(q/Ha)
Varieties
Important Insect - Pests and Diseases
Sorghum
Light to deep black soil with pH 5.5-8 2
20-35
Deg C
Use Indian Hybrids / Vaneties
Mid-July 
10-20 Kg
80 Kg N +40 Kg P2 05
90-120
40-50
Shoot fly. stem borer, sorgnum midge, downy mildew, rust ergot, gram molds
Finger
millet
Alluvial to black soil
20-40
Deg C
Introduce
high
yielding varieties 
from
countries like India
Year round
10 kg
60 Kg N +30 Kg P2 05 + 30 K2O
60-110
30-40
Apfids.  ear caterpillar, green  ear.
gram smut
Teff
All type of soil under 25-35
Deg C
Cross-37. DZ-196. DZ-354. DZ-01-99. DZ-CR-44
Mainly in July to Sept. 25-30
Kg
60 Kg N +
25Kg P2 05
80-135
25-40
Wofapysn. cricket,
central
shoot fly
Maize
Wide range of climatic condition on well drained medium
SOdS
Vaneties and hybrids from
American companies or India
June - July
20 - 30 Kg
80-120 Kg N *40-60 Kg P2 05+ 30-40 Kg
K.-O
60 -70 &
100-110
60-70
Rice
Grown on all types of sods with pH 30-10 temp 22-35 DegC
Introduction ofvanenes from
countries &e China. India.
Thailand. Japan
End June- Earty Juty
15-25 Kg (Transplanted)
80-100     KgN + 40 - 45 Kg P2  05 + 30 - 40 Kg K^O
Stade
borer.
Afncan bcC“WCGTl com
Wight,
brown
spot cf com
10C-150
60-65
i
Brown
Want
hopper,
green leaf
hopper,
stem
oorer.
blast
false
smut
hactersi
Sesame
V/€fl
: drarned Icam sod with pH range 5 3-
7.0
25-30
DegC
Evaluabor. and seecuon of vanetes for the project command
June-Juty - I 7 Kg
I
I
40 Kg N ♦ 25 Kg P2 05
90-100
12-15
Capsui borer, gal fiy. ha-ry caterp^Car. seeding
ptgnt,
a.'temana eaf spot.
L
Deep reavy soi pH
rar 6-7
12-30
C^C
inc-ocuctoa ci HYUS
•
Sept - Dec 65-100 Kg
I
15-20 Kg
iN*
30 - 40 Kg
Pi 05
100-125
I
|
--- -------------
“   2p   Cut   worm, ped Corer
**.  COt3T
rot root
-- --------------- ™ 
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
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234FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design ProjectAgronomy & Agriculture Planning
MAJOR PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES
CROPS
Soil &
Climate
Varieties
Sowing Time and Seed Rate (Kg/ha)
Nutrient Requirement (Kg/ha)
Duration (days)
Yield
(q/Ha)
Important Insect- Pests and Diseases
Lentil
Wide range of soil with pH 6-7.5
15-25 Deg.C
Introduction of Mexican varieties NEL-358
June
30 - 40 Kg or 50 - 60 Kg
20 - 30 Kg N
+
40 - 60 Kg
P2 05
115-120
10 12
Pea
aphids,
wilt, root rot, blight and rust
Groundnut
Wide
variety of soils but
light soil good 22-30 Deg.C
Introduce bunch and spreading
type
vaneties from other countries like India
July & Dec. 100-120     Kg kernel
20 - 40 Kg N
+
40 - 60 Kg
P2 05+
20 - 40 Kg
KaO
110-120 (Bunch) & 140-150 (Spreading)
30-40
Aphids, Heliothes, Pod  borer,
Rust
Soybean
Sandyloam to sandy 
clay pH
6-7
22-38
Deg.C
Introduce
vaneties 
from India
and other
countries
June  -  July 100-120
20 - 30 Kg N
+
30-40 Kg P2
05
75-110
15-20
Pod borer
Cotton
Well
drained
vertisols
24-34
Deg C
ph 6-7.5
Introduce
high
yielding long stapie cotton
varieties
June  -  July  & Dec -Jan.
60-100 Kg
80- 120 Kg
N+
40  Kg P2  05 + 30 Kg K2O
100-150
20-20
Cotton
bollworm
Sugarcane
Clay to clay loam soil,
needs 
warm
climate for growth. 13 - 38 Deg.C.
Varieties from India and other countries 
being
grown at
sugar
factory in Ethiopia
May  be done after the cold season 150 q/ha two budded sets
Apply NPk (15:15:15)@ 750 Kg /ha in
split
application
On an
average
13-14
months for Indian cane
150-
180
tons
Ratoon
stunt
disease. smut, red rot, black 
bug.
mealy bug
Potato
Grown on well drained all type of soil, pH 5.5 -7.5 pH
15-25
Deg.C
Introduce HYUS &
disease which are tolerant to disease
Plant       when temp is about 20  Deg.C Seed rate
15-25 q/ha
120-150 N
+
45 Kg P2 05
+
90 Kg K2O
120-160
25-35
tons
Black 
heart,
hollow
heart, late
blight
early blight
Tomato
Grown on varied type of soils pH range 7-
8.15-
27Deg C
Introduction of hybrids and high yielding
varieties
June - July and Nov  - Dec
120 Kg N + 60  Kg  P2   05 50 Kg KzO
100-130
h200 -
250
q/ha
or
20-25
tons
Cabbage
Can be grown on all type of soils pH 5 5 to
6.5
12.8-25
Deg.C
Introduction of high
yielding varieties and hybrids from other countries
Damping
off,
alterneria
blight,
bacterial wilt, leaf curl, fruit borer
June  -  August and
Nov. to Jan
15 tons farm yard manure, 150 Kg N + 80  Kg P2  05 70 Kg K2O
60-80
and
100-120
30-45
tons
Damping off, black rot. stalk rot, downy mildew,
diamond
black 
moth,
stem
borer,
tobacco
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE IN association with
235
,.
INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT. LTDFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project ________________ Agrono _y— 9------------- ---------------
A
. Arinr,llture ptanninq
MAJOR PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES________________________ 1
CROPS
Soil &
Climate
Varieties
Sowing Time and Seed Rate (Kg/ha)
Nutrient Requirement (Kg/ha)
Duration
(days)
Yield
(q/Ha)
Important Insect - Pests and Diseases
catero-lar
CarTot
Can be grown on all types of soils. pH
6.5 ideal.
Cool
season crop &color is affected
by temperature
Tropical or Asiatic or Temperate
or
European types Introduce
new
varieties of these
July - Aug
and
Dec - Jan
5-6Kg
20 - 25 tons 
dung
manure.
50 Kg N * 40 Kg Pj 05
+
60KgKrO
30- 120
15-25
tons
Leaf necoer. cut worm
Onion
Loam and alluvial soils are best
but can bregrown on any type of soils with pH 5.5-6 5 12.5- 25 Deg.C
Introduce
high
yielding varieties of red yellow and white skinned
onion
June - Aug & Nov - Jan.
5-8 Kg
150 Kg N ♦ 50 Kg P2  05
♦
50 Kg K.-O
85-120
25-30
tons
Thnps,
onion fly.
cutworm
Field pea
Can be grown in all types of soils with
good
drainage facilities 125-175
Deg C
Evaluation
and Introduction of Potential varieties and germ plasms for high yield
June & Dec January 
80 -120 Kg
/Ha
20 - 40 Kg N
♦
40 - 60 Kg
P2 05 ♦
80-150 Kg
KaO
75-WO
20-30
tons 
fresh
ped
Pea
Ao h ids. ped borer, powdery mildew
Alfalfa
Grown in deep and well drained soils with pH above
70
6-45
Deg C
Alfalfa is grown in a large
number of countries Introducing different
type of varieties
Dec Jan 20 - 25 Kg
25 Kg N ♦ 50 Kg P ♦ 50 Kg P.. 05
Perennial
(3-5
years
100 Q
or
100
tons greervyr
n •’-S
cuts
Hybrid Napier or Nap.er
grass
Can be grown on wide range ol sods having 6-8 pH value
15-45
Deg.C
There is no specific variety but there are
large
number of hybrids ol Napier x pearl millet
July - August 12 - 14 q / ha
or
12000
14000        two budded sets
12-15 ton
well
decomposed dung manure ♦ 50-60 Kg N
Lucerne
cater
pilar
gram
caw pilar
sem.
'oooer
downy 
mildew
ano leaf rust
Perenn.ai
(5-6
yearsi
60 - SO tons 
green
from
Napier and 150 -160
tons 
green
from
hybnus / year
No
ser CuS limitation ct insect
pests
I
1___________
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Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
ANNEXURE V CROP BUDGET FOR EXISTING CROPS
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
a. Financial Crop Budget per hectare for existing Sorghum
S.N.
ITEMS
Quantity
Price/Unit
Total
1
COST
Value
1.1
Human Labor in PD
58
15
870
1.2
Oxen in Oxen Days
8
30
240
1.3
Seed in Kg
10
4
40
1.4
DAP in Kg.
50
8.5
425
1.5
Urea
100
7.5
750
1.6
Pesticides
LS
0
1.7
Tools
LS
100
100
1.8
Sacks
0
1.9
Land Tax
LS
35
35
Total Cost
2460
2
Return
2.1
Yield in qt.(main)
11.5
362.00
4163
Yield in qt.(by product)
23
15
345
Gross Return
4508
2.2
Net Return (ETB)
2,048
BENEFIT COST RATIO =
2048/2460
= 0.83
b. Crop Budget per hectare for existing Finger millets
S.N.
ITEMS
Quantity
Price/Unit
Total
1
COST
1.1
Human Labor in PD
74
15
1110
1.2
Oxen in Oxen Days
8
30
240
1.3
Seed in Kg
37
3.7
136.9
1.4
DAP in Kg.
50
8.5
425
1.5
Urea
50
7.5
375
1.6
Pesticides
LS
0
17
Tools
LS
100
100
1.8
Sacks
0
1.9
Land Tax
LS
35
35
Total Cost
2,422
2
Return
2.1
Yield in qt.(main)
16
370.00
5920
Yield in qt.(by product)
32
Gross Return
15
480
2.2
6400
Net Return (ETB)
3.978
Benefit Cost Ratio
=3978/2422
= 1.64
c. Crop Budget per hectare for existing Sesame
S.N.
ITEMS
Quantity
1          COST
Price/Unit
Total
1.1        Human Labor in PD
Value
1.2        Oxen in Oxen Days
57
15
855
1.3        Seed in Kg
10
30
8 11
300
1.4        DAP in Kg                                                                           0
RR
1.5        Urea
8.5                           0
50
7.5
375
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
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237FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
.,
Agronomy & Agriculture p_anning
1.5
Manure
1000
0.3
300
16
Pesticides
LS
0
1.7
Tools
LS
100
100
1.8
Sacks
0
1.9
Land Tax
LS
35
35
Total Cost
2,053
2
Return
2.1
Yield in qt.(main)
5
1054 00
5270
Yield in qt (by product)
10
40
400
Gross Return
5670
12-2
1
Net Return (ETB)
3.617
Benefit Cost Ratio =
3617/2053
= 1.76
d. Financial Crop Budget per hectare for existing Maize
WATER WORKS OESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE ------------------- IN ASSOCIATION WITH
INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT LTD
238FINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
yyolkayjtejrngatjon feasibility & Delail Design ProjectAgronomy & Agriculture Planning
ANNEXURE VI A Details of Expected Production of Various Crops in the Command Area under
Post-project Condition for over a period of five years and above (Option-I)
—------------- ---------- —------------ -------------------------- --------- ----------------------- -----------
Crops
Particulars
Area (ha)
Tolal cost (in Birr) Yield (q/ha)
Tolal production (ql) Nel return/ha (in Birr) Tolal Nel return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Tolal cosi (m Bin) Yield (q/ha)
Total production (ql) Ne! return/ha (in Birr) Tolal Nel relum (in Birr) Area (ha)
Tolal cost (in Bin) Yield (q/ha)
Frojoct yoars
Yoar-1
Yoar-2
Yoar-3
Year-4
Yoar-5
378.55
757.00
1.514 18
3.028.37
4 600 00
3.785.46
4.600.00
3 785 46
4 600 00
4.600.00
25.00
4.600.00
30.00
.
4 600 00
35 00
40.00
50.00
9.463.75
22.712 70
,. 50 00
' Sorghum
52.996 30
121.134.80
189,273.00
14.700 00
.
189.273.00
14.700 00
14.700 00
14,700.00
14,700 00
5.564.685 00
14.700 00
11,129.223 00
22.258.446 00
44.517.039 00
55,646.262.00
270 39
55 646 262 00
540 78
1.081.56
2,163.12
2,703 90
4.065 00
...
2.703 90
4.065 00
4.065 00
4.065.00
4.065.00
4.065.00
18.00
Finger-millcl
20.00
25.00
30.00
40.00
40.00
4.867.02
10.815 60
27.039 00
64,893.60
108,156.00
108,156 00
11.735.00
11.735 00
11.735.00
11.735.00
11.735.00
11.735.00
3,173.026.65
6.346.053.30
12.692.106.60
25,384.213.20
31.730,266.50
31.730.266 50
135.20
270.39
540.78
1.081.56
1.351.95
1,351.95
6.575 00
6.575.00
6.575.00
6,575.00
6.575.00
6.575.00
12.00
Tell
14.00
16.00
18.00
Tolal production (qt)
20.00
20.00
1.622 40
3.785.46
8.652.48
19.468.08
Nel return/ha (in Bin)
27.039.00
27,039.00
12.725.00
12.725 00
12.725.00
12.725.00
12.725.00
Tolal Nel return (in Bin)
12.725.00
1.720.420 00
3.440.712.75
6.881.425.50
Area (ha)
13.762.851.00
17,203.563.75
17.203.563.75
54 08
108.16
216.31
432.62
540.78
540.78
Total cos! (in Bin)
4.295.00
4,295.00
4.295.00
4.295.00
4,295 00
4.295.00
Yield (q/ha)
20.00
25.00
30 00
35.00
45.00
45.00
1 olal production (ql)
1.081 60
2.704.00
6.489.30
15,141.70
24.335.10
24,335.10
Nel retum/ha (in Bin)
10.795 00
10.795.00
10.795.00
10,795.00
10.795.00
10.795.00
Tolal Net return (in Birr)
583.793 60
1.167.587.20
2,335.066.45
4.670.132.90
5.837,720.10
5,837,720.10
Area (ha)
81.12
162.23
324.47
648.94
811.17
811.17
Total cost (In Birr)
4.295.00
4.295.00
4.295.00
4,295.00
4.295.00
4.295.00
Yield (q/ha)
20.00
25 00
Barley
30.00
35.00
40.00
40.00
Tolal production (ql)
1,622.40
4.055 75
9.734.10
22,712.90
32.446.80
32,446.80
Net return/ha (in Bin)
8.055.00
8.055.00
8.055.00
8,055.00
8.05500
8,055.00
Total Net return (in Birr)
653,421.60
1,306,762.65
2.613.605.85
5,227,211.70
6,533.974.35
6.533,974.35
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
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1---------------
1 Project years
Crops
Particulars
Year-1
Yoar-2
Yoar-3
Year-4
Year-5
Year->5
Area (ha)
216 31
432 62
86525
1.730.50
2.163 12
2.163.12
Total cost (in Birr)
7,131 00
7.131 00
7,131.00
7.131.00
7.131.00
7.131 00
Yield (q/ha)
15.00
20 00
30.00
40.00
50.00
50.00
Rice
Total production <q()
3.244 65
8,652 40
25.957.50
69,220 00
108.156.00
108.156 00
Nel retum/ha (in Birr)
14.419 00
14 419 00
14.419 00
14,419.00
14.419.00
14,419.00
Total Net return (in Bin)
3.118,973 89
6.237.947.78
12.476.039.75
24.952.079.50
31.190.027.28
31.190.027.28
Area (ha)
297.43
594 86
1.189.72
2.379.43
2.974 29
2.974.29
Total cost (in Bin)
4.500 00
4.500.00
4.500.00
4.500.00
4.500 00
4.500.00
Yield (q/ha)
30 00
45.00
60 00
65.00
75.00
75.00
Maize
Total production (qt)
8,922 90                      26,768 70
71.383.20
154,662.95
223.071.75
223.071 75
Nel retum/ha (in Bin)
19.350.00
19,350 00
19.350.00
19,350.00
19.350.00
19,350 00
Total Net return (in Birr)
5.755.270 50
11.510.541.00
23.021.082 00
46.041.970.50
57.552.511.50
57.552.511.50
Area (ha)
892 29
1.784 57
3.569 15
7,138.30
8,922.87
8.922.87
Total cost (in Bin)
3.710 00
3.71000
3.710 00
3.710.00
3.710.00
3 71000
Yield (q/ha)
8.00
8 00
1000
10.00
15.00
15.00
Sesame
Total production (ql)
7,138.32
14.276 56
35.691 50
71.383.00
133.843 05
133.843.05
Nel relum/ha (in Birr)
14,100.00
14 100 00
14.100.00
14,100.00
14.100.00
14,100.00
Total Nel return (in Birr)
12.581.289.00
25.162.437 00
50.325.015.00
100,650,030.00
125.812.467 00
125.812.467.00
Area (ha)
216 31
432 62
865.25
1,730.50
2,163.12
2.163.12
Total cost (in Birr)
3.710 00
3,710.00
3,710.00
3.710 00
3.710.00
3.710.00
Yield (q/ha)
800
800
10 00
10.00
15.00
1500
Noug/Niger
Total production (ql)
1,730.48
3.460 96
8,652 50
17.305.00
32.446 80
32.446 80
Nel return/ha (in Birr)
10.290 00
10.290 00
10.290.00
10.290.00
10.290.00
10.290.00
T otal Net return (in Birr)
2.225.829 90
4.451 659.80
8,903,422.50
17.806 845.00
22,258.504 80
22,258.504 80
Area (ha)
162.23
324 47
648 94
1.297.87
1,622.34
1 1.622.34
Total cosl (in Birr)
4.975 00
4,975 00
4.975.00
4,975.00
4.075.00
I 4.975.00
Yield (q/ha)
10.00
15.00
20 00
2500
30 00
30 00
Soybean
Total production (ql)
1.622 30
4 867 05
12,978 80
32.446.75
48,670.20
48.670 20
Nel i a turn/ha (in Birr)
13,825.00
13 825 00
13,825 00
13.825.00
13.825.00
13.825 00
Total Nel return (in Birr)
2.242.829 75
4 485.797 75
8 971,595 50
17.943.052.75
22.428,850 50
22.428850 50
Area (ha)
54.08
108 16
216 31
432.62
540.78
54078
Total cosl (in Birr)
4,105 00
4.105 00
4.105.00
4.105.00
4,105.00
4,105 00
F ababean
held (Q/ha)
13.00
13 00
15.00
15.00
15.00
15.00
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
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Wolkayite Irrigation teasibility A Detail Design Proiprt
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Crops
Chickpea
i
Lentil
1.086.129.85               2.172.326 65
Cowpea
1.265.413.50               2.530.856.25
Cotton Sugarcane
Particulars 
Tolal production (qt) Nel retum/ha (in Bin) Total Net return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Total cost (in Birr) Yield (q/ha)
Total production (qt) Net retum/ha (in Birr) Total Nel return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Total cost (In Birr) Yield (q/ha)
1 eta production (qt) Nel retum/ha (in Birr) Tota|Ncl return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Total cost (in Birr) Yield (q/ha)
Total production (qt) Net retum/ha (in Bin) Total Net return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Totapost (in Birr) Yield (q/ha)
Total production (qt) Net retum/ha (in Birr) Total Net return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Total cost (in Birr) Jfield (q/ha)
Total production (qt) Net retum/ha (in Birr) Total Net return (in Birr)
Projoct years
Yoar-1
703 04
5 695 00
_307.985 60
4.290.00
15 00
2.028 00
J0.010 00
1,353.352 00
81 12
4.105 00
12.00
973 44
6.695 00 543X398 40 108 16
5.585 00
12 00
1.297.92
2.925.00
316.368 00
Ji 35 20
8.675.00
16.00
2.163.20
16.325 00
2.207.140 00
540.78
27.185 00 500.00 ~ 270.390 00 71.71500
Ycar-2
1 406.08
5.695.00 615^971 20 270.39~
4,290 00
18 00
4.867 02
10.010.00 2.706.603.90 162 23
Year-3
3,244 65
5.695 00
1.231.885 45
540.78
4,290 00
22.00
11.897 16
10.01000
5.413.207 80 324.47
4.105.00                       4.105.00 J2£0__
1.946 76
6.G95.00
4.867.05
6,695.00
2163£
5.585.00
12 00
2.595 72
2.925 00 632.706.75 270.39
8.675.00
18 00
4.867.02
16.325.00 <414JH675 1.081 56
27.185.00
800 00
865.248 00
71.715.00
432.62
5.585.00
15.00
6.489.30
2,925.00
Yoar-4
6,489 30^
5,695 00
2.463.770.90
41..209801.0506
27.039 00
10.010.00
10.826 415 60
648.94
4.105X)0
18.00
11.680 92
6.695.00
4.344,653.30 86Sl5    ~ 5.585.00
15.574 50 2.925.00
540.78
8.675 00
20.00
10,815.60
16.325.00 8.828.233 50 2.163.12
27.185.00
1.000.00
2.163 120.00
71.715.00
1.081.56 8.675.00 2500l 27.039.00 16.325.00
1,351.95
4.290.00
30.00
40.558 50
10.010.00
J3.533.019 50 811.17 ~
4.105.00
20.00
16.223.40
6,695 00
5 430.783.15
1.081.56
5,585,00
20.00
21.631.20
2,925.00
3.163.563 00
1,351.95
8,675 00
30.00
40.558 50
16.32500
Year->5
J5.111 70 5.695 00 ~ X079/742J0 1.351 95
4.290 00 30 00
^0.558 50 ’ 10.010 00
17.656.467.00             22.070.583.75
4.326.24
27.185 00
1.300.00
5.624.112.00
71,715.00
310.256.301.60
5,407.80
27.185.00
1.500.00
38.782.037 70              77.564.07540
WATERWORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE IN ASSOCIATION WITH
20.00
16.223.40
6.695 00
5.430,783.15
1.081.56
5.585 00
20 00______ 21.631 20
2,925 00
3,163.563.00
1,351.95
30.00
40.558 50
22,070 583.75
5.407.80
27.185 00
1,500.00
8,111.700.00
71.715.00
387,820.377 00
241
INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT LTDFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design ProjectAgronomy & Agriculture Planning
Project yoars
Crops
Particulars
Year-1
Yoar-2
Yoar-3
Yaar-4
Year-5
Year->5
Area (ha)
405 59
811.17
1.622.34
3,244.68
4,055.85
4.055.85
Total cost (in Birr)
9,035.00
9.035 00
9.035.00
9,035 00
9.035.00
9.035.00
i
vegetables
i
Yield (q/ha)
125 00
175 00
250 00
350.00
400.00
400.00
Total production (qt)
50.698 75
141.954.75
405.585.00
1,135 638 00
1.622.340.00
1.622.340.00
Net retum/ha (tn But)
38.965 00
38.965 00
38.965.00
38.965 00
38.96500
38.965.00
Total Net return (in Birr)
15.803.814 35
31.607.23905
63.214.478 10
126.428.956 20
158.036 195.25
158,036,195.25
Area (ha)
216.31
432 62
865.25
1,730.50
2.163.12
2.163.12
Total cos! (in Birr)
9.235 00
9.23500
9,235 00
9.235.00
9.235.00
9,235.00
Yield (q/ha)
100 00
175 00
200.00
300.00
400 00
400.00
Fruit
T otal production (ql)
21.631 00
75,708 50
173,050 00
519.150 00
865.24800
865.248 00
Net return/ha (in Birr)
111.125 00
111,125 00
111.125 00
111.125.00
111.125.00
111.125.00
Total Net return (in Birr)
24.037.448 75
48.074.897 50
96.150.906.25
192,301.812 50
240.376.710 00
240.376.710 00
Area (ha)
216 31
432.62
86525
1,730.50
2.163.12
2,163.12
i
•
Fodder
Total cost (m Birr)
2.742.50
2.742 50
2.742.50
2.742.50
2,742 50
2.742.50
Yield (q/ha)
125 00
175 00
250.00
350 00
400.00
400.00
Total production (ql)
27.038 75
75.708 50                1216.312 50
605.67500
865,248.00
865,248 00
Net return/ha (in Birr) Total Net return (in Birr)
5.258 00
1.137.357 98
5.258 00                  | 5.258.00
5,258.00
5.258 00
5.258 00
2.274.715 96
4.549.484 50
9.098,969.00
11.373,684,90
11.373.684 96
Aroa (ha)
4,596.66
9,193.24
18,386.53
36,773 06
45,966 30
46,966 30
Total cost (in Birr)
122.813.50
122.813.50
122.813.60
122,813.50
122,813.50
122.813.50
1
Yiold (q/ha)
x
X
X
X
X
X
Total
Total production (qt)
418,239 92
1.276,401.53
3.254.955.94
8.660,766.60
12,619,057.00
12,519.057.00
Not return/ha (In Birr)
398,707.00
398,707.00
398.707.00
398.707.00
398,707.00
398,707.00
122,1T0o8ta14l N2.o6t7return (2In44B.i2rr1)5,178.69
488 431.891.70
976,863,627 90
1.221.078 806 49
1,221,078,806.49
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
INTERCONTINEN (AL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT LTDFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
ANNEXURE VI B Wetails of Expected Production of Various Crops in the Command Area under Post-project Condition for over a period of five years and above (Option-II)
Particulars Area (ha) Total cost (in Birr)
Projoct years Yoar-1
405 59 4 600 00
Yield (q/ha)                                       25 00
Sorghum
Total production (ql) Net retum/ha (in Birr) Total Net return (in Birr)
10.139 63 14.700 00 5.962.099 50 270 39
4.065 00
Yield (q/ha)                                        1800
Yoar-3
1.622 34
4,600 00
35 00
56.781 90
14,700.00
23.848.398 00
1.081.56
4.065.00 2500
27,039.00 11,735.00
Yoar-4
3.244 68
4.600 00 4000
129.787 20
14.700.00
47,696,796.00
2.163 12
4.06500
30.00
64.893 60 11,735.00
12.692.106.60              25.384,213.20
Teff
i
Wheat
Barley
Total production (qt) Net return/ha (in Bin) Total Net return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Total cost (in Bin) Yield (q/ha)
Total production (qt) Net retum/ha (in Bin) Total Net return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Total cost (in Birr) Yield (q/ha)
Total production (ql) Net return/ha (in Birr) Total Net return (in Birr) Area (ha)
Total cost (in Birr) Yield (q/ha)
Total production (qt) Net return/ha (in Birr) Total Net return (in Birr)
4.867 02 11.735.00 3.173.026 65 162.23
6.575 00
J2.00
1,946.81
12.725 00 £064.427.65
81.12
4 295.00 20.00
1.622J4T
10.795 00
875.658 02
81.12
4.295 00
20.00
1.622.34 8X155.00 653.397 44
Yoar-2
811 17
4.600.00
30.00
24,335 10
14.700 CO 11,924,199.00 540 78
4 065 00
20.00
10.815.60
11,735.00
6.346.053.30
324 47
6.575.00
14 00
4.542 55
12.725.00 4.128.855.30 162 23
4.295.00
25.00
4.055.85
10.795.00
1.751,316.03
162.23
4.295 00
25.00
4,055.85
8.055.00
1,306.794.87
Yoar-5
4.05585
<600.00
50 00
202.792.50
14.700.00
59.620.995.00
2.703.90
4,065 00 __ 40,00_______
108.156.00
11.735.00
31.730.266 50
648 94
6,57500
16.00
10,382 98 12,725 00 8.257.710.60 324.47
4.295.00
30.00
9.734.04
10.795 00
3.502.632.06
324.47
4.295 00
30.00
9,734 04
8 055.00
2.613.589.74
1.297.87
6.575.00
18 00
23.361.70
12.725.00
16.515.421.20
648.94
4.295 00
35.00
22.712.76
10.795.00
7.005.264.12
648.94
4.295.00 3500
22.712.76 8.055.00- 5.227.17948
811.17
4.295.00
45.00
36.502.65
10.795.00
8.756.580,15
811.17
4.295.00
40.00
32.446.80
8.055.00
6.533.974.35
Yoar->5
4.055.85
4,600.00
50.00
202,792.50
14,700.00
59.620.995.00
2,703 90
4.065 00
40.00
108,156.00
11,735 00 ~~ 31.730,266 50~ 1.622.34
6.575 00
20.00
32,446.80     _ 12,72500 20.644.276.50 811.17
4.295 00
45.00
36.502 65
10.795.00
8.756.580 15
811 17
4.295 00
40.00
32.446.80
£.055.00
6.533.974.35
WATERWORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
IN ASSOCIATION WITH INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT. LTD
243
; ’—tFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayile Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
i Projoctyoars
Crops
Particulars
Year-1
Yoar-2
Yoar-3
Year-4
Year-5
Year->5
Aiea (ha)
243.35
486.70
973.40
1.946.81
2.433.51
2.433.51
1 otal cost (in Bur)
7,131.00
7,131 00
7,131.00
7.131.00
7,131.00
7,131.00
Yield (q/Ha)
1500
20 00
30 00
40.00
50 00
50.00
Rice
Total production (qt)
3,650.27
9 734 04
29.202.12
77.872.32
121,675 50
121.675.50
Net retum/ha (in Bin)
14.419 00
14.419 00
14.419 00
□ 4,419 00
14,419.00
14.419.00
Total Net return (in Birr)
3,508.878.07
7.017.756 14
14.035.512.28
28,071.024.55
35.088,780.69
35.088.780.69
Area (ha)
405.59
811.17
1.622 34
3.244 68
4.055.85
4,055 85
Total cost (in Bur)
4.500 00
4.500 00
4.50000
4,500 00
4,500.00
4,500.00
Yield (q/ha)
30.00
45 00
60 00
65.00
75.00
7500
Maize
Total production (qt)
12.167 55
36,502.65
97.340.40
210.904 20
304.188 75
304,188.75
Nc1 retum/ha (in Bur)
19.350.00
19.350.00
19,350 00
19.350.00
19.350.00
19 350.00
Total Nel return (in Birr)
7 848.069 75
15.696.139 50
31.392.279.00
62.784.558 00
78,480.697.50
78.480 697.50
Area (ha)
973 40
1.946 81
3,893.62
7,787.23
9.734.04
9,734.04
Total cost (in Birr)
3.71000
3.710 00
3,710.00
3,71000
3,710.00
3,710 00
Yield (q/ha)
8 00
8 00
1000
10 00
15.00
15.00
Sesame
Total production (qt)
7.787 23
15.574 46
38,936.16
77.872.32
146.010.60
146,010.60
Nel relum/ha (in Birr)
14,100 00
14.100.00
14,100.00
14,100 00
14.100.00
14.100.00
Total Net return (in Birr)
13.724.996 40
27.449.992.80
54.899.985 60
109.799 971 20
137.249.964 00
137.249.964.00
Area (ha)
270.39
540.78
1,081.56
2.163.12
2,703.90
2,703.90
1
Total cost (in Bin)
3.710.00
3.710 00
3,710.00
3.710.00
3,710.00
3,710.00
Yield (q/ha)
8.00
8 00
10.00
10 00
15 00
15.00
Noug/Nigei
Total production (qt)                H
2,163.12
4.326.24
10,815 60
21.631.20
40.558 50
---------------- -------—-----------------
Nel return/ha (m Birr)
40.558.50
10.2C0.00
10,290 00
10.290.00
10.290.00
10,290.00
10.290.00
Total Nel return (in Birr)
2,782.313 10
5.564,626 20
11.129.252.40
22.258,504.80
27,823,131.00
27.823.131.00
Area (ha)
21631
432.62
86525
1.730 50
2.163.12
2.163.12
1
1
Soybean
Total cost (in Birr)
4.975 00
4.975.00
4,975.00
4,97500
4.975.00
4,975.00
Yield (q/ha)
1000
15 00
20 00
25.00
30.00
30.00
Total production (qt)
2,163.12
6.489.36
17,304.96
43 262.40
64 893 60
64,893 60
Nel retum/ha (in Birr)
13,825 00
13.825 00
13.825 00
13.825 00
13,825.00
13,825 00
Total Nel return (in Birr)
2.990.513.40
5,981.026 80
11,962,053.00
23.924,107.20
29,905.134.00
29.905.134.00
1
Area (ha)
135 20
270.39
540.78
1,081.56
1,351 95
1,351.95
Total cost (in Birr)
4,105 00
4.105.00
4,105.00
4.105 00
4.105.00
4.105.00
Fababean
Yield (q/ha)
13.00
13 00
15.00
1500
15.00
15.00
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT LTDFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility & Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Projoct years
Year 1
Particulars
Total production (qt)
Yoar-2
Year-3
8.11170
Yoar-4
Year-5
20.279.25
Year->5
1.757 54
3.515.07
16.223 40
Nel return/ha (in Birr)
20.279 25
5695 00
5.695.00-
5,695.00
5,69500
Total Net return (in Birr)
5,695 00
5.695 00
769.935.53
1.539.871.05
3.079,742 10
6.159.484 20
Area (ha)
7.699,355.25
1,351.95
7,699.355 25
135 20
270 39
540 78
Total cost (in Birr)
1.081 56
4.290 00
4.290.00
4.290 00
Yield (q/ha)
4.290.00
4 290 00
1.351.95
4.290.00
Chickpea
15 00
18 00
Total production (qt)
25 00
3G.00
2.027 93
2200
11.8971(5
30.00________
Nel return/ha (in Birr)
27,039 00
10.010 00
40.558.50
40.558.50     ~
10,010.00
2.706.603.90
10.010.00
Total Net relum (in Birr)
10.010 00
1.353.301 95
10.010.00
10.010 00
Area (ha)
5.413.207 80
10.826.415 60
81 12
13.533,019 50
13.533,019.50
-
162 23
Total cost (in Birr)
324 47
648 94
4.105 00
811.17
811,17
4,105.00
Yield (q/ha)
4.105.00
4 105 00
12.00
4.105.00
12 oo-
4 J 05 00
Lenhl
I otaf production (qt)
1500
973 40
18 00
20.00
16.223.40
20,00
1,946.81
Net return/ha (in Bin)
6.695 00
Total Net return (in Birr)
11,680.85
6,695.00
16.223 40
543.078 32
6,695.00
6,695 00
Area (ha)
6.695.00
1.086.156.63
216.31
4.867.02
2695.00
2,172.313.26
108 16
4,344,626 52
5.430.783.15
5.430.783 15
Total cost (>n Birr)
432 62
865.25
5.585.00
Yield (q/ha)
5.58560
5.585.00
5.585 00
12.00
2.595.74
1.081.56
5.585.00
1.081.56
5.585.00
Cowpea
Total production (qt)
15 00
1.297 87
1800
20.00
20 00
Nel relum/ha (in Birr)
6.489.36
2.925.00
316.356.30
15.574 46
2.925.00
21,631.20
21.631.20
Total Net return (in Birr)
2,925.00
2.925.00~
632.712.60
2.925.00
2,925.00
Area (ha)
1.265.425.20
135.20
2.530.850.40
270,39
3,163.563.00
540.78
3.163.563 00
Tolal cost (in Birr)
1.081.56
8.675.00
1.351.95
8,675.00
1.351.95
Yield (q/ha)
Colton
8.675 00
Total production (qt)
18 00
2.163 12
4.867.02
16.32500
8,67500
2060
10.815.60
30.00
40.558.50
30.00
Net retum/ha (in Birr)
16.325.00
16.325.00
27.039.00
16,325.00
40.558 50
Totaled return (in Birr)
2,207.058.38
459.66
4 414 116 75
16.325.00
8.828.233 50
16.325 00
Area (ha)
17.656.467.00
Total cost (in Birr)
919.33
9.035.00
3.677.30
v ield (q/ha)
9,035.00 ~
1.838.65
9.035.00
22.070,583.75
4.596.63
22.070.583.75 4.596.63
125.00
9,035 00
17560
9.035.00
Total production (qt)
250.00
57.457 88
260 882.05
350.00
1.287.056.40
400 00
9.035.00
400.00
Net return/ha (in Birr)
38.965 00
28.965.00
35.821.53769
459,663.00
38,965.00
71643.075.18
1.838,652 00
1.838.652.00
Tolal Net return (in Birr)
17.910.768 80
38.965.00
38.965.00
38.965.00
143.286.150.36
V9.107.687 95
179,107.687.95
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE INTERCONT.NENTAL CONSULS
245
Pvr LWFINAL FEASIBILITY REPORT
Wolkayite Irrigation feasibility ^Detail Design Project
Agronomy & Agriculture Planning
Project years
--------------- ---------------------------- -----------------------------------------
i Crops
Particulars Area (ha)
T olal cos! (in Birr)
Yoar-1
Yoar 2
Yoar-3
Year-4
Yoar-5
216.31
432 62
Year->5
865 25
1.730.50
2.163.12
9.235 00
9.235 00
2 163 12
9.235.00
9.235 00
Yield <q/Fia)
9,235 00
100.00
..
9.235 00
175 00
1 Fruit
200 00
300.00
400.00
Total production (ql)
21.631 20
400 00
75.709.20
173.049.60
519.14880
865.248 00
Net retum/ha (in Birr)
111.125.00
865.248.00
111.125 on
111.125.00
111.125.00
111.125.00
111.125.00
L-------------------------------------------
Tolal Nel return (in Birr)
24.037.G71 00
48.075.342.00
96.150.684 00
192,301.368 00
240.376710 00
Area (ha)
216.31
240.376.710 00
432.62
86525
1.730.50
2.163.12
2.163 12
Total cost (in Bin)
2.742.50
2.742.50
2,742 50
2.742.50
2.742.50
2.742 50
Yield (q/ha)
125.00
175 00
250.00
350.00
400.00
400 00
Tolal production (ql)
27.039 00
Fodder
75.709 20
216.312.00
605.673 60
865.248.00
865.248.00
Net relurn/ha (in Birr)
5.258.00
5.258 00
5.258.00
5.258.00
5,258.00
5,258.00
Total Nel return (in Bin)
1.137.368 50
2.274 736.99
4.549.473 98
9.098.947.97
11,373.684.96
11.373.684.96
Area (ha)
4,596.63
9,193.26
18,386.52
36,773.04
45,966.30
45.966.30
Total coat (in Birr)
95,628.50
95,628 50
95,628.50
95,628.50
95,628.50
95,628.50
Yiold (q/ha)
X
X
X
X
X
X
Total
Total production (qt)
162,477 35
450,523.82
1,198.476.64
3,204,445.97
4,798,070.55
4,798,070.55
Not ratum/ha (in Birr)
326,992.00
326,992.00
326,992.00
326,992.00
326,992.00
326,992.00
Total Net roturn (in Birr)
91,858,918.73
183,717,837.45
367,435,674.90
734,871,349.80
918,589,187.25
918,589,187.25
WATER WORKS DESIGN AND SUPERVISION ENTERPRISE
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
INTERCONTINENTAL CONSULTANTS AND TECHNOCRATS PVT. LTD

Summery

Wolkayite Irrigation Feasibility Report: Agronomy & Agriculture Planning Summary

Project Overview

The Wolkayite Irrigation Project (WIP) in Ethiopia aims to enhance agricultural productivity, food security, and rural livelihoods through sustainable irrigation development. The command area spans 27,039 hectares across five kebeles, focusing on vertisol soils and semi-arid climatic conditions.

Key Objectives

Increase food production and quality.
Improve socio-economic conditions through income generation.
Optimize land and water use for long-term sustainability.

Soil and Climate

Soil Type: Dominantly vertisols (clay-rich) with challenges like waterlogging and hardpan formation.
Climate: Semi-arid with average annual rainfall of 1,114 mm (peaking in July-August). Temperatures range from 11°C to 31.6°C.

Socio-Economic Context

93% rural population dependent on mixed farming (crops + livestock).
Low adoption of modern inputs (fertilizers, improved seeds).
Key constraints: Poor infrastructure, health issues (malaria), and limited market access.

Proposed Cropping Systems

Option I (With Sugarcane)

Cereals: Sorghum, maize, rice, teff, wheat.
Cash Crops: Cotton, sugarcane (20% area).
Others: Pulses, oilseeds (sesame), vegetables, fruits.

Option II (Without Sugarcane)

Higher emphasis on maize, vegetables, and pulses.
Total irrigation water requirement: 110.97 million m³ (vs. 154.63 million m³ for Option I).

Water Requirements

Crop	Seasonal NIR (mm)	Total NIR (Million m³)
Sugarcane (Option I)	844.4	180.92
Vegetables	2,050	56.4–62.07
Maize (Option II)	462.3	79.02

Recommendations

Adopt rainwater harvesting (RWH) to mitigate dry spells.
Strengthen Water User Associations (WUAs) for efficient water management.
Improve infrastructure (roads, storage) and access to inputs (seeds, fertilizers).
Prioritize high-value crops (fruits, vegetables) for export and income diversification.