Ministry of water resources, basin Development Study Department Qgaden Basin Reconnaissance Phase studv
THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF W ATER RESOURCES
OGADEN BASIN RECCONNAISANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
Wiume III: Agriculture
A-Agronomv/Crop Production B-Livestock Production 
C-Range Land ManagementPreface
The diy basins reconnaissance phase study has been conducted by the experts pulled out
from the basin development study department Data collection and rapid field visit was
made for three dry basins simultaneously viz. Ogaden. Aysha and Denakil between June
and August 1999. then the report production was almost completed in May 2000.
The report is divided  in  to  XT volumes made up  from works conducted  during  the study 
phase. Each volume lias sections depending on the details of the sector.
Volume 1
Volume II
Volume III
Volume IV
Volume V
Volume VI
Executive Summan- Natural Resources
Agriculture Water Resources
Socio-Economy Environment
List of experts produced these report are;
Eyilachew Yitayew Geology and Mineralogy
Abebe Gulma
Soil survey and Land evaluation
Solomon Mengistu
Land use/Cover
Amare H Selassie
Forestry and Energy
Fekahmed
Wildlife and Tourism
Sintayehu Tilahun
Agronomy
Mckonncn Worku
Livestock. Range land. Apiculture and Fishery
Isayas W .Mariam
Hydrology
Girum Admasu                      Hydrogeology
Belay Tegegn
Dams and Hydropower
Wubshet Alemayehu            Irrigation and Drainage
Abnel G.Medhin Geolechnicis and Infrastructure
(rosh U ix. ubedc
. Xgr i u Ui fur j 1 i .cono m i - s
Melaku
Demography
Getachew Beyene
Soil and Water Conservation
Yeyesus Work Bekele
Environment and Environmental Healthy.
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 Background And Introduction
1.1 Background1
1.2  Introduction—...................................................................................................................................... ..........................................1
LOCATION1
Climate2 Vegetation2
Soils3
Farming System3
2.0 Agriculture
2.1 Cu Itu ra 1 Practices
5
Use Of Legume Inter Crops7
2.    Use Of Water Harvesting Techniques •••••■•■■■••••••••••••■•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 7
3.    Short Term Crop Varieties.
2.2 Available Agricultural Support Services
9
2.3 Potentials To Improve Crop Production10
Abbreviations11
1. Background And Introduction l2
2. 
The Project Area2
agriculture/Crop
Production
In2 
References.......................................................................................................................................................................... ....... .......  12Table of Contents
1.       Background and Introduction
1.1       Background
1.2       Introduction
2. AGRICULTURE/CROP PRODUCTION IN
THE PROJECT AREA
Page
1
l
1-3
2.1 
Cultural practices
4-6
2.2 
Available Agricultural Support
Services
6-7
2.3 
Potential to Improve Agricultural/
Crop Production
7
3.         Annexes
Annex-1-
Somalia Region Map
A-l
Annex-2-
Jijiga Zone Climatic Data
2.1
Jijiga Woreda
2.1.a Average Monthly Rainfall (1991-94)
A-2
2.1 .b Monthly total pan Evaporation
A-3
2.1 .c Monthly Wind Velocity
A-4
2.2        Harshin Woreda
2.2.a Average Monthly Rainfall (1984-94                         A-5 2.3.       Kebir Beyah Woreda
2.3.a Average Monthly Rainfall 1983-9                             A-6 Annex-3-           Degehabour Zone
3.a-       Average Monthly Rainfall-1984-94
Annex-4-           Mean Plot Yield of Vegetable crops at Jijiga Nursery -1993-94
A-7
A-8 & A-91 0 BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
1.1     BACKGROUND
The development policy  of the country,  which  is agricultural based  industrialization together with  the need  for integrated  food  security  strategy  and  the underutilized irrigation  potential of the region  calls for some sort of agricultural development intervention  in  the region.  In  view of this the water resources development ministry envisaged  to  undertake agricultural development project in  the dry  basins of the region. And  therefore,  the report is part of this initiative,  which  arms at mailing  reconnaissance study  on  the existing  crop  production  system and  the potential for agricultural development with emphases to irrigated agriculture is the region.
To effect the initiation the department (RBDSD) organized a team composed of
different experts and gave assignments based on the assignment preparatory desk 
“office works were done for the field work. This report, therefore includes works of
the crop production made at office and field visit.
The methodology adopted to prepare this study includes
Literature review,  visits and  discussion  to  different governmental and  non governmental organizations,  and  questsonar’re.  Through  the use of these methods this report is prepared for the crop production part.
1.2  INTRODUCTION
The project of this report encompasses the area in the dry basins of the Somalia region and the following are some features of the region 5 project.area
LOCATION
The Region 5 is located between 3° 33’ and 11° latitude, 39° 03’ and 48° East longitude bordering Afar region and Djiboutti State in the north, Kenya and Somali States in the south, Oromia region in the west and Somalia State in the East with an area coverage of 271,970.91 km . Most part of the are of the region fall in the altitude range of 500 to 
1600 meters above sea level, with annual average rainfall range of 300-500 mm. and
2temperature range of 20-45  °c.  Based  on  these factors,  basically  the altitude the region 
is divided  into  four parts,  viz “Harur” which  covers 55% of the total area and  los
<500m altitude; “Kola” with  latitudinal range of 500-1500m and  covers 25%;
woinadega with  15% coverage and  1500  to  2500  altitude,  where as the remaining  part
is  Dega;  with  2500   m  altitude  and  5%  coverage.  The  map  showing  the  area  where
+
the
basin of our interest is annexed (Annex-1).
CLIMATE
The  region  is  located  in  Arid  and  Semi-arid  Zone  with  a  great  climatic  influence  of winds from water resources and high lands- nearby.
That is,  its proslimity  to  the maritime influence of the Gulf of Aden  and  the Indian ocean  to  the north  and  east and  the cool air currents blowing  from the high  lands of Ethiopia to  the north  west.  Therefore,  in  general the area has a most-dry  climate, Rainfalls wary  in  intensity  and  duration; geographical distribution  is both  localized  and also  erratic.  It is often  very  local and  usually  unevenly  distributed  over the wolo  area. The main  dry  season  (locally  Known  as “Jilaal”) occurs between  October and march.climatic data for stations in  the specifil woredas,viz Jijiga (Annex  2.) Harshin (Annex-2.2).  KebriBeyah  (2.3) of Jijiga zone and  that for Degeha bur zone (Annex-3) are attached.
Climatic data for stations in  the specific woredas,  VIZ Jijiga (Annex  2.1),  Harshin (Annex-2.2),  KebriBeyah  (2.3) of Jijiga Zone and  that for Degehabur zone (Annex-3) are attached.
VEGETATION
Generally the vegetation type of the region varies from dense to scattered Shrub- land with grass.
The dominant grass species are chrysopogon  aucheri,  Heteropogon  contorties, Cenchrus cilaris chymbopogon  Sp.  Dactylactenum agypticum,  Hyperrhenia Sp. Bolhriachloa radicans.  Leptothrium Semegalbnsis,  Tetrapogon  tenllus and  Tragus Sp. The common woody species are Acacia etabica, A.Senegal, A.brevispica,A.drepanolobium,    A.mellifera,    Boswellia    Sp.    Balanites    spp,    Dichrostachys    cinerea, Combretum molle, Delonix elata, Ziziphus Spina christ; and Rewia Villosa.
The range resources of the region  are over exploited  in  some areas where there are permanent water and  settlement camps,  the high  potential ranges are located  near or on main drainage line and in the valleys. Where precipitation and moisture is better.
The woody  species are also  wide spread  and  highly  concentrated  in  these sites.  The grasses common  to  this area are annuals with  few perennials having  ephemeral growth after a showers of rain.
SOILS
Studies indicate that limestone dominates the geology  of the project area.  These line stone rocks are the parent material giving  rise to  a complex  of soil types which  are in the major part neutral to  Alkaline in  ph.the some study  indicated  that the western  part the project area has extensive areas of vertisol coupled  with  reasonably  assured precipitation  are used  widely  for crop  production.  Other soil types consists namely  of the intensely  cropped  luvisols and  flvisols.  Analysis of soils in  these areas showed  low nitrogen and phosphorus levels.
FARMING SYSTEM
The region  can  easily  be categorized  as an  agro-pastorial farming  system area where pastoralism is more important than  crop  production  through  it has large arable and especially for dry land agriculture.
Study report of the south East range lands project indicate that, the project area is essentially a large portion of the total dry-land area of Ethiopia accounting for 46% of the total arable land. Despite this, potential it contributes to less than 10% of the total crop production in the country. However, the problems of dry land agriculture are many and varied, they relate to climate, soils, crops, fodder, fuel wood and socio economic aspects.With  regard  to  the main  concern  of this report,  crop  production  study  reports show that- in  the extensive Figgie plains seasonal precipitation  may  be adequate for crop production  but the continuous sweep  of strong  winds results in  evapo- transpiration exceeding precipitation and consequent soil moisture stress.
Crop  production  is more suited  to  the better rainfall areas of the north  western  region  of the project area and  livestock  to  the comparatively  drier areas.  Despite the risks to  crop production  in  the semi-arid  areas limited  cropping  does take place and  traditional systems are employed to minimize the risk of crop failure.
Because of the low returns for labor,  high  value crops with  assured  cash  income such  as “chat” or “chat” (catha edulis) are intensively  cultivated  much  of this crop  is grown under water harvesting  and  spreading  system with  large labors imputs for weeding  and associated  cultural practice (harvesting  pruning).  In  most cases where ”chat” is grown it is intercropped  with  maizes “chat” occupying  the ponds (water line) and  maize the funds; In  this experience it is found  that maize produces well under this fanning system.
Despite this tendency  to  focus on  a reliable cash  crops such  as “ chat “ many agropastoralists are committed  to  growing  cereal and  legume crops (both  fodder and grain) either as solo  crops or intercropped  in  order to  supply  grains for human consumption  and  stovers and  foodder crops for animal feed  mainly  during  the long  dry season  extending  from October to  mach.  Therefore,  these locally  adopted  techniques can be modified and strengthened to increase crop production in these area. With regard to  the land  use there is 300-400  thousand  hectare area potentially  irrigable where as at present only 6 to 7 thousands are under irrigated crop production. There is an estimated area of 6  million  hectare potential for rainfed  agriculture but farmers cultivated  only 390  thousand  hactares.  There are four big  rivers,  viz wabi-shebele,  Genale,  Dawa and Weyib  in  the region  which  could  possibly  used  as source of moisture for crop production.  Also  there are many  choices of crops to  be produced  in  the project area both  under rainfed  and  irrigation  agriculture,  Maize,  Wheat,  Barely,  Sesame and sorghum are crops for irrigated  agriculture,  where as sorghum,  Maize,  Barley,  Pulses, oilcrops and horticultural crops are suitable for ranifed agriculture.Therefore,  taking  there experiences and  resources there is high  potential for increasing crop  production  in  the region  of Somalia under irrigated  agricultural development program
2.0 AGRICULTURE
2.1 CULTURAL PRACTICES
Land  preparation  is  practiced  by  oxen  (drought  power)  and  manually  is  the  private holding farm where as in government owend farms it is mechanized, tractor is used .
According  to  the 1997/98  (1990  E.C) agricultural sample survey  of the region  ‘CSA’ and  other sources of information  the total meher cropped  area by  private holdings is 552,700  hactares,  out of which  530  hactares is undress irrigation  where as the remaining  is rainfed.  From the total cropped  area cereals cover 49,560  ha,  (89.6%) maize being  the leading  crop  covering  22150  ha (40%) followed  by  sorghum (20570ha; (37.2%) ,  barley  and  wheat with  4180  ha (7.56%) and  2,470ha (4.47%) share respectively.
Seeding- planting  as solely  manual insignificant use of improved  seeds.  However, efforts are underway  to  introduce the use of improved  seeds both  by  the governmental organization  BOA (Bureau  of agriculture) and  Non- governmental organizations ‘No’s’.
With regard to the use of fertilizers in 1990 EC only 800 her of the private holdings use fertilizers with high proportion, 460 ha (57.5%), being natural fertilizer and the
remaining being artificial fertilizers. On the other hand for the same year the total area irrigated by private holders was 530 ha, out of which cereals particularly Maize taking 43.4% where as the permanent crops share is (47.1%).
Survey  reports also  indicate the amount of improved  and  local seeds utilized. According  by  the 1990  E.C agricultural sample survey  should  that 240  quintals and 26450 quintals of improved and local seeds were used in the region, respectively in the meher season.Weeding  is a manual practices,  however information  indicate that it is not significant problem in  the production  systems compared  to  other factories hampering  crop production.
The major production  limiting  factors are nomadic nature of the people,  limited capacity  of the agricultural bureau  ‘AOB’ to  provide extension  services,  the climate moisture stress,  poor seed  varieties,  soil fertility  problem especially  in  the high  lands and  insect pests,  Wevils,  Beltles,  Cutwarms,  Shofly,  Stal barers,  Americal bollwarm, termites and  army  warm are the major insect pestes attributing  to  crop  damage in  the area steam and leaf rusts are found to be the diseases attacking the majors crops in the
area.
Under such  production  condition  the people especially  in  wine woredas of the three zones Jijiga,  Shimili,  Warder zones produce crops with  average yield  estimates of JO-
15 quintals of Maize, 8-12 quntales of Sorghum, 8-12 quntals of Wheat and Barley and 6-8  quntales  of  plusses  per  hactare  of  crop  area.  With  regard  to  vegetable  crops  plot yields   at   Jijiga   centered   Nursery   and   recommendations   of   the   trial   are   annexed (Annex4).
Ingenaral,  in  reference to  crop  production,  existing  experiences and  research  results obtained  from Gode experimental station  has shown  the distinct possibility  of growing crops twice a year in  the project area,  And  also  studies indicate that there is a great potansiol of improving  agricultural production  through  refining  the existing  several local practices.  Examples of the existing  local practies that are basically  sound,  but need some refinement include.-..<t
A
. ?-.<<y*• ■.■
‘T. ' ■ • 
'• 
• 
- ■•< ■• '• >*«•■•„•       ■ > ■ I
USE OF LEGUME INTER CROP
S
Information  collected  indicate  that
some
areas
are
fully 
utilizing  this
system,  espe
cia
lly 
those  on  sandy,  low  fertility  sandy  soiles  synchronization  miniatures  far  planting  and cropping duration have already worked out.
improvements based  on  work  done in  other areas,  that would  need  testing  locally include the planting of strips of either crop at optimum spacing far each, so as to avoid competition which is much higher in semi arid areas.
2. USE OF WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES
These are widely used and is some cases very effective so that in areas where land use data claims that annual crops can  not be grown,  perennial crops like ‘chat.  Collection of water is sometimes too  efficient and  in  a heavy  reinfall can  not cope with  the additional water resulting in erosion and lass of soil small intensive methods have ‘tied’ ridges that can allow surplus water to low out of the area with out damage.
Potential  interventions  in  these  areas  include  the  use  of  drop  structures  that  have  been recommended for field use and the use of effective lay out measures and contouring .
I
I
I
1
J3. SHORT TERM CROP VARIETIES
This is one of the main  methods to  utilize a restricted  cropping  period.  Farmers are currently  using  a very  short duration  maize line-variety  ‘Dhiba’ with  early  season production  to  avoid  pest attack.  However,  production  is mainly  monocropping,  so  that under the low input unfertilized system yields are restricted.
Interventions  include  rotation  and  intercropping  which  trials  have  been  shown  to  be effective.
In  general studies especially  those of the south- East range lands project (SERB) indicate that dry  land  Agronomy  must be assigned  at the needs of the farmers concerned,  most of whom will be livestock  owners.  This involves in  integrated approach  between  sections and  disciplines,  such  as the joint on-farm feeding  play  a vital role to bring about increased and improved crop production.
Soil and  water are perhaps the most critical factors of dry  land  agriculture,  with  out them there is no  production.  Typically  with  arid  and  semi-arid  areas,  erosion  is occurring  at an  ever increasing  rate,  and  is now a recognized  factor of concern  in  the rural areas, but these problems are beyond the capacity of agropostorasists the selves to handle.
In  conclusion,  development is never possible by  projects acting  alone,  And  only succeeds when  benefits to  interventions are clearly  recognized  by  the people involved who there adopt and carry them out with out any external input, therefore, only project aiming  at improving  the cultural poverty  under use or to  bring  in  new techniques- practices should coincides such approach.2.2     AVAILABLE AGRICULTURAL SUPPORT SERVICES
The agricultural support services mainly focus on imput supply and extension services.
The   Zonal  Agricultural   office   under   the   regional  bureau   of   agriculture   is   the  main source  of  external  imputs  such  as  seeds,  chemical  fertilizers  and  pesticides,  which  are supplied  to  farmers  on  credit  basis.  Farm  tools  are  mostly  purchased  from  the  markets, as  well  as  acquired  from  village  crafts  man.  As  the  supply  of  inputs  from  the  ministry of  agriculture  ‘MOA’  is  inadequate,  farmers  of  the  study  sites  also  purchase  inputs from  the  open  market.  However,  inputs  like  chemical  fertilizers  and  pesticides  are  not sold  in  adequate  amount  in  the  markets  or  are  available.  Certain  Non  Governmental organizations   “NGO’s’   like   save   the   Children   Fund   (UK)   and   oxfam   occasionally supply seeds and farm tools occasionally as a relief aid farmers.
The input supply  situation,  both  interms of quantity  supplied  and  the functioning  of the distribution  net work,  was found  to  be poor.  Farmers have to  collect imputs from the woreda offices of the ministry  of agriculture and  transport them to  their Villages by camels and  donkeys back.  These inputs are therefore not easily  accessible to  all the farmers.  Besides,  the supply  is reported  to  be inadequate,  as well as untimely.  Despite the free market policy  adopted  by  the current government,  there inputs are still not adequate by  sold  in  the market,  The farm tools available in  the market are reported  to be less efficient as compared  to  the ones provided  by  the ministry  of Agriculture and NGO’s.
With  regard  to  extension  services,  transfer of appropriate production  techniques,  the ministry  of agriculture make efforts and  NGO’s in  the region  play  their part to  this effect.  However studies reported  that the services are not adequate and  not coordinated among  the different parties,  the government and  NGO’s,  as well as among  the NGO’s themselves.
There  fore,  there  is  a  need  to  coordinate  the  effort  and  increase  the  service  by  both parties.• I
Information  from the region  indicate that there are many  NGO’s involved  in agricultural development activities directly  and  indirectly.  These include save the children  Fund  (SLF) /UK,  SCF/USA,  LWF,  NCA,  Dawa Relief and  Rehabilitation Welfare Society,  Oxfam,  Guardian  and  LUTA.  These NGO’s are involved  in  then- activities in  the three Zones,  which  are the major crop  Production,  VIZ  Jijiga and shinile.
2.3      POTENTIALS TO IMPROVE CROP PRODUCTION
As indicated  in  the introduction  part only  insignificant amount of the arable land  is cropped,  Therefore,  there is sufficient arable land  in  the basin  to  effect crop  production program further more,  there is an  ever enhance dry  land  agriculture and  hence studies, trials,  researches and  training’s to  this effect are under way.  This will bring  about appropriate personnel,  techniques “technologies” and  systems to  improve the existing one and also to bring in improved production system in the Dry basin area.
Finally,  it should  be noted  that this report is prepared  based  on  office work  and  visit a regional bureaus level through  the methodologies explained  above.  And  therefore,  ai there was no  field  observation  and  interaction  with  the producers themselves it need: further verification through detail studies.ALARC             Alemaya Agricultural Research Center
AREA                Administration for Refugee and Returnee Affairs
AUA                  Alemaya University of Agriculture
BOA                   Bureau of Agriculture
CIAT                  Centro International de Agriculture Tropical
CSA                   Central Statistical Authority
DDA                  Dist Development Agents
DAP                   Diammonium Phosphate
DPPLSA            Disaster Prevention and Preparedness and Labour and Social Affairs EARO                Ethiopian Agriculture Research Organization
FAO                   Food and Agriculture Organization
IAR
ILRI
Institute of Agriculture Research International Livestock Research Institute
URDU               Jijiga Rangelands Development Unit
MASL                Meters above sea level
MOA                 Ministry of Agriculture
NGO                  Non-Governmental Organizations
PA                     Peasant Association
RCS/E                Red Cross Society of Ethiopia
RRC                   Relief and Rehabilitation Commission
SCF                    Save the Children Fund -UK
SERP                 Southeast Rangeland Project
UNDP                Unitednations Development Program
WRDB                            Water Resources Development Bureau WSSA               Water Supply and Sewege Authority
ZAO                  Zonal Agricultural OfficeREFERENCES
Agricultural Research Task Force (AFIF) 996, Ethiopian agricultural research and Training  project part 1.  Review of the Agricultural System and  Recommendation future direction, A.A. Ethiopia.
•    Holt, R 1995 managing and developing the southeast range lands of Ethiopia. SERP report jijiga, Ethiopia
•    Holt ,R, KUchar,P. 1994 proposal for a natural resource, environmental and land use survey of the south east range lands of Ethiopia, SERP report Jijiga, Ethiopia
•    preliminary assessment. ILCA\PC\4\ADD\. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
•    Kuchar, P.1995. Range monitoring and evaluation. Range
•     survey methods. SERP Technical report, Jijiga, Ethiopia.
•    Le houerou, HN, and Haywood.m 1979 Ecological survey Jijiga- Fatten area semi- arid prog. Jijiga proj ILCA Addis Abeba Ethiopia.
•    research and development on cereals, pulses, oil crops, horticultural crop sand
•    livestock, final draft Alemaya University of agriculture, Alemaya- Ethiopia.
•    college of Agriculture.
•    Peters, DAW 1952 ‘Khat “ us history, botany chemistry and toxicology Pharmacy fourmal MOWRD- Addis Abeba
Richard viner, South East Range lands project (SERP) report of Dry land Agronomist they 1994 Jijiga Ethiopia cossing, N.J.Bills, J.C and flattery, K.E 1984 cultivation & pastorialism in the jijiga area Jijiga range land development Jijiga Ethiopia.
LAR                  MELKASSA AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER
12Fasil,F,F
Aberra.d
Profile 1997 Nazret MARC, Ethiopia
M.D                   Natural Resource conservation strategy 1991 Diredawa Administration region Diredawa
Ethiopia
C.S.A                 Agricultural sample survey 1997/98
Volume III statistical Bulletion 1998 A.A Ethiopia
•     Agricultural Investment opportunity in somali Region - Profile Investment Bero of Jijiga Ethiopia
•     Save the Children fund-UK, Integrated food security project somali National regional state yearly progress report Junuary 1999 Jijiga- Ethiopia.Millimeters
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Apr                May
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>kis<s>3«*tx x m;: J! wd.vx < teg»aim!gs!!Jan                Feb                 Mar               Apr                May                Jun                Jul               Aug               Sep               Oct               Nov
Km/tir
-nMillimeters
HARSHIN-AVERAGE MONTHLY RAINFALL
1984-1994kebribeyah -average monthly rainfall 1983-1991
A-6UEUcn«Dur\ mv cnwuc iviwn iiili 1984-1994THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
OGADEN BASIN RECCONNAISANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
Volume In: Agriculture
A-Agronomy/Crop Prouuction B-Livesiock Production
C-Range Land Management D-Apiculture
Agriculture rPART ONE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTIONCONTENTS
1 Introduction
2 Methodology of The Study
3  Institutions Involved in Livestock Development
3.1  Ogaden Welfare Society (OWS)-...................................................................................... 3.2  Southern - East Rangeland Development Project (SERP)
3.3   Hope For Hom
(HFH)
3.4   Save the Children Fund (SCF-UK)
3.5
Oxfam................................................................................................................................. 3.6   Al-Nejah
3.7   Alemaya University of Agriculture (AUA)
3.8   Regional Bureau of Agriculture (BOA) 3.9   Water Resource Development Bureau (WRDB)
4  Livestock Production Systems
5  Livestock Resources
6  Livestock Population Density
7  Type and Productivity of Local Breeds
8  .Animal Health
9  Animal nutrition
10 Feed and Water Requirement of Livestock
10.1 Feed Requirement
10.2 Water Requirement....
11 Marketing
11.1 Market Area
11.2 Main Livestock Trade Routes
11.3 Marketing of Livestock & Livestock Products
11.4 Off-take Rate
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
6
9
10
12
15
16
16
17
18
18
19 20 21 22 22
12  Policy and Strategy Related to Livestock Development
13  Livestock Development Constraints
Annex 1 : Reference
Annex 2 : Type of Forage & Other Vegetations Raised by HFH
.Annex 3 : Types of Seedling Raised by SERPABBREVIATIONS
AUA                 Alemava University of Agriculture AV                     Average
BOA                   Bureau of Agriculture
CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia C-CPP Contagious Caprine Pleuro Pneumonia CP Crude Protein
cumt
Cubic Meter
DA                      Development Agent
DM                      Dry Matter
DPPC Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission
Ha
Hector
HFH                     Hope For Hom
IAR
Institute of Agricultural Research
ILCA                    International Livestock Centre For Africa
ILRI Kg
International Livestock Research Institute Kilogram
LSD                     Lympy Skin Disease
Lt
Ma
Liter
Master of Science
Max                      Maximum
ME                       Metabolic Energy
Min                       Minimum
MOA                    Ministry of Agriculture
MOW                   Ministry' of Water Resources NGO                     Non Governmental Organisation OWO                    Ogaden Welfare Society
PPR                      Peste Des Petit Ruminants
SCF
Save the Children Fund
SERP                   South East Rangeland Development Project
TLU
Tropical Livestock Unit
4LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 :
Table 2 :
Table 3 :
Livestock Population of Korahe Zone Livestock Population of Warder Zone Livestock Population of Degehabour Zone
Table   4 :
Livestock Population of Jijiga Zone
1 able  5 :
Livestock Population of Gode Zone
Table   6 :
Livestock Population of Shinile Zone
Table   7 :
Total Livestock Population in the Basin
Table 8 :
Table 9 :
Livestock Population of the Basin in the National Context
Livestock Population Density
Tabic 10: Productivity of Local Breeds
Table 11: Mortality of Livestock in the Ogaden Basin
Table 12 : Number of Animals Vaccinated & Treated by BOA & SERP (1994-1996) Table 13: Water Requirement of Livestock
Table 14 : Price of Livestock & Livestock Products at Jijiga Market Table 15: .Annual Off-take Rate of LivestockANNEXES
Annex 1 : References
Annex 2 : Type of Forage and Other Vegetables Raised by HFH Annex 3 : Type of Seedling Raise by SERP1 INTRODUCTION
Livestock production plays an important role in the Ethiopia economy and has a crucial role in the peasant fanning system. The total livestock population of the country is estimated about 35 million tropical livestock unit which include 30 million cattle. 24 million sheep, 18 million goats, 7 million equines, 56 million poultry and one million camel.
The Somali National State lias nine zones and forty weredas, out of which five zones and fifteen weredas are belong to the dry basin. Pastoralism is the dominant agricultural activity in the region followed by mixed farming in the higher altitude, in both cases livestock is playing a significant role. The people kept animals mainly as source of milk but the productivity of local herds are poor. The main reason for low productivity are shortage of feed, prevalence of diseases and genetical inheritance, lhe population of
the region are nomadic and semi pastoralist communities, and highly' dependant on cattle and camels. The area is characterised by different climatic features which include small rain season from October to November and the main rain season from April to June. The rest months are the long dry period, and during this time animals are suffered due to shortage of water and grazing land.
The Ogaden Basin , one of the three dry basin in the eastern part of the country’, covers five zones which include Degehabour, Gode, Jijiga, Korahe and Shinile. The basin is located in the arid part of the region in which the rate of evapotranspiration is high and the growing period is very short. Almost all the people in the basin arc pastoralist thus agronomical practice is negligible. The means of livelihood is directly  depend on the
7
rearing of various livestock in the vast area of rangelands. Few peoples are involved in apicultural development m the area where the environment is conducive for such 
activities. Since there is no suitable perennial river in the basin, fisheries development is out of question. It is apparent that the grazing area in the rangeland are deteriorated to 
the lowest level of production due to manmade and natural disasters. Despite all the constraints faced the basin, there are enormous amount of livestock and livestock 
products which could be exploit for the good of people and country.
2  METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
All available relevant information were gathered from library of various offices such as TERI, TAR, MO A, MOW, in Addis Abeba to get secondary' information.
Questionnaires were prepared here in Addis before the reconnaissance field visit has started on the following disciplines:
-   jYnimal production
-   Animal health
-   Animal marketing
-   Animal feed
-   Fisheries
-   ApicultureLater on. the field visit was made at different sites of the basin at regional and zonal level. Concerned experts were interviewed about the actvities of livestock production in their area,  and  also  they  filled  the above mentioned  questionnaires.  Visual assessment of livestock resources and vegetation cover were made at the area of interest.
It was not possible to get the number of livestock either at wereda or zonal level. The total number of animals has estimated  from veiy  old  reference which  seems not accurate.  In  this report,  however,  the crude livestock  number of each  wereda is calculated from available different sources.
3  INSTITUTIONS INVOLVED IN LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT
3.1   Ogaden Welfare Society (OWS)
The Ogaden Welfare Society is indigenous NGO established in 1992 and involved relief and development activities through water, agriculture, health, sanitation and education programmes in the region.
OWS has been carried out the following livestock related activities, out of the various activities, in response to the priority need of the people.
- construction of borehole at Shilabo,
- installation of three hand pumps at Shinille, Jijiga, Haramava,
- rehabilitation of hand pump at Warder,
- rehabilitation of three borehols at Boeh. Warder, and Geladin,
- rehabilitation of shallow water well at Weiwei,
- rehabilitation of cistern at Wardwr, and
- integrated rehabilitation and development program at Warder zone with Action Centre La Faim.
3.2   South-East Rangeland Development Project ( SERP )
South-East Rangeland Development Project covers an estimated area of about 245,000 km" covering the south -eastern rangeland of Ethiopia. Jijiga is where the project head quarter is situated, the two branch offices located at Jijiga, covering the Eastern Harerge area, and the Gode covering the remaining project area. Under the two main branch offices, the project is establishing development centres in different locations of the area.
In order to achieve the required outputs the project is comprised of the following components:
- Extension and Institutional Development, - Animal Production and Health,
- Infrastructure Development,
- Land Use and Range Development,
2- Livestock Marketing,
- Management and Administration, and
- Technical Assistance
3.3   Hope For the Horn ( HFH )
The organisation aims in supporting the main drought affected communities in the project area with water supply, making the necessary' veterinary  drug available and providing basic primary' education at Gashamo, Daror, P^abasso and Aware. The HFH has raised about 72,000 seedlings from two nursery sites at Rabasso and Daror ( see
7
annex 2).
3.4   Save The Children Fund ( SCF - UK )
SCF - UK has been working in the region since 1988 in respond to the refugee crises as a result of the Somalia civil war. The organisation is currently working al Jijiga, Kebribevah, Awbwre, Harshine. Fik, Seged, Dembel and Gashamo, focusing on the following activities'.
- community’ water development
- educational support
- support to traditional restocking, and
- primarily veterinary support
3.5   Oxfam
Oxfam was started working in the Jijijga zone in 1988. Since then it has been involved in emergency water supply to more than 4000 Somali refugees and returnees in Eastern Harerghe. Over time, Oxfam completed 52 water points, including 13 cistern, 23 shallow hand dug wells and 10 ponds.
3.6  Al-Nejah
Tliis local NGO’s are involved in domestic water supply, public health and formal education at Jijiga, Degehabour, kebridehar, Warder, Gode and Shinile areas.
3.7     Aiemaya University of Agriculture ( AUA )
Alemaya University of Agriculture was upgraded to its current status of universit} in 1985. The university has triple mandates: teaching, research and extension. After transfer of most of its extension mandate to the Ministry of Agriculture in 1964, extension activities of the universit}' are limited to Alemaya wereda. Research programmes are executed by multidisciplinaiy teams, that is drawn from the different faculties of the university. Research activities are carried out both on-station, either at Alemaya centre or at its sub-station found in different agro-ecological zones, and on- farm.
33.8    Region al Bureau of A gri culture (BOA)
The regional Bureau of Agriculture is responsible to carried out livestock and livestock related activities throughout the region. Livestock production, feed, apiculture, animal
health and marketing are their main components of the bureau.
Under the natural resource management program, BOA manages two tree nurseries. 
'Iliis year it has been produced 200.000 seedling of different tree and forage species, and also planned to plant 80 hectares of communal land.
3.9   Water Resources Development Bureau (WRDB)
The Water Resources Development Bureau has been involved in the development of
water resources, construction of shallow and deep wells, sub-surfacc dams, infiltration gallaries, river intakes and traditional water source like ponds, cisterns etc.
Since its inception, WRDB has completed the construction of 50 shallow wells, 20 
deep wells and 2 surface dams, serving a population of about 139,000.
4  LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS
The Ogaden  Basin  occupies a vast area of rangeland  in  the south  east part of the country. There are three distinct type of livestock production system in the basin based on the prevailing climatic condition of rangeland : crop production with supplementary’ of livestock  rearing,  livestock  rearing  with  supplement of crop  production  and  pure livestock production (pastoralism).
4.1  Crop Production with Supplementary of Livestock Rearing
This system is mainly  dependant on  the sale and  purchase of various crops,  such  as maize,  sorghum,  wheat,  barley,  fruits,  vegetables etc.  The yield  of crops per unit area is mostly'  small due to  moisture stress,  poor cultivation  practices and  absence of improved  seeds and  technology.  The main  land-use activities in  this area are crop farming  combined  with  holding  few cattle,  sheep,  goats,  donkey  etc.  Crop  residue provide the bulk  of the feed  resource base,  while grazing  is quile common  on  natural pasture,  valley  bottoms and  even  hillsides.  Depending  on  altitude maize,  sorghum, millet, wheat, pulses and oil crops are grown. Here, cattle are primarily kept for traction puiposes; milk  and  meat are by-products.  In  this fanning  zone,  number of cattle per family is usually’ small. Grazing pressure is very high and ruminant livestock experience year-round nutritional stress. This system is typical around Jijiga area where agricultural practice is extensively carried out.
4.2  Livestock Rearing with Supplement of Crop Production
Here,  the people are primarily  interested  to  raise livestock  as a means of livelihood, while crop production is practice to generate additional food to the family. During the dry period it is a common practice that some part of the family' are migrated to long distance with their livestock in search of grazing and water, while the rest are- staying at
4the permanent residential area. The number of animals per family is higher than that of former system.  Recently,  there are an  increasing  trend  of crop  farming  throughout the project area , which is not advisable from ecological point of view.
4.3         Pure Livestock Production (Pastoralism)
In  this mode of production  the household  is entirely  dependent on  livestock  and livestock products for their subsistence. The number of livestock per family is very’ high as compare to  the other two  systems.  The predominant land-use is pastoralism,  and rain-fed  crop  production  is either absence or occupies insignificant areas.  Most of the pastoralists are semi-nomadic or transhuman  and  they  keep  cattle,  sheep,  goats and camels principally  for milk  production.  Seasonal movement of people and  cattle in search of feed and water is common, and they may cross international boundaries.
5 LIVESTOCK RESOURCES
Livestock  in  the basin  are the very  important and  critically  required  resource for the well being of society. They are use for various purposes such as : draught power, high quality  food  (milk,  meat,  eggs etc.),  source of income,  transport,  employment generation, investment & saving, production of manure & dung, utilisation of marginal land & crop residues and source of foreign exchange earnings.
In  the mixed-farming  system livestock  serve as complementary  for crop  production wliilc it is the sole component in the pastoral production system. The hel d composition and  number of ruminants in  the basin  is depend  on  the agro-ecological nature of the area.  However,  the total livestock  number is expected  to  be about 1692813  TLU*, which  include 891301  cattle,  3070036  sheep,  1199403  goats,  89130  equines and 517176 camels ( see tables 1-7).
There are significant number of livestock in the basin as compared to the national total. The percentage of each  species includes 51.72,  12.79,  6.66,  2.29  and  1.27  for camel, sheep,  goats,  cattle and  equines respectively  (Table 8).  The higher figure of camel could  possibly  correspond  to  the nature of the basin  that is dominated  by  lowland ecology.
Table 1 :Livestock Population of Korahe Zone
Wereda
Cattle        Sheep        Goats        Equines      Camel
Kebri Dehar Shekoch
TOTAL
65855 226833 88619 6585 38212
17076          58819       22979     1708          9909
82931 285652 111598 8293 48121
TOTAL TLU
66345          28565        11160     3317          48121
* = TLU value for livestock is 0.8 for cattle, 0.4 for equine, 0.1 for shoat & 1.0 for camel
5Table 2 : Livestock Population of Warder Zone
Wereda
Cattle        Sheep         Goats        Equines       Camel
Boh
Warder
Geladin
Danot
TOTAL
60715     209130         81703          6072         35230
69976     241028         94165          6998         40603
80188     276202      107907           8019         46529
31819      109600        42818          3182         18463 242698      835960      326593          24271      140825
TOTAL TLU 194158 83596 32659 9708 140825
Table 3: Livestock Population of Degehabour Zone
Wereda
Degehabour Aware
Niisrak Gashamo TOTAL
Cattle Sheep Goats Equines Camel
52092     179428       70099          5209      30226 65463     225485       88093          6546       37985 54548      187887       73404          5455       31651
172103 592800 231596 17210 99862
TOTAL TLU i 137682 59280 23160 6884 99862
Table 4 : Livestock Population of Jijiga Zone
Wereda            j  Cattle        Sheep           Goats        Equines      Camel
Jijiga Kebribeyah Harshin
TOTAL
158394 545579 213147 15839 91908
112387 387110 151236 11239 65212
48664       167620          65486         4866        28237
319445 1100309 429869 31944 185357
TOTAL TLU     1 255556        110031        42987       12778       185357 Table 5: Livestock population of Gode Zone
Wereda
I Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Equines
Camel
Ferfer
■
i 23570
i
81186
31718
2357
13677
TOTAL
1
I 23570
81186
31718
2357
13677
TOTAL TLU
1 18856
8119
3172
943
13677
Table 6: Livestock population of Shinile Zone 6Wereda
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Equines
Camel
Dembel
50554
174129
68029
5055
29334
TOTAL
50554
174129
68029
5055
29334
TOTAL TLU
40443
17413
6803
2022
29334
Table 7: Total Livestock Population in The Basin
Zone
Cattle
Sheep
Goats
Equines
Camel
Korahe
82931
285652
111598
8293
48121
Warder
242698
835960
326593
24271
140825
Degehabour
172103
592800
231596
17210
99862
Jijiga
319445
1100309
429869
31944
185357
Gode
23570
81186
31718
2357
13677
Shinile
50554
174129
68029
5055
29334
TOTAL
891301
3070036
1199403
89130
517176
TOTAL TLU
713041
307004
119940
35652
517176
6 LIVESTOCK POPULATION DENSITY
The basin total livestock populations of 1692813 TLU constitute about 4.84 % of the national total. The proportion of camel is found 51.72 % which is almost half of the country  camel population. Since the basin has hostile environment and is suitable for
-
shrub and bush growth, it is more appropriate for camel rearing. Furthermore, the percentage of cattle, sheep, goats and equines are 2.97%, 12.79P-O, 6.66% and 1.27 % respectively (table 8 ).
The overall livestock density of cattle, sheep and goats are much higher in Jijiga zone due to more human concentration per km . On the other hand, the smallest density of
2
animal in Gode Zone could correspond to less concentration of pastoralists. The rest zones have owned almost the same density of livestock (table 9).
The highest animal biomass per km2 is 56.29 TLU in Jijiga Zone followed by 9.35 TLU in Shinile, 9.16 TLU in Degehabour, 8.76 TLU in Korahe, 8.70 in Warder and 4.27 in Gode (table 9).
7Table 8: Livestock Population of The Basin in The National Context
Species
Country Total
Basin Total
Basin Percentage
Cattle
30.000.000
891301
2.29
Sheep
24,000,000
3070036
12.79
Goats
18,000,000
1199403
6.66
Equine
7,000,000
89130
1.27
Camel
1,000,000
517176
51.72
TOTAL TLU
35000000
1692813
4.84
Table 9: Livestock Population Density
Korahe     Warder    Degehab.
Gode         Shinile          Total
Total Area (km') Total cattle Cattle per km2 Total sheep Sheep per km2 Total goats Goats per km2 Total camel Camel per km2 Total TLU
17600       51885        34933              10552       10275          10052           135297 82931      242698      172103           319445       23570          50554            891301
4.71          4.68           4.93               30.27          2.29            5.03                 6.59 285652      835960      592800         1100309       81186        174129          3070036
16.23          16.11         16.97            104.27          7.90          17.22
22.69
111598      326593       231596           429869       31718          68029            199403 6.37            6.29           6.63              40.74          3.09            6.77                 8.86
48121      140825        99862           185357       13677          29334           517176 2.73            2.71          2.86               17.57          1.33            2.92                3.82
154191 451238 319984 593931 43824 93993 1657161
TT .1" per km2                     8.76           8.70           9.16               56.29          4.27           9.35                12.25 7  TYPE AND PRODUCTIVITY OF LOCAL BREEDS
Since the project area exhibited  various ecological zones,  the characteristic of livestock is expected  to  be related  to  the prevailing  conditions of a particular environmental niches. So far, the following predominant breeds / types are identified within the project area.
7.1  Cattle Breeds / Types
The cattle population  in  the basin  is belong  to  the Bos-Indicus which  resemble to  the Boran type for its milk and meat yield. This breed is regarded as a good dual-purpose animal well adapted to difficult environmental conditions and has white body colour.
The milk yield varied from 0.5 It. during dry season to up to 3 It. in wet season. Other productivity characteristics include : calving interval is 1 - 1.5 year, age at first cahing 3 -4  years,  lactating  length  8-10  months.  This cattle breed  is well known  by  its disease resistance ability, and utilisation of poor quality feed during the prolonged dry period of the year.
81.2   Sheep Breeds / Types
The Somali Sheep is predominantly a flat rumpled type. The tail has a broad base filled with fat. This breed is usually called Black Head Somali Sheep and has a better foreign demand in gulf countries,
7.3  Goat Breeds / Types
The goat type is refered as Deghier or Deghiyer. The Somali type of breed lias mainly while body colour.
7.4  Camel Breeds/Types
All of the camel population in the basin are one-hamped animal of dromedary type. The long leg and huge body size of the Somali camel helps it to resist the adverse environmental condition and to stay well in the area where other livestock breeds couldn’t exist.
lhe productivity of local breeds is very low and also far below their potentiality due to geneticaL environmental, management or interaction factors. The following yield have recorded considering varies production parameter :
Table 10 : Productivity of Local Breeds
Production Parameter
Productivity (months)
Age at first sendee for cow
36-39
Age at first service for bull
36
Age at first calving
45-48
Calving interval
18.7
Lactation length of cattle
5.7
Lactation length of goats
1.9
Lactation length of camel
7.8
Milk yield per cow per day
1.4 It.
Milk yield per goats per day
0.35 - 0.4 It.
Milk yield per camel per day
2.7 It.
Age at first service of sheep
8
Age at first sendee of goats
6
Age at first lambing
14-16
Age at first kidding
12
8  ANIMAL HEALTH
Animal diseases is the second  most important constraint in  animal production  which cause death of animals and production loss. It is reported tliat diseases like Contagious Bo\ine Pleuropneumonia, Foot and Mouth, Sheep pox. Contagious Caprine
9Pleuropneumonia.  Anthrax.  Black  Leg,  Tuberculosis.  Brucellosis.  Heart Water, Haemorrhage Septicaemia,  Ecto-Parasites and  Endo-Parasites are limited  the acceptability of local breeds in the foreign markets.
The   Regional   Bureau   of   Agriculture   and   South   East   Rangeland   Project   (SERF)   are
providing   veterinary7     services   throughout   the   region.   SEP<P   has   constructed   26 
development centres in  seven  zones of the region  to  carried  out veterinary  activities, extension  sendees and  land  use activities.  The Regional Department of Agriculture has constructed six veterinary clinics and has planned to construct additional four clinics.
The laboratory  clinic constructed  in  Jijiga by  SERP is engaged  to  undertake investigation on  tuberculosis,  trypanosomiasis,  and  camel milk  processing.  It has reported  that the bacteriology,  parasitology,  haematology7 and  animal production  units have started operation  at full capacity.  The SERP veterinary*  section  lias also  undertake disease surveillance activities supported by two mobile field laboratories one from Jijiga and the other from Gode.
Both  Bureau  of Agriculture and  SERP have adopted  veterinary*  drug  supply  procedure based  on  revolving  fund  system.  In  this system,  when  drug  are sold,  sales income will be re-used for further purchase of veterinary drugs.
8.1 Important Local Livestock Diseases
According  to  the document obtained  from the SERP office diseases like protozoa and rickettsial,  bacteria and  mycoplasmal,  viral,  endoparasitic and  ecoparasilic are common in the project area.
8.2   Protozoal and Rickettsial
Trypanasomiasis is the most important livestock  disease in  the basin  and  mainly  affect both  camel and  cattle.  Research  results from the same organisation  indicated  that this disease is a serious problem in Shihile, Jijiga and Degehabour Zones. Other disease .for example,  hertwater is sporadic and  its distribution  is limited.  Babesiosis is also  occur with minute incident.
8.3  Bacterial and Mycoplasmal Diseases
Anthrax and Blackleg are the main diseases in this category  which cause livestock loss and reduction of production throughout the region. However, disease incidence is seasonal and vaccine supplies are organised according to the distribution of diseases. Other common diseases are Pasteurelosis, Bovine and Caprine Contagious Pleuropneumonia, Brucellosis, Dermatopliilosis, etc.
7
108.4  Viral Diseases
A  disease  called  Nairobi  Sheep  was  spread  throughout  Harshine,  Kebribeyah  and neighbouring weredas in early 1971 and mortality rate was reached up to 90 %.
Rabis is the most known  viral disease in  the basin.  Furthermore,  there are a considerable number of hyena and  jackals in  the region  and  it is assumed  that these predators are the main source of rabis and other diseases for livestock and men.
8.5  Endoparasitic Diseases
Among  endoparasitic diseases heamonchus is tlie most widespread  disease in  the Somalia region. Cysticercosis and hvdatidosis aredetected in Jijijga Zone. It is common that the pastorialists are requested antihelmetic drug during the main rain season and at the end of the dry season.
5.6  Ectoparastic Diseases
Tick  is the most known  ectoparastes causing  herd  loss and  reduction  of productivity. Herdsmen  cause physical damage to  livestock  in  order to  control stock  infestation,  in dryer area tick cause lameness and skin wounds that can affect the sale value of stock. Other important ectoparasite diseases include mange, particularly in goats and camel.
Illegal trade of veterinary drugs of known as well as unimown origin, potency, expire date,  toxic or non-toxic to  animals and  human  are sold  in  the open  market in  most cases by non professionals . Disease causing organisms develop resistance in response to sub-dose administration of medicines by tlie profit minded vendor or herdsmen.
The main  reason  for animal death  is the occurrence and  incidence of the above mentioned  diseases in  the Ogaden  Basin.  The SERP record  revealed  that the highest mortality  rate is 15  % for goat,  followed  by  10% for sheep,  and  8% for cattle and camel each. Weight losses due to endo-parasites infection have been estimated as 20 kg for cattle, 5 kg for adult sheep and 20 kg for adult camel.
Table 11: Mortality of Livestock in the Ogaden Basin
Species       Mortality Rate*      Total    number animals
of Loss of animals         Loss in TLU
Cattle Sheep Goals Camel
TOTAL
8
71304                     57043
10
15
8
891301 3070036 1199403
517176
307003 179910
41374
30700 17991 41374
147108
* source = SERP
11Table 12: Number of .Animals Vaccinated & Treated by BOA & SERP (1994 - 1996)
.4c/h'/7/ej                       1994
. 1995
1996
BOA
SERP
TOTAL
BOA
SERP
TOTAL
BOA
SERP
TOTAL
Vaccination Rinderpest
829000
829000
65300
65300
Other
200473
716592
917065
1465507
568363
2033870
1175834
514387
1690221
TOTAL
200473
716592
917065
2294507
568363
2862870
1241134
514387
1755521
Treaiment Tiyps.
Lnt. Parasite
79362 108235
179936
413236
56557
86455
236493
499691
348705
249948
38274
40841
386979
290789
Ext. Parasite
58389
43650
248619
292269
28862
88540
117402
Other
45506
253971
100440
354411
478009
19764
497773
TOTAL
291492 
666013 
957505
890283
492071
1382354
1105529
187419
1292948
9  ANIMAL NUTRITION
9.1 Natural Vegetation
Ruminant  feed  is  one  of  the  major  limiting  factor  that  contributing  for  the  low productivity  and  production  of  the  local  animals.  Feed  resources  that  provide  the required  nutrients  such  as  energy,  protein,  vitamins  and  minerals  are  crucial  for  all classes of animals in order to survive, grow, reproduce and produce. However, under nutrition  and  malnutrition  are  the  major  factors  contributing  to  low  productivity  of livestock  in  Ethiopia.  Natural  pastures  are  the  major  source  of  feed,  but  cannot  fulfil nutritional requirement of the animals particularly in the dry season. According to ARC, a minimum of 90 g CP / kg. DM. of a diet is necessary for microbial synthesis. Less crude  protein  than  this  amount  results  in  reduce  microbial  activity'  which  leads  to  a reduction  in  cell  wall  degradation  and  lower  feed  intake.  Results  on  the  chemical analysis of Ethiopian feedstaff indicate that dry7  forages and roughage supply7  only7  about 62 g CP/ kg DM. of the diet which is much less than the requirement
In  the basin  almost all forage supply  are driven  from vast area of rangelands.  Study’ made by MO A, 1996 revealed that such area is known with low and erratic rainfall and sever degradation.  The type of grazing  arc savannah  grassland,  grass steep,  shrub steppe, desert scrap and barren land which gives average yield less than 1 tone/ha./vear. Moreover, grazing conditions are not favourable for more than half of the year because of the marked seasonality' of rainfall distribution. Hence, production gains make during the wet season arc totally or partially lost during the dry season as feed supplies and quality  decrease.  Fodder conservation  and  supplementary7 feeding  are not practice in most pans of the basin.  Expansion  of crop  lands and  recunent droughts have resulted in increased deterioration of the grassland.
129.2  Forage Development
Land  Use and  Range Management Section  of SERP has been  involved  in  trial and studies of forage species,  as part of its objective to  rehabilitate and  reafforeste degraded land.
The information  obtained  from SEPk  confinn  that this section  has raised  1,060.350 seedling  of different drought resistance fodder plant.  Out of the seedling  raised,  more than  927.804  seedling  were distributed  to  interested  individual farmers and  town dwellers.  Furthermore.  772  on-farm trials on  private farms have been  selected  and required  seeds were distributed.  To  regenerate the vegetation  damage by  the influx  of refugee and  returnee in  the project area,  8  hectares of enclosure wore established  and fenced  in  different refugee settlement areas .  The type of seedlings raised  by  SERP is presented  in  annex  3.  The activities of Hope for The Hom (HFH) and  Bureau  of Agriculture (BOA),  as mentioned  earlier,  have also  included  forage and  other tree development in their nurseries.
10 FEED AND WATER REQUIREMENT OF LIVESTOCK
10.1   Feed Requirement
The feed requirement of animals depend on the climate, the purpose for which the animal is kept, the type of animals, growth of animals, productivity of animals, nutrient contents of feed. etc. Ruminant animal needs enough amount of energy (ME). protein(CP), vitamin, minerals and minimum dry mater forage for microbial digestion in the rumen. The end product of digestion is used for maintenance and production process. The status of this study does not allowed to calculate each nutrient requirement of the basins livestock. However, crude calculation of the dry matter need of for maintenance is presented as follow:
Assuming that a 250 kg or one TLU consume 2.5% of its body weight on DM. basis each day (MOA, 1996), yearly consumption would be 2.5% x 250 x 365 - 2.28 tons DM. Therefore, the total project livestock of 1692813 Till resources would required 
1692813 x 2.28 = 3859614 tons of DM. These amount feed should be obtained from crop residues, natural grazinglani supplementary feed etc. at least to make animals survive, without considering production needs.
10.2   Water Requirement
Livestock required water for their routine physiological activities in the order of at least even' other day to be productive, and even few days to survive. Their water need depend on the climate, the type of ration available and the purpose for which the animal is kept. Water availability' for animals use is not relatively a serious problem in higher altitude of the basin. Usually livestock are watered after a few km. distance walk during
13the dry season. In the wet season moisture content of forage is high and animal
watered everywhere in the grazing area.
The basin  area is well known  by  shortage of water during  the long  dry  season  due to high  evapotranspiration  rate and  recurrent drought,  individual or tribal made cisterns, ponds and  shallow wells are available in  some places as means of watering  points. However, those facilities are served for few months or weeks during dry period. .As the diy period extended, the pastoralist are forced to migrate with their animals to the place of perennial rivers or even across the border to neighbouring countries.
The actual waler requirement of the basin livestock is calculated based on ILCA research report no. 7. 1983 in the following table :
Tabic 13 : Water Requirement of Livestock
Species         Av.  wafer  require!. (Lt/head/dav)
Annual        water Total number of            Total water require*,
requiret. (cumt.)       animals
(cu.mt.)
Cattle
*Shoat Equines Camel
TOTAL
25
5
12
30
9.1
1.8
891301
4269439
8110839
7684990
4.4     '                       89130                     392172
11.0
26.3
517176
5688936 21876937
* = sheep + goat
10.3   Frequency of watering
Frequency  of watering  depends mainly  on  weather,  type of vegetation  and  distance of watering points from grazing area. During the dry season livestock are pastured close to wells or rivers and  watered  ever}'  day.  When  the vegetation  remain  green  during  dry season which may occur due to high rainfall, ruminants are pastured further away from watering point. Frequency of watering in this case wall be ever)  other day.
7
When  different species watered  in  the same point,  there are order of priority.  Belete (1979) explained  that when  livestock  are watered,  if cattle,  sheep,  goats and  camels arrived at the water together, cattle take precedence, since it is considered (hat they are unable to wait. Next come sheep, then goats while camels are watered last. If sheep and goats are mixed they are watered together.
11  MARKETING
The basin is one of the potential area for livestock and livestock product marketing. In mixed  crop-livestock  production  system,  the major marketable commodities are crop products.  Nevertheless,  live animals and  livestock  products are also  secondary important source of cash  income for the farmers.  In  pastoral area almost all cash income is driven from the sale of live animals and livestock products. The major
14reasons for the sale of livestock  and  livestock  products are to  obtain  cash  for the purchase of grain, clothing’s and other necessities; to pay loans; to reduce stock number for fear of drought; to cull old and unwanted animals and when offered good price.
lhe marketing systems in the project area, like anywhere in the country, are traditional. The animals are bought and  sold  on  the basis of negotiation  without any  standard criteria. Animals are usually sale without considering body condition and weighing the live animals. The price is influenced by season, availability of pasture and water and the presence or absence of drought and  also  importantly  by  supply  and  demand. Transportation in most cases is on hoof which lead to a considerable weight loss of the animals,  even  death.  There are shortage of abattoirs throughout lhe basin,  except in  a few big  towns.  Tn  MO A (1996) document it has pointed  out that 75% of cattle and some 95% of sheep and goats slaughter is undertaken at the backyard where there is no slaughtering and curing facilities leading to deterioration of meat, hides and skins quality as well as substantial wastage.
In  the Ogaden  Basin  the off-take rate is very  small due to  lack  of marketing infrastructure,  as a result the market linkage of pastoralsts with  neighbouring  countries such as Somalia, Kenya and Djibouti are high. The out side merchants bring the basic items - salt,  rice,  sugar,  oil - to  Ethiopia and  in  turn  they  buy  live animals to  export through those countries.
Animal products like milk  and  butter are sold  in  the open  market to  hotels and  final consumers.  It is suggested  that pastoralists use 97 % of the milk production for home consumption and sell only 3 %.
11.1  Market Area
The characteristics and linkages of market are categorised in three systems as primary, secondary and terminal. In the primary market the sellers and buyers arc mostly 
pastoralists. The secondary market are collecting centres where the sellers are small
traders and pastoralists whereas the buyers are bigger traders and butchers. The
terminal markets are final markets for domestic purposes.
Two type of market areas are identified in the Ogaden Basin, those are : internal market and external market.
Internal Market - There are small internal markets throughout the Basin  where livestock  and  livestock  products are sold  every  day.  These markets are divided  in  to primaty  and  secondary.  The primaty  markets is usually  located  at kebele or wereda level while the secondary  markets are found  in  largest town.  The most important markets in terms of heads of livestock transaction are Jijiga, Gode, Kebridehar, Kelafo, Warder, Shilabo and Danon.
External Market - The unofficial external market for Ogcdcn  livestock  are Somalia, Kenya and  Djibouti.  Ayele,  1990  explained  that 758,000  sheep  and  goats 225,450 cattle and 103,050 camels are unofficial!}' exported to Somalia annually.
1511.2    Main Livestock Trade Routes
The chain of trade routes involved primarily, secondary' and terminal market place from which large number of middlemen involved in each transaction. The SERP marketing team has identified the following fourteen main stock routes from which livestock flow to different destinations :
I) North and North-Eastern Part of the Region
Shinile ------  Ayisha
Dewele------ Djibouti
Hararghe------ Jijiga------- Teferiber--------- Berbera (Somalia)
Gogti, Arba & Dembel -— Teferiber------------ Derbera (Somalia) Fik------ Harcrghe & Dcredawa
Kebribeyah-------Debelwein-------- Berbera (Somalia)
i
Degehabour & Fik -■
Harshin------- Debelwein-------- Berbera (Somalia)
Degehabour & Fik — Lankerta---------- Farawein-------- Berbera (Somalia)
Aware------ Rabaso---------- Berbera (Somalia)
Danon------- Debagoryale--------- Deruksi---------Berbera (Somalia)
Gashamo-------- DeruksiBerbera (Somalia)
II) East, South-East & Southern Part of the Region
Kebridehar ? Gode & Warder----------- Geladin----------- Dudab---------- Bosaso (Somalia) Aider------- Doloby---------- Kismavu (Somalia)
Liben (Filtu) ---------Doloado---------  Kismavu (Somalia)
Liben (Moyale)-------- Moyale------- Kenya
11.3   MARKETING OF LIVESTOCK AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTS
The current average price of livestock and livestock products are obtained form SERP as follows:
16Table 14 : Price of Livestock and Livestock Products at Jijige Market
Ox
Cow
Steer
Heifer
Male Calf Female Calf Male Camel Female Camel Male Sheep Female Sheep Male Goat Female Goat Male Donkey Female Donkey Butter (kg) Cow N'filk (It.) Camel Milk (It.)
Price (birr)
690
540 330 325 258 200 980 840
90 70 60 55 
220 225
25 2 3
11.4   OFF-TAKE RATE
According  to  the information  from Livestock  and  Meat Board,  the animal off-take rate of cattle,  sheep,  goats and  camel is 6.9%,  16.3%,  27.1% and  3.3% respectively. Therefore,  the possible annual marketable animals from the project areas could  be 61500 cattle, 500416 sheep, 325038 goats and 17067 camels ( see table 15 ).
Table 15 : Annual Off-take Rate of Livestock
Type of animal
Total      number of animals
Annual commercial off take ratef%)
Total number of animals sell per annum
Total number of animals sell in TLU per annum
Cattle Sheep Goats Camel
TOTAL
891301 3070036 1199403
517176
6.9 16.3 27.1
3.3
61500                     49200
500416 325038
17067
50042 32504 17067
148813
12Policy and Strategy Related to Livestock Production
One of the main  problem in  livestock  production  is lack  of appropriate policy  and strategy  which  is tlie necessary  precondition  to  gear production  to  the highest level of development.  Issues like grazing  land  use,  breeding  of local slock,  livestock  movement, livestock health standard, marketing, etc. are complicated and became a serious
17problem of this sector.  Therefore,  formulation  and  proclamation  of livestock  policy  is the cunent burden  issues in  order to  solve the above mentioned  problems and  to impose force and regulation.
The draft livestock  development strategy  document has been  available since 1996.  this document has focused  on  sub-components like feed  and  nutrition,  animal health development,  livestock  breed  improvement,  livestock  and  livestock  products marketing development and pastoral development.
POLICY OBJECTIVES
The overall objectives of the livestock  sector is to  develop  and  utilise the available resources and  increase its contribution  to  the social and  economic development of the country.
13  LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT CONSTRAINTS
13.1   Nutritional Stress
Nutritional deficiency in terms of quality and quantity is the major factor constraining animal production. Insufficient nutrition usually cause low growth rate, poor fertility, high mortality, susceptibility' to various diseases and low production level of animals.
13.2   Diseases
Diseases are the other known cause for high mortality, low' fertility, poor growth rate, insufficient draft power output, etc. of domestic animals.
13.3   Lack of Marketing Infrastructure
i here is no efficient and adequate marketing infrastructure through the country', as a result so many animals are traded out side the country through illegal channel.
13.4   Poor genetic potential of local breed
The local breeds have good survival ability under harsh environmental condition, but have poor genetical potential in important production traits - milk, meat etc.
13.5   Poor husbandry practices
In the rural areas the standard of animal husbandry is generally low. There is little deliberate production of forage, systematic disease control is not common, controlled breeding is not practices , and ruminant are mainly left to feed for themselves.
18There is insufficient knowledge of Ethiopia’s livestock resources for accurate development planning. The size and distribution of the livestock population is usually drown from old references.
19Ministry of water resources. basin Development Study Department Ogaden Basin Reconnaissance Phase study
THE FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
OG ADEN BASIN RECCONNAISANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
Volume III:     Agriculture
A-Agronomy/Crop Prouuciion B-Lh estock Production
C-Range Land TVlanagenient
------------ »_ _ 
TA A       ----  ■
vnpituiiui c
» 
“
xPART TWO RANGE MANAGEMENT
20CONTENTS
1. Introduction ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 27
2. Feature of the Country Rangeland ------------------------------------------ 28
3. Rangeland Areas in Ethiopia ------------------------------------------------28
4. The Ogeden Basin Rangeland ----------------------------------------------  30
4.1 General Feature -----------------------------------------------------------  30
4.2 Vegetation Cover --------------------------------------------------------- 31
5. Carrying Capacity and Stocking Rate ------------------------------------  33
6. Density and Biomass of Livestock in the Rangeland------------------ 34
7. Policy and Strategy’ Related to Rangland Resources ------------------- 36
8. Constraints --------------------------------------------------------------------  37
21LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 : Main Ecological Zones of Ethiopia
Table 2 : Number of Livestock in the Rangeland
Table 3 : Rangeland .Areas of the Country
Table 4 : Production of Fodder' and Rangeland Carrying Capacity Table 5 : Density and Biomass of Livestock in the Rangeland Table 6 : Livestock Population Density
Table 7 : Livestock Population of the Basin in the National Context
221 INTRODUCTION
Livestock production plays an important role in the Etliiopia economy and has a crucial role in the peasant fanning system. The total livestock population is estimated at about 35 million tropical livestock unites ( TLU.) which include 30 million cattle, 24 million sheep, 18 million goats, 7 million equines, 56 million poultry  and one million camel.
7
In  Etliiopia  there  are  five  major  distinctive  ecological  zones  with  different  producion systems  (table  1).  The  rangeland  which  occupy  about  70  %  of  the  country  area  is mainly suitable for livestock production. In most situations this vast area is deteriorated to  its  lowest  production  level  due  to  over  grazing,  over  population,  recurrent  draught erratic  rain  fall etc.  The ecology of rangeland is very fragile unstable environment in which  production  level  can  be  influenced  by  soil  characteristics,  evapotranspiration, previous  utilisation  region  and  vegetation  types.  Such  factors  also  determine  the  herd composition and the type of production system at a particular ecological nich.
The Ogaden  Basin  Rangeland,  like any  rangelands in  the country',  is also  severely degraded  due to  mismanagement and  natural calamities.  The vegetation  cover of grazing  area lost diversity,  as a result unpalatable bushes and  desert scrap  are the dominant species. Since rainfall is scare and erratic, annual grasses are grown only for short period  of time,  and  most of the soil are remain  bare ground.  This rangeland  is apparently  unsuitable for crop  production  and  livestock  rearing  is a sort of no  choice production system.
Table 1: Main Ecological Zones of Ethiopia
Zone
Altitude              Average Annual     Average Annual     Production System Temp.                     Rainfall, (mm)
Bereha
Kolla Woina-Dega Dega
Worcch
below 1500        over 26°c               below 300             Nomadism
1500- 1800 26°c
1800-2400 22°c
300 - 700
nomadism Semi
Nomadism
700- 1000              Mixed Sedentary
2400 - 3500       16°c                        1000 - 1200           Mixed Sedentary over 3500           12°c                        1200- 1500            Extensive Grazing
2 FEATURE OF THE COUNTRY RANGELAND
Generally, the rangeland of the country is defined as area below 1500 masl. The annual rainfall is range between  300-700  mm.  The rangeland  occupy  about 70% of the total land area of the country'. About 12% of the human population. 28% of the cattle. 26°6 of sheep. 66% of goats and 1009b of camel are found in this category' (Table 2). The inhabitants are mainly pastorialisis and agro-pastoralists in rhe arid and semi-aria part of nonh east, south east, and south; sedentary and shifted cultivators in the most malaria and tsetse infestation area of souLh west and west parts of the country.
Despite the hostile environment, the Ethiopian rangelands play an important role in the national economy.  Traditionally,  the pastoralists use the range resources efficiently  forlivestock  production.  Above their subsistence needs they  supply  to  the adjacent highlands draught animals,  beef cattle,  goats and  sheep,  and  supply  the majorin'  of animals for the export market. Most of the potential for irrigation agriculture on a large to  medium scale is in  the rangelands.  The southwest and  western  rangelands offer potential for expanded agriculture and settlement.
Table 2: Number of Livestock in the Rangeland
Species
■ National Total
Livestock in the Rangeland
Percentage of the Rangeland
Cattle
j 30.000.000
8,400,000
28
Sheep
i 24,000,000
6,240,000
26
Goats
■ 18,000,000
11,880,000
66
Camel
I 1,000.000
1.000.000
100
3  RANGELAND AREAS iN ETHIOPIA
In  Ethiopia  there  are  five  main  rangeland areas at different comers of the country, those are lhe following :
Gambella Rangeland
At the west part of the country,  the Gambella Plain  provides an  abundant supply  of grazing  for livestock.  The utilisation  of this resource is difficult as a result of the seasonal of feed  supply,  tsetse infestation  and  limitation  imposed  by  water supplies in the dry  season.  In  the plain  there are three distinct grazing  resources: seasonal flooded area, non-flooded area and piedmont pasture.
South Omo Rangeland
This rangeland  has four distinct units of rangelaned  which  are unique to  the area: the Waito-Segen  Valley,  the Lower-Omo  Plains,  the Hamer Mountain  and  the Mursi-Bodi plains.  In  much  of the Lower Omo  cattle don  not kept by  the river due to  the tsetse challenge; therefore,  section  of each  group  living  by  the river tends to  be primarily agricultural.
Southern Rangeland
The southern  rangeland  is believed  to  be the highest ecological potential among  the major range development areas.  The three main  features of this area are shortage of rain  fall,  bush  encroachment and  population  pressure.  Out of the total area about 40% is invaded  by  weedy  bushes,  19% is affected  by  erosion  and  34% of the wet season range are not accessible to cattle because of scarcity of water. Coppock, 1994.
24South-East Rangeland
Land degradation through erosion, bush encroachment and loss of species diversity are the major constraints in  the rangeland.  It is mentioned  that the main  cause for such deterioration is due t# frequent grazing of an area within the season. According to the range studies undertaken  by  LMB.  84% of the area shows sign  of over-use and  only 16% of the area shows sign of proper use or under use. The Ogaden Basin is located 
witliin South-East Rangeland area.
North-East Rangeland
This rangeland  covered  the lowland  range of Wollo  and  Tigray  in  the north  east Ethiopia, and Awash delta. According to previous survey by LMB, the average carrying capacity of some parts of the basin is as worst as 30 - 40 hectares per TLU. basing this estimate on cattle performance only.
Table 3 : Rangeland Areas of the Country
Name of the Rangeland       Place of the Rangeland
Southern Rangeland South-East R.angeland North-East  Rangeland Gambella Rangeland South Omo Ranseland
Borena Plain
Somalia Plain
Afar Plain
Gambella Plain
South & South West Part of the Countrv
4 THE OGADEN BASIN RANGELAND
4.1 General Feature
The Ogaden Basin Rangeland is divided in to two types, based on the study made by Dr. T^vne Coppock, 1994. Those are : arid zone and semi - arid zone
Arid Zone
Tn this zone the growing day is 90 days per year and almost all areas are unsuitable for cultivation  and  subjected  for livestock  production.  Therefore,  cultivation  is ven7 risky and  often  confined  to  early  maturing  drought tolerant grain  crops such  as sorghum, millet in  depression  or flood  plains.  The main  natural grazing  areas arc the grassland witliin the woodland savannah and the steppe regions. In addition, there are vast areas of fairly productive derived grassland located at higher altitudes and also some natural grazing  areas above the forest regions.  Tliis area is known  by  warmest temperature, high evaporation rate and lower rainfall (Less than 400 mm). Range plant communities have low production  potential.  Total dry  matter (DM) production  is commonly  less than  one tone DM/hawear. It estimated that on undegraded sites the carrying capacity can  range from 4  to  16  TLU / KAI2.  Livestock  composition  is diverse but tends io emphasis browsing  species (camel and  goat) that forage from woody  vegetations. Human lifestyles are nomadic, involving frequent movements of households as well as animals.
Semi - And Zone
Semi -arid zone has 90- 120 growing days per year and the plant community have higher potential productivity than those of the arid zone. Estimated total DM production is 1 to 3 tone DM/ha/vear and the earning capacity are higher about 14 to 28 TLU KM  and less variable than the arid zone. .Annual temperature tends to be cooler than the arid zone and rainf all is bimodal about 400 - 700 mm/year. Plant communities commonly consist of perennial savannah and dry woodlands with grass cover. The greater stability and productivity of the grass layer relative to the arid zone promotes more grazing cattle and sheep, although browsing goats and camels can thrive in wooded or bushed areas. Peoples here are semi-nomadic with households sedentary in most years. Compared with the arid zone, livestock diseases appear to be a more serious problem in general.
2
4.2 VEGETATION COVER
The vegetation cover of a particular area has direct relation to edaphic, climatic, as well as biotic effect The change correspond  to  an  increasingly  favourable regime reflected with increase in density and size of the woody perennial. In general, rainfall and forage production  tends to  decrease to  the south  and  south  east but local forage productions arc influenced  by  landscape.  Therefore,  the vegetation  cover situation  of our basin  is believed to be a result of the above mentioned factors.
The Basin  has a wide range of vegetation  cover,  ranges from scattered  tree grasses mixture to  bare ground  and  desert scrap.  FAO.  1984  described  the climatic climax vegetation cover as followed :
Acacia mellifera woodland
The Acacia mellifera woodland occupies altitudes between 250 - 1800m under a mean rainfall of 400  - 600  mm.  The associated  overstorv  are dominated  by  Boscia senegaiensis, Cadaba glandulosa and Cadaba romndifolia.
Steppe Vegetation
The steppe region occupies altitudes between 100 - 1400 m and receives a mean rainfall of 100 - 550 mm. The growing period lasts from 0-2 months. The steppe vegetation is characterised scattered and widely spaced species of sluubs not exceeding 4 tn high.
Acacia mellifera - commiphora scrub
Tliis commonly occur altitudes between 250 - 1400 . and receive a mean annual rainfall of 150 - 500 mm. The vegetation is related to the Acacia mellifera woodland, but the
26thickets are less dense and the Commiphora species C. africana, C. abyssinica and C. opubalsamum play an important role.
Acacia rtubica - commiphora scrub
Tliis community occupies altitudes from sea level up to 1000 m and received a mean 
annual rainfall varying from 100 - 400 mm. The heterogeneous community is
characterised by the occurrence of dense patches ofzlc?dc/a nubica associated with J. mellifera. A. nilotica, Kraussiana, A. tortilis, Commiphora africana, Erythrina
melanacantha and Maerua sessiliflora. In valleys and swells with impeded drainage
Acacia drepanolobium often occurs and on w ell drained steep slopes Acacia brevispica
and Grewia bicolor are characteristic. The ground cover is consist of grass species like Aristida adscensionis. Cenchrus ciliaris. Chrysopogon aucheri. Eragrostis
capitulifera and Pennisetum mezianum and fobs like Endostemon tereticaulis.
Helichrysum glumaceum and Leucas urticifolia
Semi-desert Vegetation
This is extreme lowland area of the basin occupies altitude up to 600m. The area
receives a mean annual rainfall of 50 - 300 mm and the growing period is at most one
month. The flora have developed an advanced xeromorphic adaptation. Shrubs and 
trees have developed dwarf growth and have small, pubescent leaves. They have an 
adapted resistance to browsing through the development of thorns and alkaloid content
. The semidesert vegetation is normally ven* poor developed and is characterised by 
patches of low shrubs which normally reach a height of about one m. Between the
patches are widespread areas with only small tufts of hardy grasses. Trees are normally restricted to fringes along water courses.
Jcada tortilis scrub
The vegetation is characterised by a 1 - 3 m higlt, very scattered tree story consisting of tortilis, Balanites orbiculeris, Maerua crassifolia and Af. sphaerogyna. Woody 
shrubs like Crotalaria aegyptica, C. dumosa, Indigofera, I. ruspoli, I. spinosa,
Pavonia sennii, Tephrosia pupurea and T. uniflora are frequent in slight depressions. 
Some tufted perennial grasses lake Aristida hemmingii are also typical. On sandy dunes Eragrostis hararensis and Panicum turgidum occur. .Annual grasses like Jrfrzt/rfa
funiculata, together with geophytes such as Littonia obscura and Scilla carunculifera,
make rapid growth after heavy rain.
5.       CARRYING CAPACITY & STOCKING RATE
Canying  capacity  is the number of livestock unit that can  be carried per unit area, per unit rime without damaging  the normal pattern  of vegetation  cover.  Since different animals have different feed  need,  the canying  capacity  could  increase with  animal diversity.  Thus there are three grazing  habits among  livestock: grazers that concentrate on  the ground  flora,  browsers that eat mainly  trees and  shrub  leaves and  intermediate feeders.
27The stocking rate should be determined by the caring capacity of the soil, but the
optimum can be based on ecological or economic consideration. Under higher stocking rate the animal consume more, but their ability’ to select the most palatable and 
nutritious part decreases. Increasing stocking rate is therefore lead to reduce production 
per animals.
There is no  detailed  studies about the carrying  capacity7 of the basin  rangeland. However,  primary  observation  showed  that the grazing  land  in  the project area are capable to  supply  the necessary  nutrient to  the animals only  during  part of the year. Grazing  conditions are not favourable for more than  half of the year.  Hence,  body weight gain of animals during the wet season are partially or totally7 lost during the dry season as feed supplies and quality decrease.
Since the basin falls within arid and semi-arid zones which receive a rainfall less than 600mm.  the carrying  capacity  of holding  ground  vary  accordingly.  Marketing  Section of SERP estimated  the range of carrying  capacity’ per TLU as from 10.1  hectares at 300  mm rainfall to  5.1  hectares at 600mm rainfall.  This figure could  lead  us to conclude that ,for example,  in  Jijiga wereda an  average of 5.1  hectares of land  is needed  to  keep  an  animal of 250  kg  liveweight.  Similarly’.  10.1  hectares of land  is required at Kebridehar to keep the same animal.
Table 4 : Production of Fodder and Rangeland Carrying Capacity1
Annual P.ainfall (nun)
100
200 300 400 500 600
Consumable Fodder (dry matter) kg/ha
150 225 300 375 450
Capacity ha'TLU
15.2. 10.1
7.6 6.1 5.1
" = Excluding flood plains which may produce 3600 - 8000 kg/ha
6  = 30 % of total above ground herbaceous growth
Source : Marketing Section, SERP, as quoted from Blair Rains & Kassem (1980), 
Le Houe'rou & Hoste (1977)
6. Density and biomass of livestock in the rangeland
Jijiga Zone contains much higher livestock density as compared to other zones, due to 
more human concentration per km . On the other hand, the smallest
2
density of animal
in  Gode Zone could  be positively  correlated  to  less concentration  of pastoralists.  The rest zones have owned  almost the same density.  Furthermore,  the highest animal biomass per km2 is 56.29 TLU in Jijiga Zone followed by 9.35 TLU in Shinile, 9.16 TLU in Degehabour, 8.76 TLU in Korahe, 8.70 in Warder and 4.27 in Gode (table 5).
28The basin total livestock population of 1692813 TLU constitute about 4.84 % of the national total. The proportion of camel is found 51.72 % which is almost half of the country camel population. Since the basin has hostile emironment and is suitable for shrub and bush growth, it is more appropriate for camel rearing. Furthermore, the percentage of cattle, sheep, goats and equines are 2.29%, 12.79%, 6.66% and 1.27 % respectively. It is apparent that all these livestock reared in the Ogaden Basin rangeland are causing degradation of vegetation cover due to overpopulation, loss of species diversity and poor husbandaiy.
Table 6: Livestock Population Density
' Korahe    Warder   Degehab.    Jijiga        Gode        Shinile         Total
Total Area (km )
2
17600
51885
34933
10552
10275
10052
\3S291
Total cattle
82931
242698
172103
319445
23570
50554
891301
Cattle per km2
4.71
4.68
4.93
30.27
2.29
5.03
6.59
Total sheep
285652
835960
592800
1100309
81186
174129
3070036
Sheep per km2
16.23
16.11
16.97
104.27
7.90
17.22
22.69
Total goats Goats per km' Total camel Camel per knf Total TLU TLU per km2
111598    326593     231596        429869     31718        68029          199403 6.37          629          6.63            40.74        .3.09          6.77               8.86
48121    140825      99862         185357     13677        29334         517176 2.73          2.71         2.86             17.57        1.33          2.92              3.82
154191   451238     319984        593931     43824       93993        1657161 8.76         8.70         9.16             56.29        4.27         9.35              12.25
Table 7: Livestock Population of The Basin in The National Context
Species            1’ Country Total   Basin Total    Basin
Percentage
Cattle Sheep Goats Equine Camel
TOTALTLU
30,000,000 891301
24,000,000 3070036
18,000,000 1199403
2.29 12.79
6.66
7.000,000
89130                  1.27
1,000,000 517176
35000000 1692813
51.72
4.84
7. POLICY & STRATEGY RELATED TO RANGELAND DEVELOPMENT
The rangeland is generally located in unstable fragile environments. Most of these drier regions are degraded  due to  overgrazing  and  unsustainable cultivation.  To  avert the current trend of rangeland deterioration, appropriate policy is needed. Thus, the
29following development objectives and strategies are proposed by MO A to improve the livestock productivity in the rangeland.
Policy Objectives
- Increase the supply and quality of feed
- Improve ruminant nutrition
- Ensure an effective and sustainable rangelands production systems
Strategy
a) Develop feeding system that will allow effective adjustment of the physiological slants of the herds to the vegetational cycle of the range
b) Increase the supply of feed resources and develop strategic supplementation systems through:
- promoting the development and expansion of improved forage species suitable to semi-arid and arid environments;
- promoting the development of irrigated pasture and fodder species;
- developing and strengthening the utilisation of local protein rich feedstuffs to 
meet the physiological status of animals during critical dry periods;
- developing and strengthening dry season grazing reserves (fodder banks) based on the availability of water points as well as developing hay-making systems for the dry season;
- developing the proper utilisation of crop residues particularly in agro-pastoral areas; and
- promoting the utilisation of various techniques such as inter-cropping, under-sowing, and water harvesting etc. to increase forage crop production.
c) Develop adequate supply of water in a way which is sensitive to maintaining grazing and ecological balance;
d) Establish an early-warning mechanisms for combating possible events of natural catastrophe;
e)  Develop a system to gradually transform the nomadic pastoralists towbar as sedenteralization with the build up of assets for relatively rapid and sustainable developmcnl to ensure lhe well being of the population and rejuvenation and balance of tiie ecology;
f)   Develop rangelands resource data base using geographical information system (GIS) to:
30-  provide the basis for alternative scenarios and for optimum resource exploitation through sound planning practices; and
-  monitor and evaluate the effects of land use practices, biotic and abiotic factors on vegetative changes and rangelands degradation.
g)   Improve  and  maintain  rangelands  productivity  through  developing  rehabilitation  and conservation programmes; ana
h)  Identity’ and develop research priorities on the pastoral areas.
8. CONSTRAINTS IN RANGLAND PRODUCTIVITY
Temperature
The rangeland  of the basin  is represent hot and  hostile environment.  The growing period  is to  short for crops,  but it is normally  acceptable for perennial grasses and shrubs.
Poor Fertility of the Soil
In  all  tropical  rangelands,  including  the  basin,  soil  fertility  is  a  sever  limiting  factor  for successful forage production. Nitrogen and phosphorus are universally deficient.
Bush Encroachment
Bush  encroachment is a serious problem in  the rangeland  of the basin  as well as elsewhere in  the country.  The major species which  appear to  present bush encroachment problems are: Acacia  brevispica,  Acacia  drepanolobhun,  Acacia  seyai. Acacia horrida and Coinmifera qfricana.
Soil Erosion
It is noted that some 60% of the land surface of the country is affected by different type of degradation,  of which  about 94% is due to  soil erosion.  The project area is not exceptional for such phenomena and is expected to be affected by the rate of more than the national average.
Expansion of Cultivation
Expansion of fanning in the traditional dry season grazing area mainly by agro- pastorialist aggravate the feed stress and ecological degradation. Most of the rangeland are not suitable for crop production due to shortage of rainfall, high rate of evaporation, poor soil fertility' and etc. unless and otherwise the crop farming is
supported by irrigation.
31Communal Ownership of Land
Rangeland  is owned  communally  while livestocks are private property.  In  such circumstance there is always a tendency  to  maximise a number of herd  without considering  the carrying  capacity  of vegetation  cover.  As a result,  land  degradation. bare ground  soil,  bush  encroachment etc.  are resulted  in  most parts of the project areas.
Tribal and CT,an Conflicts
In  the Somali region  traditional enemity  between  neighbouring  tribes is a constant source of tension.  The dispute is usually  raised  due to  the utilisation  of water and grazing points during the dry period when those resources are scare.
Lack of Trained Personnel
It  has  observed  that  there  are  a  critical  shortage  of  junior  and  highly  qualified  man power in the field of range management
The following constraints are also the bottle neck for rangeland development
- lack of nutritional information,
- lack of early warning, impact assessment and monitoring systems.
- Lack of awareness and understanding of the pastoral context by non-pastoral society;
- break-down of traditional institutions and system of management and gradual loss of traditional knowledge and
- lack of research activities
32Ministry of water resources, basin Development Study Department
Osaden Basin Reconnaissance Phase study
the FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETH1OPLA MINISTRY OF WATER RESOURCES
OGADEN BASIN RECCONNAISANCE PHASE MASTER PLAN
Voiume III: .
Ygriculture
A-Agronomy/Crop Production B-Livestock Production
C-Range Land Management
D-Apiculture]
Agriculture rPART THREE
APICULTURE
37CONTENTS
1  Introduction................................................................................................40
2   The Value of Beekeeping......................................................................... 40
3   Back ground of Apiculture Development in Ethiopia.............................. 42
4   Apiculture Development in the Basin...................................................... 43
5   Traditional Beekeeping Practice and Management.................................. 43
6    Improved Methods of Beekeeping..........................................................45
7    Source of Bee Forage..............................................................................46
8    Production of Honey and Beeswax........................................................ 46
9    Honey Quality........................................................................................ 47
10 Type and Behaviour of Bees.................................................................. 48
11  Species and Races of Bees...................................................................... 49
11.1 Tropical Race...................................................................................49
11.2  Ethiopian Race................................................................................49
12  Bee Enemies and Diseases......................................................................50
13 Holleta Bee Research and Training Centre.............................................50
14  Policy Objectives, Strategy and Program of Apiculture......................... 51
15  Constraints.............................................................................................. 52
38LIST OF TABLES
Table 1        General Average of Annual Honey Yields Per Colony Table 2        Number of Colonies Owned Per Beekeepers
Table 3       Honey and Beeswax Production in Ethiopia Table 4       National Export of Honey and Beeswax Table 5       Estimated Average Honey Yiels Per Colony
391  INTRODUCTION
Ethiopia has an optimum environmental conditions for existing of million of bee
colonies and production of thousand of tonnes of honey and beeswax annually. The country has variable ecological features which create favourable conditions for the existence of diverse flowering plants.
The total production of honey is estimated at about 25000 tonnes per annum. The
people of the country also have a very long standing experience of keeping bees as
side line activities. However, honey production is based on traditional methods using 
local hives and indigenous apiculture skill.
The main bee products , honey , is mainly used as food, medicine and to produce the
local drink called ‘ tej ‘. Other known products such as propolis, pollen and nectar are
not exploited due to lack of awareness on the part of the pastoralists. The wax is
,however, used for making traditional candle mostly used in the church, and for
various industrial purposes.
Eventhough  the project area is known  by  poor apicultural development,  the pastoralists at higher altitude produce tremendous amount of honey  and  beeswax mainly for local consumption. Based on the experience of the apicultural expert from Regional Bureau of Agriculture, six zones are identified as relatively good beekeeping area.  Those are Afder,  Fik,  Gode,  Jijiga,  Liben  and  Shinile Zones.  Traditional beekeeping  is well established  in  those area and  abundant wild  colonies of bee are also source of honey.
In the Ogaden Basin Jijiga Zone is the most potential area for apiculture development. There are approximately 18,000 - 23,000 honey bee colonies maintained in traditional hives (BOA). Eventhough beekeeping is an important off-farm income generating activity, production of honey is very low due to poor strains of bees, scarcity of honey producing plants and traditional hive.
2 THE VALUE OF BEEKEEPING
Beekeeping is a very important activities in the rural area to produce highly energable food, to generate cash income and to create friendly environment. Thus, the following value are identified as the main product of beekeeping.
40Honey
Honey  consists mostly  (80  %) of sugar that are readily  absorbed  by  the body (CTAJ995).  So  that,  it is believed  to  be suitable food  for children,  sick  people and those who perform heavy manual labour.
Wax
Wax  is used  in  the manufacture of cosmetics,  candle,  foundation  sheets ( for hive ), medicines,  polishes,  etc.  There is a good  and  very  stable market for beeswax.  Wax production varies from 0.2 - 0.5 kg per hive per year when frames are used and from 0.5 - 2 kg when the honey is pressed and all the combs are melted down (CTA,1995).
Pollen and Propolis
It is possible to harvest pollen from hive by using simple trap. Bees gather an average of 100 - 200 g of pollen per colony per day. Pollen can contain up o 35 % protein. It can be eaten dry or added to other foods. Pollen is sold to the perfume industry and nowadays also for consumption.
Propolis is a resin that bees collect from plants and they use it to cover the inside of the hive.  The market trend  for propolis is increasing  as it has some therapeutic and antibiotic characteristics.
Pollen  must  be  protected  against  moisture  to  keep  its  quality.  It  attracts  water (hygroscopic) and deteriorates quickly when attracted by fungi.
Pollination
The greatest value of beekeeping  lies in  the fact that bees pollinate agricultural and horticultural plants. If there are enough bee colonies in the area at flowering time the plant will give higher yields and the quality of the fruits will also be improve.
413 BACK GROUND OF APICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Beekeeping is important traditional activity in almost all parts of Ethiopia. The country has an optimum environmental conditions for existing of million of bee colonies and production of thousand tonnes of honey and beeswax annually. Besides the conducive natural environment, the people of the country has an experience of traditional beekeeping husbandry.
Despite the growing demand of honey in local and foreign market, this sector has not been exploited to its level of potential. In the traditional system, honey and wax are the two major products of apiculture. The average honey yield per hive per year is as small as 4 kg with harvesting frequency of 1 to 2. Such yield is very small as compared to Africa standards ( see table 1).
South and South West of Ethiopia are the most potential area in apiculture development. Normally honey is harvested from two main sources : most of the product is collected from traditional hive, while few people are focus on wild colony in the jungle or rocks.
During the last few years effort has been made to distribute improved hive through governmental organisations and NGO’s. Now a days over 20,000 modem hives are in use at national level. The type of modem hive that have been so far introduced in the country are Zander, Langstroth and Kenyan Top Bar, out of which the former two are widely used. The yield of such hive could be reach up to 20 kg per hive.
Table 1: General Average of Annual Honey Yields per Colony
Continent
Yield (kg)
Europe
USSR
N. America S. America Oceania
Asia
Africa
Ethiopia
18
24
24
14
39
18
8
4
Source : CTA,1995
424  APICULTURE DEVELOPMENT IN THE BASIN
It  has  been  reported  that  about  34  %  the  region  bee  colonies  is  found  in  Jijige  Zone alone, suggesting that these areas are suitable for beekeeping.
This zone has a number of areas covered with forest and woodland which is suitable for beekeeping.  Therefore,  apiculture development suggested  as one of the alternative programme to  utilised  the natural resource rather than  cutting  wood  for fuel.  It is reported  that most pastoralists I agro-pastoralists have expressed  keen  interest in beekeeping  using  improved  hives.  They  have also  significant practical experience in working  with  bee,  and  hence with  little training  and  extension  services they  will be successful in managing colonies from improved hives.
Beekeepers in Somali National Regional State keep few number of honey bee colonies per family. The result of the survey made by BOA, 1997 indicated that the majority about 58 % of the beekeepers have 1 - 3 hives, some beekeepers 23.18 % have 4-6, while a few 8.69 % have 7 - 10 colonies, and about 10.14 % of the beekeepers have more than 10 colonies (table 2).
Although there is no reliable data available for total honey production in Jijiga, it is estimated  about 150-210  tones per year, and the market demand of honey is greater than the current supply.
Table 2 : Number of Colonies Owned Per Beekeeper (%)
Number
Awbere      Kebrebeya     Jijiga
1-3
4-6
7-10
Above 10
66.67 100.00 65.71
33.33                               20.00
8.57
5.72
5 TRADITIONAL BEEKEEPING PRACTICES & MANAGEMENT
Beekeeping in Ethiopia is a known tradition almost in all parts of the country. It is a forgotten and backwarded sector among agricultural activities. Traditional beekeepers is carried out with locally available materials which have no commercial values. Local hives are made up of bamboo, animal dung, kerkeha, grass, soil mud, borehole woods and tree barks. The beehives are cylindrical or conical in shape and are about
1-1.5 meter in length. Beehives are usually placed in backyard under the roof, inside a separated room and under a shade of trees around the residence compound.
43Management of traditional hive is based on a seasonal pattern starting with 
construction of hives, followed by waiting period for bee to enter into the hive, storing surplus honey and finally harvesting.
In the basin beekeeping is solely a male dominated activity and almost all producers
use traditional practice, and starting this husbandry by catching swarm of bees. Honey 
is usually harvested between October and December, but in few area also in June. 
Hives are opened to collect combs of honey at evening. Pastoralists leave few combs
of honey in the hive to feed bees during dry period. It is a common practice to apply smoke to calm bees during harvesting time.
ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE OF TRADITIONAL BEEKEEPING
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages on the traditional beekeeping practices.
ADVANTAGE
- The hive could be constricted from locally available materials,
- The local material are available at little or no cost,
- The hive can be made with local skill usually by the beekeepers and his families,
- The hives that located in the tree are protected from pests, theft and fire,
- The hives readily attract wild colony of bees,
- They do not require any sophisticated systems of management and
- It is possible to harvest large amount of beeswax.
DISADVANTAGE
- The hive has limited size, so that inspection and better management techniques can 
not be applied to increase yield,
- The honey and brood are not separated and hence it is difficult to harvest the honey without damaging the brood and mixing the honey with some old combs and pollen. These affect the quality of honey,
- The quality and quantity of honey harvested from traditional hives are very low and - Traditional hives are very suitable for swarming and absconding of the colonies.
446  IMPROVED METHODS OF BEEKEEPING
Improved  beekeeping  husbandry  is required  understanding  of basic biology  of bee; use of the necessary  input such  as frame hive,  queen  excluder,  honey  extractor; wax melting bowl etc.
The type of modem hive that has been introduce in the country and widely used is a
multi-chamber frame hive including Zander, Langstroth and Kenya Top Bar types. 
(HBTC.,1995).
The number of modem hives distributed throughout the country are very few. There is lack  of strong  extension  activities to  introduce intensive production  systems,  so  that only few people around big towns are familiar with frame hive.
The experience of improved  beekeeping  in  the project area is almost non  - existing. There are shortage of strong  extension  net work,  financial support and  integrated approach of development to boost this sector.
Many  NGOs are presently  engaged  in  various development oriented  activities in  the basin.  However,  most of them have not participated  in  beekeeping  programme.  Few organisation  like SERP,  BOA,  OWS,  UNDP and  UNHCR are planning  to  launch development programme in beekeeping.
ADVANTAGE OF IMPROVED METHOD
-  The amount of honey produced is very high, about 10 - 15 kg. pure honey per hive per year,
- The quality of honey is better than the honey produced from traditional hive,
- It is possible to prevent swarming,
- It is convenient to inspect the colony,
- It is convenient to move the hive from place to place, and
- modem hive is convenient to select better colonies, to rear queens and multiply colonies from a single colony.
DISADVANTAGE OF IMPROVED METHOD
- Beekeeping equipments are relatively expensive,
- Skilled man power is required to operate beekeeping equipment, and - There are shortage of equipment and accessories.
457 SOURCE OF BEE FORAGE
The bee population in the basin entirely depend on natural floras for their survival and performance. These plants could be trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses etc., annuals or perennials, natural or cultivated. A plant can be grouped as a major or minor source of feed for bee based on its attractiveness, distribution, flowering period and duration, abundance of pollen and nectar.
The main bee forage species in Jijiga Zone are: Acacia nilotica, Acacia seyal, Acacia Senegal, Acacia bussei, Acacia brevispica, Balanites glabar, Commiphera africana, Euphobia grandis, Grewia villosa, Cenchrus ciliaris, Arisida adscensionis, Cynodon dactylon, Heteropogon contortus, Sporobolus marginatus, Harpachne schimperi, and Opuntia ficus indica (BOA). Most of other cultivated crops like cereals and pulses are very important bee plants for honey production.
8 PRODUCTION OF HONEY AND BEESWAX
In 1984 world honey exports totalled 270,000 tonnes, of which 60 % came from the tropics (CTA,1995). Ethiopia is ranked the top honey and beeswax producer in Africa and the fourth beeswax producer in the world. Among the export commodities in the country beeswax play important role in the national economy. Since the quality of Ethiopian wax is high, it has a high demand in the world market. The annual honey and beeswax yield of the country is about 24,600 and 3,200 tonnes respectively, most of which about 90 % is used for domestic consumption. It is stated that Ethiopia exports more than 3 million tones of beeswax annually to USA, Japan, Greece, Holland, UK, Germany and France (MOW, 1998).
Table 3: Honey and Beeswax Production in Ethiopia
Production Year
Honey           Beeswax
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
21000             2100
21500             2150
22000             2200
22600             2260
23000             2300
23400             2340
24600             2460
Source : MOW, 1998
46Table 4 : National Export of Honey and Beeswax
Trade year     Honey             Honey Value Beeswax Beeswax (tones)______ (birr)(tone)Value (birr)
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
18400 109161
5900 44422
756
5260
229                    1632000
0.306
0.563
3.800
0.825
1885 4382
45845 6289
134
939000
1200                   7365
210 1416000
373 2483000
325 1483000
215 1458000
na* 0.2209
0.859
na 1810
14759
103
689000
130 1328540
229.44 4049884
1440                24759
na
na
Source: MOW,1998 
* = not available
Although there is no reliable data available for total honey production in Jijiga, it is estimated about 150-210 tones per year. The yield of honey from traditional hive could be from 1 - 8 kg per colony per year. The average honey yield is estimated at j kg per colony, but it varies from 1.27 in Jijiga to 4.32 in Awbere. The main reason for such low honey yield are believed to be poor productivity of bees, scarcity of honey producing forage, mismanagement practices and drought.
Table 5 : Estimated Average Honey Yield Per Colony
Wereda
No. of Colony per
beekeeper
Honey yield per colony
Awbere Kebribeyah Jijiga
2.83
1.20
3.37
4.32
3.50
1.27
479. HONEY QUALITY
The  quality  of  honey  produce  from  improved  hives is  good, but honey obtained from traditional hives is poor as it is usually mixes with pollen, and other impurities.
Technically,  the quality  is determined  by  its moisture content.  Honey  with  moisture content of less than  18% is high  quality,  18  - 21% normal quality,  over 21% is considered  below normal.  Honey  quality  is also  influenced  by  the quantity  of pollen, presence of contaminants such  as bee wax,  dusts,  propolic etc.  The higher contents of impurity  is correspond  to  the lowemess of the quality.  The type of container used  for storing  and  transporting  honey  are also  major causes for the deterioration  of the quality of honey.
Likewise,  the type of honey  produced  in  the project area are not free of impurities. Therefore,  a lot of extension  work  has to  be made in  order to  collect quality  product from the Region.
10 TYPES & BEHAVIOUR OF BEES
There is no  research  work  that has been  done on  the nature of bee in  Ethiopia. However,  limited  effort have been  made by  MOA to  characterised  the local bee based on their colour, behaviour and race.
Colour of Bee
Colour of bees is one of the parameter that help  to  identify  the bee race.  To determined  the colour of bees,  the abdominal part is the most important one to observe.  Beekeepers reported  that they  can  identified  three types of bees based  on their colour : red, black and brown.
Behaviour
Aggressiveness - The overall behaviour of Ethiopia bees are aggressive. It is
believed that the black bees are the most aggressive one, while the red colour are
relatively less defensive. Bees that are found in low land area are easily infurated and 
intend to attack than the one that found on the higher altitude. This temper make
beekeeping one of the most difficult and care taking business.
Absconding  - It is a serious problems and  frequently  happens during  the dry  season when  flowers and  water are scarce,  and  it is usually  associated  with  starvation  and attack of natural enemies.
48Swarming  - Swarming  is usually  occurs in  September.  In  one aspect it is regarded  as beneficial since it resulted  in  an  increase of the number of colonies.  But it should  be noted  that swarming  pose a serious problem to  beekeeping  since it occurs at the onset of honey  flow season.  Beekeepers usually  do  not use any  technique to  prevent swarming
11 SPECIES AND RACES OF BEES
11.1 Tropical Races
There  are  varies  type  of  honey  species  distributed  at  different  ecological  nich  of  the world. The main tropical species are:
Apis mellifera : This honey bee is the most widespread economic species. It is native
in Europe, the near and middle East of Asia and Africa. There are about 25 races, of
which the most important are :
Apis mellifera ligustica : It is known as the Italian bee. This race is very adaptable to different environments.
Apis mellifera intensiva : This is a black race and native to the north cost of Africa.
Apis mellifera  adasanii, native to  coastal West Africa,  and  Apis mellifera  sculellata. central and  East Africa : both  of these species have a very  pronounced,  defensive behaviour and are prone to swarming and absconding.
Apis cerana : This Asian  bee is quite similar to  Apis mellifera as it also  nests in cavities,  such  as hives.  There are different race of this Asian  bee,  including  Apis cerana cerana in China, Apis cerana indica in India and Apis cerana jasvana in South East Asia.
Other bee species : Two other Apis species in Asia are Apis dorsata, the rock bee, with a single comb  - nest built on  rock  or a branch  of a tree,  and  Apis florea, the dwarf bee, which builds a small single comb - nest on a shrub or a tree.
11.2 Ethiopian Races
There is no  detailed  research  work  on  the nature of existing  bees in  Ethiopia. However,  According  to  the recent study  made by  MOA,  five distinctively  separated groups of honey  bees are identified  representing  different ecological areas of the country. These bee races are :
Apis mellifera adansoni, Apis mellifera monticada, Apis mellifera jementica, Apis mellifera litorea, and Apis mellifera abyssinica.
49The honey bee race that represent the Ogaden Basin is assumed to be Apis mellifera jementica which is similar to that of the Denakil Basin one. ( HBRTC, 1995 ).
12 BEE ENEMIES & DISEASES
The enemy of bee could be divided in to two categories: major enemy include ants, honey badger (Mellivora capensis), wax moths, rust and spinder. The minor one are butter flies, lizards, birds, bee louse, wasps, mice and toxic plants. Furthermore, 
chemical sprayed to protect crops from pest also kill bee and causing a threat to beekeeping.
There is no detailed information concerning bee diseases in the project area. But
according to the observation made by veterinarian Mites and Amoebiasis are
suspected to be present in the area.
13 HOLLETTA BEE RESEARCH AND TRAINING CENTRE
Holletta research  centre is located  at 45  km.  west of Addis Abeba on  the way  to Nekemt. The centre was established in 1965 as bee station by former Livestock and Meat Board. Like a training institute elsewhere in the country, the centre is involved in  to  two  main  activities.  Firstly,  engaged  to  train  and  demonstrate farmers and technicians on improved beekeeping techniques; secondly, focused on research works on apiculture development.
Currently, the centre has the following seven units in which each one is established with defined aims and objectives:
- Honey and beeswax chemistry unit,
- Bee biology unit,
- Bee pathology unit,
- Bee botany unit,
- Training and extension unit,
- Bee management unit and
- Work shop unit.
5014 POLICY OBJECTIVES, STRATEGIES & PROGRAM OF APICULTURE
A    detailed    policy,    strategy    and    program    of    apiculture    is    explained    in    the reconnaissance  phase  report  of  Genale-Dawa  Basin  sectorial  report.  However,  in  this report summery of policy issues are summarised as follows:
POLICY OBJECTIVES
Apiculture production in the country is the list developed one as compared to other section  of  agriculture.  Therefore,  policy  objective  is  aimed  to  developed  sustainable and   more   productive   apicultural   industry.   The   sector   will   contribute   its   share significantly  to  the  social  and  economical  development  of  the  country.  The  policy objective    further    targeted    promoting    the    existing    beekeeping    systems    through introduction   of   improved   and   better   management   techniques,   provision   of   the necessary  equipment,  arrangement  of  marketing  facilities,  provision  of  training  and extension services.
POLICY
Policy  of apicultural development is concentrated  on  two  general development concepts which  are critically needed to boost production of this sector. Those are expansion of intermediate and improved frame hive technology, and improve traditional apiculture husbandry according to the cultural practices
STRATEGIES
•    Improve    and    promote    honey    hunting    practices    and    traditional    beekeeping management by encouraging and promoting intermediate and frame hive technology,
- Conserve the existing honey bee flora and develop supplementary source,
- Encourage involvement of institutions, investors, joint venture projects for rapid 
progress and expansion of the apiculture sector,
-  Develop  trained  man  power,  institutional  capacity,  extension  structure  and  research work and
-  Promotion  of  market  development  through  establishment  of  processing  and  packing plants and collection centre.
5115  CONSTRAINTS
-  Beekeeping is not widely practised by farmers The attention given to beekeeping by farmers, extension agents and researchers is very low,
- Beekeeping is not integrated in the general agricultural development of the area.
-  There are shortage of highly qualified personnelANNEX 1
REFERENCES
1     Ayele Gebremariam, 1990. A Socio-Economic study in the Ogaden 
Authonomous Region.
2      BOA, 1977. Feasibility of Modem Beekeeping Development Project
3      CSA, 1994. Population Census.
4       CTA, 1995. Netherlands. Beekeeping In The Tropics.
5       FAO, 1984. Assistance to Land - Use Planning
6         HBRTC,  1995.  Project  Proposal  For  Upgrading  Holleta  Beekeeping  & Training Centre, Draft Report
7         ILCA, 1980. Brows in Africa
8         Layne  Coppock,  1994.  Synthesis  of  Pastoral  Research,  Development  & Change, 1980 - 1991
9         MOA,  May  1996.  National  Livestock  Development  Programme  and  Ruminant Livestock Development.
10        MOW,  June  1998.  Genale-Dawa  River  Basin  Integrated  Development  Master Plan Project, Reconnaissance Phase, Livestock, Draft Report.
11      MOW  ,  June  1998.  Genale-Dawa  River  Basin  Integrated  Development  Master Plan Project, Reconnaissance Phase, Apiculture, Draft Report.
53ANNEX 2
Type of forage and other vegetation raised by HFH
I) Rabasso Nursery
7>pe
No. of Seedling      Percentage
Parkinzonia aculeata Prosopis juliflora Acacia tortiles
Hamam
Papaya
Guava
Leucinea lecocephalla Ziziphus muritania Shinus mole Tamarinda indica
TOTAL
12400                    34.4 8570                    23.8
7000                      19.4
1150                        3.2
1500                        4.2
500                        1.4
230                        0.6
2500                        6.9
680                         1.9
1500                         4.2 36030                     100
II) Daror Nursery
7>pe
No. of Seedling      Percentage
Prosopis juliflora Parkinzonia aculeata Azadficta indica Leucinea lecocephalla Acacia tortiles Ziziphus muritania Delonia regia
Shinus mole Lebi (local name)
Dhamel
Hamam
TOTAL
17340                    48.2 5960                    16.6 7380                    20.5 1400                      3.9 1240                      3.4
570                      1.6 540                      1.5 320                      0.9 300                      0.8
120                      0.3
830                      2.3
36000                    100
54ANNEX 3
Type of Seedlings Raised by SERP
Type of Plant
Number of seedlings bed prepared
Acacia tortilis
Jacaranda
Albizia labbock
Zizophus mauritania
Shinus molle
Azadiarachta indica
Moringa stenopetala Malia azadirach Cordia abyssinica Cordia sinensis
Eucalyptus spp.
Sesbania sesban
Annona
Casia papaye
Pasidium guajalla
Casuarina equasetifolia
Themarandus indica
Ornamental trees
Balanitis aegyptaca
Cuppressus
Parkinsonia aculeata
Tamarix aphylla
Dobera glabra Mangifera indica
Zizuphus spinachristy
1.75
3.00
2.00
4.00
5.50
1.50
1.50 
4.00
1.50
2.50
3.50
1.50
1.00
4.00
5.50
6.50
1.50
0.75
1.00
4.50 
2.00
0.25
1.00
0.50
1.50
NB. One seedling bed is contain 1200 seedling.
55

Summery